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Motives and CultureMotives and Culture

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The problem of altruismThe problem of altruism

GGiven the selfish design that tend to be iven the selfish design that tend to be produced by natural selection, how could produced by natural selection, how could altruism among non-relatives possibly evolve,?altruism among non-relatives possibly evolve,?

How selfish genes give rise to unselfish How selfish genes give rise to unselfish individuals? individuals?

Other species (primate, vampire bats, …) Other species (primate, vampire bats, …) engage in altruistic behavior/forms of social engage in altruistic behavior/forms of social exchanges as well.exchanges as well.

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Gain in tradeGain in trade

The advantage of reciprocal altruism is that The advantage of reciprocal altruism is that both parties gain.both parties gain.

Each parties receives more in return than it Each parties receives more in return than it costs to deliver the benefit.costs to deliver the benefit.

E.g.: Hunters A and B. Week 1 Hunter A got a E.g.: Hunters A and B. Week 1 Hunter A got a kill and shares his food with hunter B who got kill and shares his food with hunter B who got nothing. For A the cost of giving is low, while nothing. For A the cost of giving is low, while the gain for B is high. Week 2: B got a Kill and the gain for B is high. Week 2: B got a Kill and A nothing …. A nothing ….

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Those who engage in reciprocal altruism tend Those who engage in reciprocal altruism tend to out-produce those who act selfishly, to out-produce those who act selfishly, causing psychological mechanisms for causing psychological mechanisms for reciprocal altruism to spread in succeeding reciprocal altruism to spread in succeeding generations. (cf. group selection).generations. (cf. group selection).

Reciprocal altruism = cooperation between Reciprocal altruism = cooperation between two or more individuals for mutual benefit two or more individuals for mutual benefit (Cosmides & Tooby)(Cosmides & Tooby)

An important adaptive problem for reciprocal An important adaptive problem for reciprocal altruism is ensuring that the benefit it altruism is ensuring that the benefit it bestows will be returned in the future.bestows will be returned in the future.

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The Prisoner DilemmaThe Prisoner Dilemma

Two people go to jail for a crime they both Two people go to jail for a crime they both committed. They’re kept in separate cells. committed. They’re kept in separate cells.

If none confesses, they both get free. If none confesses, they both get free.

But they’re each told that if he confesses But they’re each told that if he confesses he’ll get free with a small reward while the he’ll get free with a small reward while the other get sentenced, but if they both confess other get sentenced, but if they both confess they’ll be both sentenced.they’ll be both sentenced.

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Tit for TatTit for Tat

Three features of the strategy that Three features of the strategy that represented the key to the success (Axelroy represented the key to the success (Axelroy 1984):1984):

1. Never be the first to defect.1. Never be the first to defect.2. Retaliate only after the other has defected.2. Retaliate only after the other has defected.3. Be forgiving.3. Be forgiving.

““First, do unto others as you wish them to do First, do unto others as you wish them to do unto you, but then do unto them as they unto you, but then do unto them as they have just done to you.” (Trivers 1985)have just done to you.” (Trivers 1985)

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The Tit for Tat strategy is an example of an The Tit for Tat strategy is an example of an evolutionary stable strategyevolutionary stable strategy (ESS). (ESS).

Tit for Tat suggests that cooperation can Tit for Tat suggests that cooperation can evolve fairly easy in nature (a limitation: the evolve fairly easy in nature (a limitation: the game assume that the players are equals in game assume that the players are equals in their power to punish and reward).their power to punish and reward).

E.g.: Food sharing in vampire bats. Bats E.g.: Food sharing in vampire bats. Bats share blood only with “closed friends”: the share blood only with “closed friends”: the ones who pass time with and reciprocate … ones who pass time with and reciprocate … Without food sharing the bats wouldn’t Without food sharing the bats wouldn’t survive.survive.

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The problem of cheatingThe problem of cheating

One could pretend to be a reciprocal altruist One could pretend to be a reciprocal altruist and take benefit without responding later.and take benefit without responding later.

The possibility of cheating poses an ever-The possibility of cheating poses an ever-present threat to the evolution of cooperation. present threat to the evolution of cooperation. For cheaters have an evolutionary advantage For cheaters have an evolutionary advantage over cooperators.over cooperators.

Hence over evolutionary times cheaters will Hence over evolutionary times cheaters will reproduce more than cooperators until the reproduce more than cooperators until the entire population consists of non-cooperators.entire population consists of non-cooperators.

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The only way reciprocal altruism can evolve The only way reciprocal altruism can evolve is if organisms create a mechanism for is if organisms create a mechanism for detecting and avoiding cheaters.detecting and avoiding cheaters.

If cooperators can avoid cheaters and If cooperators can avoid cheaters and interact only with like-minded cooperators, interact only with like-minded cooperators, reciprocal altruism can evolve. reciprocal altruism can evolve.

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Five cognitive capacities in humans are Five cognitive capacities in humans are required to detect cheaters/recognize required to detect cheaters/recognize cooperators (Cosmides & Tooby).cooperators (Cosmides & Tooby).

1.1. The capacity to recognize many different The capacity to recognize many different individuals.individuals.

2. 2. The capacity to remember some aspects of The capacity to remember some aspects of the histories of interactions with different the histories of interactions with different individuals.individuals.

3.3. The ability to communicate one’s value to The ability to communicate one’s value to others; i.e. ask when in need.others; i.e. ask when in need.

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4.4. The capacity to model the values of others, The capacity to model the values of others, i.e. understand what others need.i.e. understand what others need.

5.5. The capacity to represent cost and benefits, The capacity to represent cost and benefits, independent of the particular item independent of the particular item exchanged.exchanged.

Humans have not evolved to respond to Humans have not evolved to respond to abstract logical problems.abstract logical problems.

They evolved to respond to problems They evolved to respond to problems structured as social exchanges when they’re structured as social exchanges when they’re presented in terms of costs and benefits presented in terms of costs and benefits (Cosmides & Tooby).(Cosmides & Tooby).

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Fact/experiment:Fact/experiment:

Two problems with the very same logical structure. Two problems with the very same logical structure. With an abstract question, people get it wrong.With an abstract question, people get it wrong.With a practical/social question, people get it right.With a practical/social question, people get it right.

People reason correctly when the problem is People reason correctly when the problem is structured as a social contract.structured as a social contract.

The human mind has an evolved psychological The human mind has an evolved psychological mechanism specifically designed to detect mechanism specifically designed to detect cheaters.cheaters.

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Brain damageBrain damage

With damage to the orbifrontal cortex and With damage to the orbifrontal cortex and amygdala (two parts of the brain) a patient amygdala (two parts of the brain) a patient was able to reason correctly on some was able to reason correctly on some problems (e.g.: problems structured as problems (e.g.: problems structured as precaution rules “If you do X, you must take precaution rules “If you do X, you must take precaution Y”). Yet he was unable to engage precaution Y”). Yet he was unable to engage in correct social exchanges reasoning (e.g.: in correct social exchanges reasoning (e.g.: “if you takes benefit X, you must pay cost Y”).“if you takes benefit X, you must pay cost Y”).

This suggests that there may be separate and This suggests that there may be separate and specialized component of the human cognitive specialized component of the human cognitive machinery.machinery.

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Although the detection of cheating played an Although the detection of cheating played an important role in the evolution of important role in the evolution of cooperation, others adaptation facilitating cooperation, others adaptation facilitating cooperation are likely to have evolved.cooperation are likely to have evolved.

The latter involves choices of cooperative The latter involves choices of cooperative partners.partners.

Detection of cheaters + Detection of Detection of cheaters + Detection of altruistsaltruists..

There may be genuine emotions behind acts There may be genuine emotions behind acts of altruism.of altruism.

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Culture shaped and challenged our basic Culture shaped and challenged our basic wantswants

While nature favored selfishness, culture While nature favored selfishness, culture favored altruism, i.e. the primacy of the favored altruism, i.e. the primacy of the collective. collective.

To do so culture must shape people selfish To do so culture must shape people selfish wishes and impulses.wishes and impulses.

Culture is Culture is an organizer of human behavior. an organizer of human behavior. E.g.: money turned out to be a vital mean to E.g.: money turned out to be a vital mean to satisfy our basic desires for food, shelters, etc.satisfy our basic desires for food, shelters, etc.

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Cultural shapingCultural shaping (e.g. advertising). (e.g. advertising).

Culture doesn’t go against innate human Culture doesn’t go against innate human wants, but it works in shaping them.wants, but it works in shaping them.

Nature prepared the human being for culture Nature prepared the human being for culture by installing a high degree of plasticity, by installing a high degree of plasticity, including motivational plasticity. including motivational plasticity.

Thus culture capitalized on the plasticity of Thus culture capitalized on the plasticity of human wanting in order to make people do human wanting in order to make people do what culture needs. To do so meaning is what culture needs. To do so meaning is central. central.

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Language InstinctLanguage Instinct

It is a powerful aid to a cultural animal, for It is a powerful aid to a cultural animal, for language is a crucial requirement in the language is a crucial requirement in the design of a cultural animal.design of a cultural animal.

Language use is a universal feature of all Language use is a universal feature of all human cultures.human cultures.

The language instinct as innate desire to The language instinct as innate desire to speak and communicate may be an speak and communicate may be an elaboration of several other more basic elaboration of several other more basic drives such as curiosity, belongingness.drives such as curiosity, belongingness.

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DunbarDunbar ((Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of

Language, Language, Harvard UP 1996)Harvard UP 1996)

He claims that people developed language for He claims that people developed language for the purpose of expanding their social circle. the purpose of expanding their social circle.

Humans can achieve and maintain intimacy by Humans can achieve and maintain intimacy by talking about themselves and their talking about themselves and their experiences, which is considerable faster than experiences, which is considerable faster than the way apes maintain intimacy (spending the way apes maintain intimacy (spending hours picking the bugs off each others).hours picking the bugs off each others).

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GossipingGossiping

In the sense of telling stories about oneself In the sense of telling stories about oneself and each others. This was the purpose of and each others. This was the purpose of language evolution (Dunbar). This indicates language evolution (Dunbar). This indicates the importance of social connections.the importance of social connections.

Gossip has values that go beyond Gossip has values that go beyond maintaining social connections: often gossip maintaining social connections: often gossip consists in telling stories about how other consists in telling stories about how other people actions have violated social norms, people actions have violated social norms, brought them troubles or advantages, etc. brought them troubles or advantages, etc.

As such gossip may serve as a valuable As such gossip may serve as a valuable function for learning.function for learning.

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Dunbar may be right in claiming that gossip Dunbar may be right in claiming that gossip is one of the driving force beyond language is one of the driving force beyond language evolution, but biology may have impelled us evolution, but biology may have impelled us of gossiping as a way of gaining useful of gossiping as a way of gaining useful information about the consequence of information about the consequence of possible actions.possible actions.

Control is another innate motivation that may Control is another innate motivation that may have contributed toward language instinct. have contributed toward language instinct. For, language helps codify and share For, language helps codify and share knowledge.knowledge.

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LanguageLanguage

Is a culturally created motivation because Is a culturally created motivation because language only exists with culture. language only exists with culture.

Hence, the existence of culture is a pre-Hence, the existence of culture is a pre-requisite for the desire to learn a language.requisite for the desire to learn a language.

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Cultural animals are far more motivated than Cultural animals are far more motivated than animals to learn and master language. animals to learn and master language.

Both deaf humans and chimps can learn sign Both deaf humans and chimps can learn sign languages; both have difficulties with vocal languages; both have difficulties with vocal speech. Yet only humans manifests the speech. Yet only humans manifests the eagerness to learn and master sign eagerness to learn and master sign language.language.

Only humans engage in teaching/ Only humans engage in teaching/ developing/ sharing/ … sign language.developing/ sharing/ … sign language.

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Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem

It is another culturally motivated motive. It is another culturally motivated motive.

Life in a cultural society demands a great Life in a cultural society demands a great deal more of the self: each person has an deal more of the self: each person has an identity which contributes in marking a place identity which contributes in marking a place in the social matrix of relationships.in the social matrix of relationships.

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Self and self-esteemSelf and self-esteem

The expansion of the self played a big role in The expansion of the self played a big role in the construction of the cultural animal.the construction of the cultural animal.

Self-esteem is a promising vehicle by which Self-esteem is a promising vehicle by which culture can influence people’s behavior. culture can influence people’s behavior.

Self-esteem differs from public esteem Self-esteem differs from public esteem (evaluation of the self by others), but they (evaluation of the self by others), but they are intimately connected.are intimately connected.

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Self-esteem motivation is widespread and Self-esteem motivation is widespread and powerful. powerful.

Most of what people do consists in maintaining Most of what people do consists in maintaining a favorable opinion of themselves and making a a favorable opinion of themselves and making a good impression on others.good impression on others.

What are the advantages? High self-esteem What are the advantages? High self-esteem doesn’t confer many benefits. doesn’t confer many benefits.

Self-esteem my be largely useless in itself, but Self-esteem my be largely useless in itself, but it serves as a valuable internal measure for it serves as a valuable internal measure for belongingness which dictates that the person belongingness which dictates that the person must keep track of interpersonal relations.must keep track of interpersonal relations.

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Emotions and self-esteemEmotions and self-esteem

Emotions provide constant feed-back about Emotions provide constant feed-back about changes in the status of important changes in the status of important relationships. relationships.

Self-esteem tracks our long term concerns, Self-esteem tracks our long term concerns, i.e. the challenges of being the kind of person i.e. the challenges of being the kind of person with whom other want to be affiliated with whom other want to be affiliated (attractive to the group/ potential partners/ (attractive to the group/ potential partners/ …).…).

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Measure of self-esteem consists mainly of Measure of self-esteem consists mainly of questions about how one appraises oneself questions about how one appraises oneself regarding likeability, attractiveness, regarding likeability, attractiveness, competence, and morality.competence, and morality.

Self-esteem plays a crucial role in how culture Self-esteem plays a crucial role in how culture control behavior insofar as culture needs to control behavior insofar as culture needs to induce people to do things that benefits the induce people to do things that benefits the collective.collective.

Self-esteem is based on the underlying Self-esteem is based on the underlying motives of belongingness and control. motives of belongingness and control.

Since it is interconnected to the way people Since it is interconnected to the way people interact in their group, it may vary across interact in their group, it may vary across cultures.cultures.

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MoralityMorality

All cultures have morals. All cultures have morals.

They may present a few variations in moral They may present a few variations in moral imperatives, but also many similarities. imperatives, but also many similarities.

Some universals include: prohibition against Some universals include: prohibition against murder, restrictions on sexuality (e.g. murder, restrictions on sexuality (e.g. prohibition of incest) and a reciprocity norm.prohibition of incest) and a reciprocity norm.

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Morality is a system of rules enabling people Morality is a system of rules enabling people to live together. to live together.

Thus the innate motivation the most closely Thus the innate motivation the most closely linked to morality is, again, the need to linked to morality is, again, the need to belong.belong.

Morality is not directly derived from the need Morality is not directly derived from the need to belong. It represents the compromise that to belong. It represents the compromise that must be made in order to satisfy that need on must be made in order to satisfy that need on a long-term basis.a long-term basis.

Morality is also linked to the need to feel good Morality is also linked to the need to feel good (as such, it is also related to self-esteem) and (as such, it is also related to self-esteem) and to avoid feeling guilty/ bad/ ….to avoid feeling guilty/ bad/ ….

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GuiltGuilt

It is a highly It is a highly interpersonalinterpersonal emotion. emotion.

It is rooted in the relationships people have It is rooted in the relationships people have and its emotional base include and its emotional base include empathyempathy. .

The most common cause of guilt is The most common cause of guilt is neglecting one’s friends, family, or lovers. neglecting one’s friends, family, or lovers.

Guilt is an emotion that one feel when one Guilt is an emotion that one feel when one hurts, neglects, or disappoints people about hurts, neglects, or disappoints people about whom one cares.whom one cares.

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Guilt is a vital part of the system that enables Guilt is a vital part of the system that enables people to live together. people to live together.

It operates to strengthen and sustain good It operates to strengthen and sustain good interpersonal relationships for:interpersonal relationships for:

1. it reduces interpersonal 1. it reduces interpersonal transgressions.transgressions.

2. it drives people to repair damages 2. it drives people to repair damages caused by caused by things they done or failed to do. things they done or failed to do.

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Guilt is an important cause of socially Guilt is an important cause of socially desirable, unselfish behavior. desirable, unselfish behavior.

A widespread reduction in guilt-feelings A widespread reduction in guilt-feelings would be disastrous for social harmony (e.g. would be disastrous for social harmony (e.g. psychopath are guilt-free …).psychopath are guilt-free …).

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Morality and CultureMorality and Culture

Individual self-interests often clashes with Individual self-interests often clashes with group harmony. group harmony.

Guilt is a refrain of the selfishness.Guilt is a refrain of the selfishness.

Nature makes individual selfish, while culture Nature makes individual selfish, while culture must constraint people to sacrifice their must constraint people to sacrifice their short-term interest for the benefit of the short-term interest for the benefit of the harmony of the group.harmony of the group.

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Morality is a force that restrains self-interests in Morality is a force that restrains self-interests in favor of the group.favor of the group.

Morality is an important tool by which culture Morality is an important tool by which culture induces individuals to override their natural self-induces individuals to override their natural self-interests and impulses. interests and impulses.

The view of morality as mainly a set of restraints The view of morality as mainly a set of restraints on self-interest explains its negative character.on self-interest explains its negative character.

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Moral systems have far more rules about Moral systems have far more rules about what not to do than what to do what not to do than what to do

E.g.: the Ten Commandments specify what E.g.: the Ten Commandments specify what “you should not” do: killing, lying, stealing, “you should not” do: killing, lying, stealing, committing adultery, …. committing adultery, ….

Moral behavior requires the capacity for self-Moral behavior requires the capacity for self-control, i.e. the restrain of selfish impulses.control, i.e. the restrain of selfish impulses.

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Success and FameSuccess and Fame

Success is a cultural construction: it is Success is a cultural construction: it is contingent of performing one’s role within contingent of performing one’s role within the society effectively. the society effectively.

Culture can encourage people to perform Culture can encourage people to perform their role effectively.their role effectively.

People imagine that achieving success brings People imagine that achieving success brings happiness. In nowadays industrialized society happiness. In nowadays industrialized society success is mainly understood as (i) money success is mainly understood as (i) money and (ii) social recognition.and (ii) social recognition.

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Money and social recognition corresponds to Money and social recognition corresponds to the obvious motives for control (money) and the obvious motives for control (money) and belongingness (the pursuit of fame).belongingness (the pursuit of fame).

The pursuit of fame is also encouraged by an The pursuit of fame is also encouraged by an idealized vision/version of the self. Fame idealized vision/version of the self. Fame bestow one’s self-esteem.bestow one’s self-esteem.

Money is a more widespread motive than fame Money is a more widespread motive than fame for: for:

(i) (i) it is more directly useful; it is more directly useful; (ii) (ii) many careers offer little or no many careers offer little or no opportunity to opportunity to achieve fame;achieve fame;(iii)(iii) money can be measured objectively money can be measured objectively better than better than fame.fame.

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Gender differenceGender difference

Generally men are more oriented toward Generally men are more oriented toward pursuing money and fame than women. pursuing money and fame than women.

E.g. in selecting jobs women tend to E.g. in selecting jobs women tend to emphasize intrinsic satisfaction and social emphasize intrinsic satisfaction and social relations while men emphasize on getting relations while men emphasize on getting higher salaries.higher salaries.

The pursuit of success by men may be The pursuit of success by men may be related to the sex drive: money and fame related to the sex drive: money and fame make them more attractive to women.make them more attractive to women.

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Although the pursuit of material resources may Although the pursuit of material resources may have an evolutionary basis, money is itself a have an evolutionary basis, money is itself a cultural creation.cultural creation.

The failure of communism is partly explained The failure of communism is partly explained by its denial of the value of money and of its by its denial of the value of money and of its motivational factor (in communist factories motivational factor (in communist factories people were less productive than in non-people were less productive than in non-communist ones).communist ones).

Common dilemma: when gazing lands are Common dilemma: when gazing lands are commonly owned they are usually commonly owned they are usually overexploited. When single individuals own a overexploited. When single individuals own a gazing land they easily manage the renewable gazing land they easily manage the renewable resources, …resources, …

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The Meaning of lifeThe Meaning of life

1.1. Nearly all meanings of life include Nearly all meanings of life include purposespurposes, in , in the sense that past and the sense that past and future activities derive future activities derive meaning from meaning from possible future circumstances.possible future circumstances.

E.g.: People lacking goals tend to be E.g.: People lacking goals tend to be disoriented and discontent.disoriented and discontent.

2.2. People require a sense of People require a sense of efficacy. efficacy. This This relates relates to the desire for control viewed to the desire for control viewed by the by the subjective perception.subjective perception.

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3.3. Some basis for Some basis for valuevalue and and justificationjustification is is needed. All culture have concept of needed. All culture have concept of

right and right and wrong. The concept of good and wrong. The concept of good and bad are bad are among the first a child learns. among the first a child learns.

Need for value has two facets: Need for value has two facets:

(i) reliable basis for making judgments about (i) reliable basis for making judgments about what is good/bad and what is good/bad and

(ii) capability to see oneself as basically a (ii) capability to see oneself as basically a good person.good person.

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4.4. People are driven to see themselves as People are driven to see themselves as self-worthself-worth. .

This generally entails believing oneself to This generally entails believing oneself to be superior to others. It’s part of a broader be superior to others. It’s part of a broader issue of self-esteem motivation.issue of self-esteem motivation.

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ReligionReligion

A long standing powerful and popular source A long standing powerful and popular source of meaning in life.of meaning in life.

Part of the appeal in religion is rooted in Part of the appeal in religion is rooted in control. Religious groups are tempted to offer control. Religious groups are tempted to offer more direct opportunities for control over life more direct opportunities for control over life (e.g. rituals to influence goals, etc.).(e.g. rituals to influence goals, etc.).

It satisfy the urge for control at least toward It satisfy the urge for control at least toward secondary control.secondary control.

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Motivation and the Duplex MindMotivation and the Duplex Mind

The biggest difference between humans and The biggest difference between humans and animals is the duplex mind, in particular the animals is the duplex mind, in particular the conscious system.conscious system.

Automatic responses are found in other Automatic responses are found in other species, while consciousness is species-species, while consciousness is species-specific. It provides a powerful subjective specific. It provides a powerful subjective experience. experience.

Human motivation becomes centered around Human motivation becomes centered around creating or avoiding various conscious states creating or avoiding various conscious states (e.g. love, food and drink as pleasant (e.g. love, food and drink as pleasant activities/sensations, entertainment, …).activities/sensations, entertainment, …).

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The possibility of gaining meaning and The possibility of gaining meaning and understanding may be the most appealing understanding may be the most appealing part of religion. part of religion.

The modern declined of religion in The modern declined of religion in industrialized societies may be explained by industrialized societies may be explained by the increase of people’s quality of life and the increase of people’s quality of life and thus control over their surrounding. Inversely, thus control over their surrounding. Inversely, a lack of control may explain the increase in a lack of control may explain the increase in religious practices. religious practices.

Belongingness also plays a role in the appeal Belongingness also plays a role in the appeal to religion (people joining churches is often to religion (people joining churches is often based on social groups rather than doctrines). based on social groups rather than doctrines).

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WantingWanting

Hydraulic model: Hydraulic model:

The wanting increase until it is satisfied, then The wanting increase until it is satisfied, then it ceases, and so on and so forth.it ceases, and so on and so forth.

It’s a wrong model. It’s a wrong model.

Often the more one gets the more one wants. Often the more one gets the more one wants. The more one misses the less one wants (e.g. The more one misses the less one wants (e.g. food-anorexia, sex-abstinence, …).food-anorexia, sex-abstinence, …).

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Intrinsic Intrinsic vs.vs. Extrinsic Desires Extrinsic Desires

Intrinsic motivation = wanting something for Intrinsic motivation = wanting something for its own sake.its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation = wanting it as a mean Extrinsic motivation = wanting it as a mean for some other end.for some other end.

People, unlike animals, can learn to desire People, unlike animals, can learn to desire something not for its own sake but for what it something not for its own sake but for what it will bring. This reflects the human capacity will bring. This reflects the human capacity for forming complex chains of associations for forming complex chains of associations for distant goals.for distant goals.

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Extrinsic motivation typically relies on Extrinsic motivation typically relies on meaning.meaning.

Culture relies heavily on extrinsic motivation. Culture relies heavily on extrinsic motivation.

A cultural being must be capable of being A cultural being must be capable of being motivated extrinsically. Our complex society motivated extrinsically. Our complex society would not function well if people were merely would not function well if people were merely doing something that bring immediate doing something that bring immediate intrinsic pleasure. intrinsic pleasure.

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Extrinsic motivation relies on other Extrinsic motivation relies on other adaptations: intelligence and meaning. adaptations: intelligence and meaning.

Extrinsic motivations constitutes an Extrinsic motivations constitutes an important aspect of the culturalization of important aspect of the culturalization of motivations. motivations.

The intrinsic motivators involve desiring to do The intrinsic motivators involve desiring to do a task for the shear pleasure of satisfaction a task for the shear pleasure of satisfaction of the activity. of the activity.

Extrinsic motivators involve receiving Extrinsic motivators involve receiving rewards as a result of performing the activity.rewards as a result of performing the activity.

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Society cannot easily alter people’s intrinsic Society cannot easily alter people’s intrinsic motivations, but it can alter the extrinsic ones motivations, but it can alter the extrinsic ones (e.g. prison, money, prestige, fame, …)(e.g. prison, money, prestige, fame, …)

When rewards signify that one is good at doing When rewards signify that one is good at doing something, they seem to foster satisfaction and something, they seem to foster satisfaction and sustain intrinsic motivation to keep doing it sustain intrinsic motivation to keep doing it

e.g.: money award e.g.: money award vs.vs. verbal appraisal. People verbal appraisal. People verbally appraised tend to keep doing the verbally appraised tend to keep doing the action once the appraisal ends, while people action once the appraisal ends, while people paid tend to stop doing it when the appraisal paid tend to stop doing it when the appraisal ends.ends.

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Social MotivesSocial Motives

May be as basic and powerful as May be as basic and powerful as physiological needs. physiological needs.

E.g.: in Nazi concentration camps people E.g.: in Nazi concentration camps people helped each others and shared food despite helped each others and shared food despite of being chronically undernourished.of being chronically undernourished.

No hierarchy of needs. No hierarchy of needs.

Longitudinal studies attempting to show that Longitudinal studies attempting to show that people satisfy one need and ten move on to people satisfy one need and ten move on to satisfy another have not been successful.satisfy another have not been successful.

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There may be a hierarchy of needs at the There may be a hierarchy of needs at the individual level. individual level.

A person motivation is given priority over A person motivation is given priority over another. another.

Different people privilege different needs.Different people privilege different needs.

The hierarchy of needs cannot be The hierarchy of needs cannot be generalized.generalized.