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Chapter2Sociological Research

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What is the Scientific Method?What is the Scientific Method? The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method is a systematic, is a systematic,

organized series of steps that ensures organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. There are five researching a problem. There are five basic steps in the scientific method: basic steps in the scientific method: defining the problem, reviewing the defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating the hypothesis, literature, formulating the hypothesis, selecting the research design, collecting selecting the research design, collecting and analyzing data, and developing the and analyzing data, and developing the conclusionconclusion. .

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The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method Define the problemDefine the problem

Review the literatureReview the literature Formulate a testable hypothesis Formulate a testable hypothesis

Select research design Select research design Collect and analyze dataCollect and analyze data

Survey Observation Experiment Existing sourcesSurvey Observation Experiment Existing sources

Develop the conclusion Develop the conclusion

Ideas for further researchIdeas for further research

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Defining the Problem:Defining the Problem: The first The first step in any research project is to step in any research project is to state as clearly as possible what you state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. An hope to investigate. An operational operational definition (definition ( 運作定義／操作定義運作定義／操作定義 )) is is an explanation of an abstract an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the allow a researcher to measure the concept. concept.

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Reviewing the Literature Reviewing the Literature (( 文獻文獻回顧回顧 )): the relevant scholarly : the relevant scholarly studies and information – studies and information – researchers refine the problem researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes. avoidable mistakes.

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Formulating the HypothesisFormulating the Hypothesis(( 形形成假設成假設 ):): After reviewing earlier After reviewing earlier research and drawing on the research and drawing on the contributions of sociological contributions of sociological theorists, the researchers theorists, the researchers formulate the formulate the hypothesishypothesis, a , a speculative statement about the speculative statement about the relationship between two or more relationship between two or more factors known as variables. factors known as variables.

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Cont.Cont.

A A variablevariable is a measurable trait or is a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. If one under different conditions. If one variable is hypothesized to cause or variable is hypothesized to cause or influence another one, social scientists influence another one, social scientists call the first variable the call the first variable the independent independent variable (variable ( 獨立變項獨立變項 )). The second is . The second is termed the termed the dependent variable dependent variable (( 依變依變項項 )because it is believed to be )because it is believed to be influenced by the independent variable. influenced by the independent variable.

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Collecting and Analyzing DataCollecting and Analyzing Data(( 蒐集蒐集和分析資料和分析資料 )): In most studies, social In most studies, social scientists must carefully select what is scientists must carefully select what is known as a sample. A known as a sample. A representative representative samplesample is a selection from a larger is a selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of population that is statistically typical of that population (that population ( 母體母體 ). The most ). The most frequently used representative sample frequently used representative sample is a is a random samplerandom sample in which every in which every member of the entire population has member of the entire population has the same chance of being selected. the same chance of being selected.

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Validity and ReliabilityValidity and Reliability ( 效度 &信度 ): The scientific method The scientific method requires that research results be requires that research results be both valid and reliable. both valid and reliable. ValidityValidity refers to the degree to which a refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. phenomenon under study. ReliabilityReliability refers to the extent to refers to the extent to which a measure provides which a measure provides consistent results. consistent results.

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Surveys Surveys (( 調查法調查法 ):): A A surveysurvey is a study, is a study, generally in the form of an generally in the form of an interviewinterview or or questionnairequestionnaire, that provides , that provides sociologists with information concerning sociologists with information concerning how people think and act. Among the how people think and act. Among the United States' best-known surveys of United States' best-known surveys of opinion are the Gallup poll and the opinion are the Gallup poll and the Harris poll. Surveys can be Harris poll. Surveys can be indispensable sources of information, indispensable sources of information, but only if the sampling is done properly but only if the sampling is done properly and the questions are worded correctly. and the questions are worded correctly.

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Observation:Observation: Investigators who collect Investigators who collect information through direct participation information through direct participation in and/or observation of a group, tribe, in and/or observation of a group, tribe, or community under study are engaged or community under study are engaged in in observationobservation. This method allows . This method allows sociologists to examine certain sociologists to examine certain behaviors and communities that could behaviors and communities that could not be investigated through other not be investigated through other research techniques. In some cases, the research techniques. In some cases, the sociologist actually ‘joins’ a group for a sociologist actually ‘joins’ a group for a period of time to gain an accurate sense period of time to gain an accurate sense of how it operates. This is called of how it operates. This is called participant observationparticipant observation. .

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Experiments:Experiments: When sociologists want to When sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may conduct relationship, they may conduct experiments. An experiments. An experimentexperiment is an is an artificially created situation that allows artificially created situation that allows the researcher to manipulate variables. In the researcher to manipulate variables. In the classic method of conducting an the classic method of conducting an experiment, two groups of people are experiment, two groups of people are selected and matched for similar selected and matched for similar characteristics such as age or education. characteristics such as age or education. The The experimental groupexperimental group ( ( 實驗組實驗組 ) is ) is exposed to an independent variable; the exposed to an independent variable; the control groupcontrol group ( ( 控制組控制組 ) is not. ) is not.

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Hawthorne effect (Hawthorne effect ( 霍桑效應霍桑效應 ):):

is to refer to subjects of is to refer to subjects of research who deviate from research who deviate from their typical behaviour because their typical behaviour because they realise that they are under they realise that they are under observation. observation.

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Use of Existing Sources:Use of Existing Sources: Sociologists do Sociologists do not necessarily have to collect new data in not necessarily have to collect new data in order to conduct research and test order to conduct research and test hypotheses. The term hypotheses. The term secondary analysis secondary analysis (( 次級分析次級分析 )) refers to a variety of research refers to a variety of research techniques that make use of publicly techniques that make use of publicly accessible information and data. Many social accessible information and data. Many social scientists find it useful to study cultural, scientists find it useful to study cultural, economic, and political documents, including economic, and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television, newspapers, periodicals, radio and television, tapes, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore, and tapes, scripts, diaries, songs, folklore, and legal papers, to name a few examples. legal papers, to name a few examples.

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Cont.Cont.

In examining these sources, In examining these sources, researchers employ a technique researchers employ a technique known as known as content analysis (content analysis ( 內容分內容分析析 )), which is the systematic coding , which is the systematic coding and objective recording of data, and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale. guided by some rationale.

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Ethics of Research:Ethics of Research: In 1971, The In 1971, The American Sociological Association, the American Sociological Association, the professional society of the discipline, first professional society of the discipline, first published published Code of EthicsCode of Ethics. It includes the . It includes the following basic principles: maintain following basic principles: maintain objectivity and integrity in research, objectivity and integrity in research, respect the subject’s right to privacy and respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity, protect subjects from personal dignity, protect subjects from personal harm, preserve confidentiality, seek harm, preserve confidentiality, seek informed consent from research informed consent from research participants, acknowledge research participants, acknowledge research collaboration and assistance, and disclose collaboration and assistance, and disclose all sources of financial support. all sources of financial support.

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Neutrality and Politics in Research:Neutrality and Politics in Research: Max Max Weber believed that sociologists must practice Weber believed that sociologists must practice value neutrality (value neutrality ( 價值中立價值中立 )) in their research. in their research. In his view, researchers cannot allow their In his view, researchers cannot allow their personal feelings to influence the personal feelings to influence the interpretation of data. Investigators have an interpretation of data. Investigators have an obligation to accept research findings even obligation to accept research findings even when the data run contrary to their own when the data run contrary to their own personal views, to theoretically based personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs. explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs. The issue of value neutrality does not mean The issue of value neutrality does not mean you can't have opinions, but it does mean you you can't have opinions, but it does mean you must work to overcome any biases, however must work to overcome any biases, however unintentional, that you may bring to the unintentional, that you may bring to the research. research.

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Studying Human Sexuality:Studying Human Sexuality: The controversy The controversy surrounding research on human sexual behavior raises surrounding research on human sexual behavior raises the issue of value neutrality. And this becomes the issue of value neutrality. And this becomes especially delicate when one considers the relationship especially delicate when one considers the relationship of sociology to the government, particularly when one of sociology to the government, particularly when one fears that findings critical of government institutions will fears that findings critical of government institutions will jeopardize chances of obtaining federal support for new jeopardize chances of obtaining federal support for new research projects. In 1991, led by Senator Jesse Helms research projects. In 1991, led by Senator Jesse Helms and other conservatives, the U.S. Senate voted 66–34 to and other conservatives, the U.S. Senate voted 66–34 to forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices. forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices. Nevertheless, the researchers raised $1.6 million of Nevertheless, the researchers raised $1.6 million of private funding to make their study possible. Social private funding to make their study possible. Social scientists argue that using data from research helps us scientists argue that using data from research helps us to more wisely address such public policy issues as to more wisely address such public policy issues as AIDS, sexual harassment, rape, welfare reform, sex AIDS, sexual harassment, rape, welfare reform, sex discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family planning. planning.

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Technology and Sociological Research:Technology and Sociological Research: The increased speed and capacity of The increased speed and capacity of computers have enabled sociologists to computers have enabled sociologists to handle much larger sets of data, and anyone handle much larger sets of data, and anyone with a desktop computer and a modem can with a desktop computer and a modem can access information to learn more about access information to learn more about social behavior. The Internet is an social behavior. The Internet is an inexpensive way to reach large numbers of inexpensive way to reach large numbers of potential respondents and get a quick return potential respondents and get a quick return of responses. However, the ease of access to of responses. However, the ease of access to information has led to new research information has led to new research problems: How do you protect a problems: How do you protect a respondent’s anonymity and how do you respondent’s anonymity and how do you define the potential audience? define the potential audience?

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Causal LogicCausal LogicIndependent variable

xBan of assault rifles

Degree of integration into society

Parents’ church attendance

Time spent preparing for quiz

Parents’ income

Dependent variabley

Use of weapons in crime

Likelihood of suicide

Children’s church attendance

Performance on quiz

Likelihood of children’s enrolling in college