1IntroductionEnergyconsumptioninhouseholdscomprisesoveraquarteroftotalenergyuseintheUK[1].Humanbehaviourisoneofthemainfactorsthatcaninfluencedomesticenergyconsumption,togetherwiththe

physicalpropertiesofthedwelling,climate,numberanddemographicprofileofoccupants,householdincome,lifestyle,andapplianceownershipanduse[2–5].Indeed,variationinresidents’behaviourcancause

significantdifferencesinenergyconsumptionbetweendwellingswithotherwisesimilarcharacteristics(e.g.householdsize,income,andbuildingenergyperformance)[3,6].Itisthereforeimportanttounderstand

influencesuponbehaviourinhouseholdsastheseinturnhaveimplicationsfordomesticenergyuse.Inthisrespect,strategiestostimulatepro-environmentalbehaviourrepresentonemeansofmodifyingbehaviourin

householdsinordertopromoteenergyconservationandreduceenvironmentalimpact[7].

Pro-environmentalbehaviour isa formofenvironmentalactionthat ‘consciouslyseekstominimizethenegative impactofone’sactionsonthenaturalandbuiltworld’[8,p.240],and ‘only refers to those

personal actions that aredirectly related to environmental improvement’ [9, p.325]. Such environmental actions canbeperformed individually or collectively, andmaybedirect or indirect in their approach to

mitigatingharmto,andimproving,theenvironment[9].Pro-environmentalbehaviourscanalsobeinfluencedbyinternalfactorssuchasenvironmentalawareness,valuesandattitudes[10]andexternalfactorssuch

associalnorms,interactionwithotherindividualsandfinancialconstraints[11,12].

Inthisstudyweassesshowenvironmentalknowledgeinfluencespro-environmentalbehaviourinhouseholds.Weestablishandconfirmlinksbetweenknowledgeabouttheenvironmentandenergy,actionson

Environmentalknowledge,pro-environmentalbehaviourandenergysavingsinhouseholds:Anempiricalstudy

MaryPothitoua,⁎

marypothitou@yahoo.com

m.pothitou@pgr.reading.ac.uk

RichardF.Hannab

KonstantinosJ.Chalvatzisc,d

aCranfieldEnergy,SchoolofEnergy,EnvironmentandAgrifood(SEEA),CranfieldUniversity,MK430AL,UnitedKingdom

bCentreforEnvironmentalPolicy,ImperialCollegeLondon,SW71NA,UnitedKingdom

cNorwichBusinessSchool,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichNR47TJ,UnitedKingdom

dTyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichNR47TJ,UnitedKingdom

⁎Correspondingauthorat:TechnologiesforSustainableBuiltEnvironments(TSBE)Centre,UniversityofReading,UnitedKingdom.

Abstract

Inthispaperweevaluatethe impactofknowledgeaboutenvironmentalandenergy issuesonpotentialpro-environmentalbehaviour inhouseholds,specificallyrelatingtobehaviours,attitudesand

habits towardsenergyuse.Ourresultsarebasedonanempiricalsurveyandwe findsignificantcorrelationswhich indicate thatresidentswithpositiveenvironmentalvaluesandgreaterenvironmental

knowledgearemorelikelytodemonstrateenergybehaviours,attitudesandhabitswhichleadtoenergysavingactivitiesinhouseholds.This isfurthersupportedthroughaPrincipalComponentAnalysis

(PCA),whichsuggeststhatenergysavingbehaviourmayalsovaryaccordingtogenderandemploymentstatus.Conversely,wefindonlylimitedevidenceofstatisticalassociationsbetweenenvironmental

predispositionandknowledge,andownershipandfrequencyofuseofhouseholdappliances.Wearguethatourresultscontributetothesignificantbodyof literaturesupportingtheroleofknowledgein

activeengagementwithenergyissues.ThisstudyistimelyfollowingcloselypolicydevelopmentsinactiveconsumerengagementbytheEuropeanCommission.

Keywords:Pro-environmentalbehaviour;Energybehaviour;Attitudes;Habits;Environmentalpredisposition;Environmentalknowledge

energyconservationandattitudestowardstheseactionsthroughtheanalysisofempiricalsurveydata.Thispaperstrengthenstheliteratureonenvironmentalandenergyknowledgeandactionandwearguethatthe

resultsareusefultopolicymakers,greenmarketing,andotherpartieswhoareinterestedinenhancingpro-environmentalbehaviour.

Anumberof studiescontend thatpeoplewithgreaterenvironmentalknowledgearemore likely tobehaveresponsibly inorder toprotect theenvironment,while thispositiveeffectonpro-environmental

behaviourmaybeconstrainedbyculturalfactors[11,13].ThisisfurthersupportedbyZsókaetal.,whoarguethatenvironmentalknowledgeandpro-environmentalbehaviourareself-reinforcing,forexamplewhen

peoplesearchforinformationonenvironmentalissues[14].

Conversely, it has also been contended that high levels of individual environmental knowledgemay not necessarily lead to the development of positive environmental attitudes [15]. For instance,while

increasedenvironmentalawarenessandconcernmayresultfromadvancedenvironmentalknowledge,thismaynotbesufficienttoinducepro-environmentalbehaviour[14,16].Moreover,Bartiaux[17]andOguzetal.

[18]didnotidentifyasignificantcorrelationbetweenknowledgeofenvironmentalissuesandpro-environmentalbehaviour[17,18].

1.1AimofthestudyThispaperpresentsempiricalresearchbasedonasurveyof249householdsintwoparisheslocatedinPeterborough.Thestudyfocusesonassessingtheinfluenceofindividuals’valuesandknowledgeonpro-environmental

behaviourassociatedwithhouseholdenergyconsumption.Thiscaninformstrategiestoreduceexcessiveresidentialenergyusethroughinterventionssuchasinformationprovisionwhichaimtoinfluenceoccupants’energybehaviour.

The aimof this study is to test the relationship betweenhousehold occupants’ environmental predisposition and knowledge versus their (i) energy behaviour, attitudes and habits; (ii) ownership and frequency of use of

householdappliances.Thelatterissupportedbydetaileddatafromthesurveyonarangeofdifferenthouseholdappliances.Additionally,thestatisticalanalysisassessestheinfluenceofdemographics,i.e.genderandemploymenton

allof theabovevariables. Intermsof thesampledemographics, the findingsarebroadlygeneralizableto thepopulationofEnglandwithrespect togender,proportionof full-timeemployeesandresidents living insemi-detached

houses.Nevertheless,thestudysampleischaracterisedbyahighproportionofretiredpeopleandrespondentslivingineitherbungalowsordetacheddwellingsandthereforetheconclusionsapplytothesedemographicsspecifically.

Theimportanceofstudyingretiredhouseholdsisunderlinedintheliteraturewhichsuggeststhatolderpeopleofretirementagehavehigherhouseholdoccupancyratesandthereforetendtoconsumeenergyinthehomefor

longerperiodsoftime[19].However,whileithasbeenshownthatintheUK,retiredhouseholdsspendagreaterproportionoftheirdisposableincomeonenergyinthehome,non-retiredhouseholdsspendmoremoneyonhousehold

fuelinabsoluteterms[20].Moreover,thelinkbetweenolderresidentsandtheirlevelofhouseholdenergyconsumptioncomparedtoyoungerresidentsdependsonmanyfactorsincludingtheirhealth,incomeandlifestyle[21].Finally,

retiredpeoplealsotendtobeintensiveusersofInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT)systemsbecauseoftheirabundanceoffreetimeandneedforcompany[22].

Thispaperisstructuredasfollows.Sections2and3outlinethemethodologicalapproachtothesurveyandstatisticalanalysisrespectively.ThefindingsofthisempiricalstudyarepresentedinSection4andareevaluated

againsttheliteratureonhouseholdenergybehaviour,consideringhowindividuals’environmentalpredispositionandknowledgeinfluencetheirpro-environmentalbehaviourintermsofhouseholdenergyuse.Thefinalsectionreflects

ontheimplicationsofthefindingsforpolicyandstrategiestomanageresidentialenergyuse.

2MethodologyForthepurposeofthisstudy,aquestionnairewasdeliveredto800householdsintwoparisheswithinPeterboroughunitaryauthorityinspring2013.Thequestionnairewasdesignedtobecompletedbyhandin

theabsenceoftheresearchersanddeliveryboxeswerelocatedinpubliclyaccessiblebuildingsandapostofficeforreturnbytherespondents.Intotal,249completedsurveyswerereceived,whichrepresentsa

responserateof31%.

Thequestionnairewasdevelopedwithreferencetomethodologicalguidanceonsurveydesignandquestionformulation[23–26].Acombinationofmultiple-choiceandfive-pointLikertscalequestions[27]was

includedinthesurvey.Moreover,withrespecttohouseholdappliances,respondentswereaskedtoinsertexactnumbersindicatingownershipandfrequencyofuse.Thesurveymethodologywasselectedinorderto

collectawiderangeofdatafromarelativelylargesampleofrespondents[28,29]inacosteffectiveway[27].Nevertheless,weacknowledgethatthereisariskofself-selectionbiassinceenvironmentally-motivated

residentsmighthavebeenmorelikelytocompletethesurvey.Aswedidnotconductapost-surveyevaluationofnon-responses,itisnotpossibletoknowtheprecisenatureofanypotentialnon-responsebiases.

Table1maps the variablesmeasuredby individual surveyquestionsagainst the relevant theoretical constructswhichpertain to environmental predisposition [30–33], knowledgeof environmental issues

[34,35],energyhabitsandattitudes[26,36–38]aswellasenergybehaviourrelatedtoapplianceownershipanduse[2,39,40].

Table1Selectedconceptsusedforthequestionnaire.

Latentconstruct Questionnaireitem

Predisposition Valuingtheenvironmentinrelationtoeconomicconsiderations

Knowledge

Carbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumption

Electricitysavinginthehome

Zerocarbonhomes

Government’sinitiativestoreduceCO2emissions

Energyattitudes

Payingmoreforhouseholdelectricityversuschangingconsumptionbehaviour

Reducingmyhousehold’sconsumptionwouldhelpprotecttheenvironment

Itwouldsavememoneytoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption

Reducingmyhousehold’senergyconsumptionwouldbeinconvenient

DuringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse

Energybehaviours

Iamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption

Upgradinginsulationorheatingsystemtoincreaseenergyefficiency

Buyingenergyefficientappliancestohelptoreduceelectricityconsumption

Iknowatleastthreethingstoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption

Havingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse?

Energyhabits

Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdenergyconsumption

Usingthemainthermostatorradiatorvalvestouseheatingmorecarefully

Whenusingyourheating,aresomepartsofyourhomelessheatedornotheated

Doyoureducethetemperatureonyourthermostatorturnyourheatingoffwhenyouare–Absentforhalfaday;–Absentforoneday;–Absentfortwodaysormore;–Atnighttime?

Applianceownershipanduse:

(1)Ownershipofappliances

Numberof‘entertainmentappliances’(LCD/PlasmaTV;Computer(desktop/laptop),‘utilityappliances’(Dishwasher;Washingmachine;Tumbledryer;Steamiron;Electricshower;Electrichotwatersystem),‘kitchenappliances’(Microwave;Electricoven;Kettle;Fridge/Fridge-Freezer;Deepfreezer)

(2)Frequency/durationofapplianceuse Howoften/long(timesperweek/day;hoursperday)thefollowingappliancesareusedperhousehold:‘entertainmentappliances’;‘utilityappliances’;‘kitchenappliances’

We recognize that behaviours, attitudes andhabits in relation to energy consumption in homes are distinct fromeach other, and variablesmeasured through thequestionnaire aremapped according to

whether they representbehaviours, attitudesandhabits. Ingeneral terms,energybehaviourcanbedescribedas theactions that residents takewhenusingenergy in theirhouseholds [4].Attitudes refer to“a

psychologicaltendencythatisexpressedbyevaluatingaparticularentitywithsomedegreeoffavorordisfavor”[41,p.1].AccordingtoAjzen’s[42]TheoryofPlannedBehaviour,whichexplainstheattitude-behaviour

relationship,attitudesareonepredictorof intent tobehave,alongsidesubjectivenormsandperceptionsofcontroloverbehaviour. Inabroadsense,habits involve repetitiveactions towards theachievementof

satisfactoryoutcomes.Habitualbehaviourismediatedbyamentalprocessinvolvingtherecognitionofparticularsituationswhichleadtotheformationandenactmentofhabitualactions[7].

Applianceownershipanduse

3Data3.1Sampleofpopulation

Thestudysamplecomprisesamarginallyhigherproportionofwomenthanmen,whichisbroadlyrepresentativeoftheequalgendersplitsinEastEnglandandEngland(Fig.1a).Likewise,theproportionofsurveyrespondents

employedfulltimeissimilartothatforEastEnglandandforEnglandasawhole(Fig.1b).Asmentionedabove,thesurveysamplecomprisesasignificantlyhigherproportionofretiredpeople(44%)andresidentslivinginadetached

houseorbungalow(71%)comparedtothelocalregionornationally.Withrespecttoresidencebuildingtype,Fig.1(c)showsonly1.5%ofrespondentslivedinaterraceorendterraceproperty,whichisunderrepresentativeofthe

regionalandnationalproportions (23%and24.5%, respectively).Furthermore,53%of the respondents lived inpropertieswithbetween6and9 rooms1,whileanadditional30%resided inpropertieswith10 to –13 rooms. It is

therefore likely thathigher incomeresidentsareoverrepresentedand lower incomeresidentsunderrepresented,comparedto theequivalentproportions forEastEnglandandEngland.However,household incomedatawasnot

availablefromthesurvey.

3.2StatisticalanalysismethodsTwonon-parametricstatisticaltestswereappliedtothesurveydatausingSPSS(StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences)version21forWindows.Firstly,Spearman’srankcorrelationsweregeneratedbetweenvariables

Fig.1Representativenessofselecteddemographicsfromthestudysamplecomparedregionalandnationalgeographiesfromthe2011Census.(Notesto(a–c).(i)Forreasonsofdataconfidentiality,thenamesofthetwoparticipatingparisheshavebeen

withheld.(ii)ProportionsoftotalpopulationofCensusdataonlyincludeemploymentorbuildingtypecategoriesfeaturedinoursurveyandthereforedonotsumto100%in(b)and(c).(iii)Pleasenotethatthecategoryforpart-timeworkersintheCensus

datamayormaynotincludecausalworkers.(iv)Thecategoryofhomedutiesiscomparedwiththecategory‘lookingafterhomeorfamily’fromtheCensus2011.)

representingpredispositionandknowledge,andvariablesrelatedtoenergybehaviour,attitudeandhabits.Hypotheseswereformulatedfromthetheoreticalliteraturetosupportanexpectedcorrelationinonedirection,andtherefore

significantcorrelationswereidentifiedatthe1%level,usingaone-tailedtest.Secondly,theFischerexacttestwasemployedtoinvestigatestatisticalrelationships,againstthenullhypothesis,betweenpredispositionandknowledge,

andapplianceownershipanduse.Fischer’sexacttestwasselectedasamoreaccuratetestcomparedtoChi-Square,becausethelatterproducesanapproximatecorrelation[43].

Further to this, a Principle Components Analysis (PCA)was conducted to determine the relative strength of relationships between 17 variables associatedwith predisposition, knowledge, energy behaviours, habits and

attitudes,aswellastwodemographicvariables:genderandemploymentstatus.Twoofthefourvariablesrelatingtoknowledgewerenotconsideredtoberelevanttotheaimsofthisanalysisandwereexcludedinthistest(‘Zero

carbonhomes’and ‘Government’s initiatives to reduceCO2 emissions’). This is because our study is concernedwith forms of environmental knowledge rather than awareness of specific policy initiatives. Variables representing

applianceownershipandassociatedfrequencyofusewerealsoexcludedfromthePCA,sinceitwasnotpossibletogenerateapositivedefinitecorrelationmatrixwiththesevariablesincluded.

4ResultsandDdiscussion4.1CorrelationAanalysis:PpredispositionandKknowledgeversusEenergyBbehaviour/Aattitudes/Hhabits

Spearman’srankcorrelationsweregeneratedinordertoinvestigatesurveyvariablesrelatingtheenvironmentalvaluesandknowledgeofrespondentswiththeenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabits.Tables2–5presentthose

correlationswhichweresignificantatthe1%levelandthesearediscussedinturninSection4.1.1–4.1.4belowwithreferencetohypothesesdrawnfromthetheoreticalliterature.AlltheSpearman’srankcorrelationsgeneratedare

showninAppendixA,andSection4.1.5discussesthesewithrespecttonon-significantcorrelationsinparticular.

Table2Predispositionversusenergyattitudesandbehaviour.

Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory

Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences

Expecteddirectionofcorrelation

Spearman’srankresults

Significancelevel(1-tailed)

(%)

%Ofrespondents

Valuingtheenvironmentversusreducingmyhousehold’sconsumptionwouldhelpprotecttheenvironment

Predispositionversusattitude

Themorepeoplevaluetheenvironment,themoretheyarelikelytoreducehouseholdenergyuse

[31,38,44,45] Positive 0.23 1 91

Valuingenvironmentversushavingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse

Predispositionversusbehaviour

Themoreanindividualvaluestheenvironment,thehigherthelikelihoodthattheyhavefittedenergy-savinglightbulbs

[46,47] Positive 0.18 1 91

Table3KnowledgeofGHGemissionsversusenergysavingbehaviour.

Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory

Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences

Expecteddirectionofcorrelation

Spearman’srankresults

Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)

%Ofrespondents

KnowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionversusIamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption

Knowledgeversusattitude

IndividualswhohavegreaterawarenessofCO2emissionsfromhouseholdenergyusearemorelikelytobeactiveinreducingtheirenergyconsumption

[38,45,48] Positive 0.30 1 98

KnowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionversusduringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse

Knowledgeversusattitude

WhereindividualshavegreaterawarenessofCO2emissionsfromhouseholdenergyuse,itismorelikelytheyhavetakenstepstoreduceit

[35,49,50] Positive 0.21 1 98

Table4Knowledgeofenergysavingversusbehaviour.

Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory

Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences

Expecteddirectionofcorrelation

Spearman’srankresults

Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)

%Ofrespondents

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusduring Knowledge Thegreatertheknowledge,thehigherthelikelihoodthat [51–53] Positive 0.38 1 98

KnowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusduringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse

Knowledgeversusenergyattitude

Thegreatertheknowledge,thehigherthelikelihoodthatindividualshavetakenstepstoreducetheirhouseholdenergyuse

[51–53] Positive 0.38 1 98

KnowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusIamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption

Knowledgeversusenergyattitude

Individualswhohavegreaterknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingsaremorelikelytobeactiveinreducingtheirenergyconsumption

[51–53] Positive 0.47 1 98

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusbuyingenergyefficientappliancestohelptoreduceelectricityconsumption

Knowledgeversusenergybehaviour

Thegreatertheknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavings,themorepeoplearelikelytopurchaseenergyefficientequipment

[35,46,49] Positive 0.27 1 98

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversushavingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse

Knowledgeversusenergybehaviour

Thegreatertheknowledgeabouthouseholdenergysavings,themorepeopleareexpectedtouselow-energylightbulbs

[35,49] Positive 0.21 1 98

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversususingthemainthermostatorradiatorvalvestouseheatingmorecarefully

Knowledgeversusenergyhabit

Themoreindividualsknowabouthouseholdenergysavings,themorelikelytheyaretousethermostatorradiatorvalvestocontroltheirheating

[48] Positive 0.29 1 97

Table5Knowledgeofenergysavingversusattitudesandhabits.

Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory

Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences

Expecteddirectionofcorrelation

Spearman’srankresults

Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)

%Ofrespondents

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusitwouldsavememoneytoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption

Knowledgeversusattitude

Themoreindividualsknowaboutenergysavinginthehome,themoretheyarelikelytoconsiderthatreducingtheirenergyusewouldsavethemmoney

[53] Positive 0.23 1 98

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusreducingmyhousehold’senergyconsumptionwouldbeinconvenient

Knowledgeversusattitude

Thegreatertheknowledge,thelesstheperceptionofinconvenienceinhouseholdenergysaving

[33,54] Negative −0.23 1 97

Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversuschanginghabitstoreducehouseholdenergyconsumption

Knowledgeversushabit

Themoreindividualsknowabouthouseholdenergysavings,themoretheyarelikelytoachievethembychangingtheirhabits

[2,9,33] Positive 0.34 1 98

4.1.1ValuingtheenvironmentversusenergyattitudesandbehaviourMorethanhalfoftherespondentstooursurvey(52%)consideredthattheenvironmentandtheeconomywereequalpriorities,comparedto29%whoassignedhigherprioritytotheeconomyand19%whogavehigherpriority

totheenvironment.Nevertheless,twocorrelationsindicateapositiveassociationbetweenvaluingtheenvironmentand(1)theattitudethatsavingenergyinthehomewouldhelptoprotecttheenvironment,and(2)theinstallationof

energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehome(Table2).Thereis,however,onlyalimitedliteraturewhichhasexaminedtherelationshipbetweenhowpeoplevaluetheenvironmentandtheirenergyattitudesandbehaviour.

Withrespecttotheformercorrelation,anempiricalstudybyBambergindicatesthatmoreenvironmentally-concernedindividualsbelievethattheycanachieveahigherlevelofbehaviouralcontroloveranypro-environmental

behaviourstheyengagein,comparedtolessenvironmentallyconcernedindividuals[44].Ahigherlevelofenvironmental-concernisalsodemonstratedtobeanindirect,ratherthandirectdeterminantofpro-environmentalbehaviour,

whichdependsuponthespecificsofsituationsinwhichdecisionsaremade[44].Inanycase,itislikelythatindividualsmustpossessenvironmentalvaluesinthefirstplaceinordertocarryoutpro-environmentalbehaviours[38,45].

Further to this,and in relation to ruralhouseholdenergyuse in thedevelopingworld,a reviewbyKowsariandZeriffi finds thatpredisposition towardsvaluingandprotecting theenvironmentenhances theadoptionofpositive

attitudes,leadingtotheperformanceofenergysavinghabits[31].

ThesecondsignificantcorrelationaboveissupportedbyanempiricalstudyofUKhouseholdswhichindicatesthatenvironmentalpredispositionandvaluingtheenvironmentisadriverofconsumers’decisionstoinstallenergy

efficientappliancesandtechnologiesintheirhomes[46].Similarly,ArkesteijnandOerlemansfoundthatresidentsinDutchhouseholdsweremorelikelytoadoptgreenelectricityiftheyperceivedthemselvestohaveahigherlevelof

environmentalresponsibility[47].

4.1.2KnowledgeofgreenhousegasemissionsversusenergysavingbehaviourInoursurvey,55%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheyhadamoderateorgoodknowledgeofcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyuse,comparedto44%whoreportedlittleornoknowledgeofhouseholdCO2

emissions.Respondents’knowledgeofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionispositivelycorrelatedwithactiontoreducehouseholdenergyuse,inthecaseoftwosimilarbutindependentcorrelations,

i.e.(1)stepstoreducehouseholdenergyuseoverthepastyear,and(2)activereductionofenergyconsumption(Table3).

Anumberofstudieshavefoundarelationshipbetweenhigherenvironmentalawarenessandthepurchaseofenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts,whichismorelikelywhereindividualshavestrongerpro-environmentalbeliefs

[38,45].Nevertheless,andwithrespecttoenergyconsumptionspecifically,individualswithahigherenvironmentalawarenesscanbebothefficientandinefficientintheiruseofenergy.Inefficientuseofenergymayresultwheretheir

behaviourisdrivenbyotherfactorswhichtheyconsidertobemoreimportantthansavingenergy[48].

SuccessivenationalsurveysbytheEnergySavingTrust(EST)andDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(DEFRA)demonstratedthatconcernsaboutclimatechangeincreasedrespondents’willingnesstouse

energyefficientlight-bulbsfrom2006to2009[49].Surveyrespondentswhohadalreadyinstalledenergysavinglight-bulbsintheirhomefurtherindicatedtheywerepreventedordiscouragedfrominstallingmoresuchlight-bulbs,for

reasonsofpracticalityorcomfort–specifically,incompatiblelightfittingsorpoorlightquality[35,49].Nevertheless,andasHobsoncontends,householdpracticesdonotchangethroughtheacquisitionof‘better’scientificknowledge

alone,butthroughthelinksthatindividualsmakebetweenwiderenvironmentalconcernsandtheirowneverydayexperiences[50].

4.1.3KnowledgeofenergysavingversusbehaviourMostofoursurveyparticipants(86%)reportedthattheypossessedmoderateorgoodlevelsofknowledgeaboutelectricitysaving,withafurther4%indicatingthattheyhadexpertknowledge.Only10%reportedthattheyhad

littleornoknowledgeofelectricitysaving.Twocorrelationsindicatethatahighlevelofenergysavingknowledgeisassociatedwithbehaviourwhichreduceshouseholdenergyconsumption,i.e.(1)stepstoreducehouseholdenergy

use,and(2)activereductionofenergyconsumptionathome.AstudyofeighthouseholdsinJapaninvestigatedtheimpactofinstallinganonline,interactiveinformationsystemwhichresidentscouldaccessonlinetolearnabouttheir

energyconsumption[45].Dataonhouseholdandapplianceenergyuserevealedthatresidents’electricityconsumptiondecreasedby9%onaverageovera40-weekdayperiodafterinstallationofthesystem,comparedtoanequal

periodoftimepriortoinstallation.Thisoutcomewasattributedtoenergy-savingbehaviourssuchasbettermanagementofapplianceelectricityuse,includingreducingthetimesuchdevicesoperateinstandbymode[51].

Asimilar informationsystemwas installed inalmost200Dutchhouseholds,whichresidentscouldaccessonline,andthroughwhich theywereprovidedadviceonenergyconservationandcustomized feedbackaboutany

energysavingsthattheyhadachieved[52].Fivemonthsaftertheinstallationoftheinformationsystem,residentsparticipatinginthisexperimenthadreducedtheirelectricityuseby5%comparedtobeforethesystemwasfitted.In

comparison, a control group of households did not have the information system installed, and their energy consumption actually increased by 0.7% over the same period. The experimental group also exhibited higher levels of

knowledgeonhowtoconserveenergycomparedtothecontrolgroup,followinginstallationofthesystem[52].Elsewhere,energymonitorshavebeenshowntoincreaseresidentialusers’energyconsciousness,indicatingthatpriorto

theinstallationofsuchmonitors,energyconsumptionislargelyanunconscious,habitualprocess[53].

Table4showsthatinoursurvey,greaterknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingisfurtherpositivelyassociatedwiththreevariablesrelatingtotheadoptionofmoreenergyefficientappliancesinthehome,i.e.(1)thepurchase

ofhouseholdenergyefficientdevicesingeneral,and(2)theuseofenergysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse.

Astudyof‘green’consumersintheUKindicatesthatnumerousfactorsinfluencedtheirdecisionstopurchaseandinstallenergyefficientappliancesortechnologiesintheirhouseholds,includingintentionstosaveenergy,

moneyortheenvironment,consumerincome,attitudesandlifestyle,productcharacteristicsandprice[46].Twobarrierstotheuptakeofenergyefficientproductsthatarefrequentlymentionedbyconsumersareproductutilityand

thegreaterexpenseofenergyefficientproducts[35].InasurveyconductedbyEST/DEFRAin2009,respondentsreportedthattheylookedforandboughtenergyefficientapplianceswiththeEnergySavingRecommendedlogo[49].

Thissuggeststhatenergylabelingcanhelpconsumersmakeenergyconsciouspurchasesofneworreplacementhouseholdappliances[35].

Apartfromtheadoptionofenergyefficienttechnology,increasedknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingisstatisticallyassociatedwiththeuseofthermostatsorradiatorvalvestocontrolheatingconsumption(Table4).Thisis

supported by a survey of 600 Swedish households, which revealed that those households which received direct feedback on their heating consumption, through bills from their energy supplier, generally kept a lower indoor

temperatureintheirhousesthanresidentslivinginapartmentswheretheirheatingcostswereallinclusiveintheirmonthlyrent[48].However,itwasmorecommonforstudyparticipantstolowerindoortemperatureforreasonsof

improvingtheircomfort(51%ofrespondents),ratherthantosaveenergyormoney(27%ofrespondents)[48].

4.1.4Knowledgeofenergysavingversusattitudesandhabits

Knowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingispositivelycorrelatedwithtwovariables,representingattitudesinthesurvey:theseare(1)reducinghouseholdconsumptionwouldhelptoprotecttheenvironment,and(2)reducing

energyuseathomewouldsavemoney(Table5).Anadditionalcorrelationsuggeststhatthereisnegativeassociationbetweenknowledgeofenergysavingandtheattitudethatitwouldbeinconvenienttoreducehouseholdenergy

usage.

In the literature,variouspersonalityandperceptualcharacteristicshavebeenrelatedtoenergysavingbehaviour, including factorssuchas,concern forenvironmental issues,priceconcern,andpersonalcomfort [33,54].

Residentscategorizedas‘committedenvironmentalists’inasurveyofover1,200householdsinDevon,England,wereconsiderablymorelikelytoforgosomelevelofcomfortinordertosaveenergy,comparedtothoseclassifiedas

‘non-environmentalists’[33].Withrespecttopriceconcern,savingmoneyhasbeenobservedtobeaprimaryreasonwhyconsumerspurchaseenergymonitorsfortheirhouseholds[53].

Inourstudy,apositivecorrelationisalsoindicatedbetweenknowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeandthemodificationofhabitstoreducehouseholdenergyuse(Table5).Sucharelationshipislikelytovaryaccordingtothe

nature of different energy saving habits. For example, in UK households, it has been observed that energy saving behaviours which caused greater discomfort or required greater commitment, such as reducing the heating

temperature,werelesslikelytobeperformedincomparisontohabitualenergysavingpractices,suchasturninglightsoffwhennotinuse[33].Inaddition,itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatawarenessofpracticeswhichconsume

moreenergymay leadtochanges inhabits toreduceenergyuse.This isexemplifiedbyastudybasedon interviewswithDanishhouseholds,whichreveals thatwhileseveral familieswereawarethat leavingtheirapplianceson

standbycontributed toaconsiderableportionof theirelectricityconsumption, thisdidnotprompt themtoswitchoff theirapplianceswhennot inuse [9].Moreover,households’knowledgeof theiractualenergyconsumption is

generallylimited,andwheretheydoengageinenergysavingbehaviour,theyaremorelikelytotakesymbolicactions,ratherthansignificantmeasures,tosaveenergy[2].

4.1.5Non-significantcorrelationsAppendixApresentseverySpearman’srankcorrelationtestedinthisstudybetweenenvironmentalvaluesandknowledge,andenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabits.CorrelationsareindicatedinAppendixAaccording to

whethertheyaresignificantata1%or5%level,ornotsignificant.Severalobservationscanbemadewithrespecttothedistributionofnon-significantandsignificantcorrelationsacrossthevariablestested,andtheseobservations

canbelinkedtotheliteraturediscussedabove.Firstly,valuingtheenvironmentdoesnotcorrelatesignificantlywithmostofthebehaviour,attitudeorhabitvariablesincludedinoursurvey(exceptintwocases).AsnotedinSection

4.1.1,thismaybeaconsequenceoftheindirectnatureandcontext-dependenceofenvironmentalvalues’influenceuponpro-environmentalbehaviour[44].

Secondly,knowledgeofelectricitysavingcorrelateswithmoreenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabitvariablesatahighersignificancelevelcomparedtoknowledgeofCO2emissions.Thismightbeexplainedinpartbythe

uncertain role of environmental knowledge as a driver of pro-environmental actions. Section 4.1.2 refers to literaturewhich contends that evenwhere people possess higher awareness of environmental impacts, theymay not

necessarilyengageinmoreenergyefficientbehaviour[48,50].

Thirdlyandlastly,payingmoreforelectricity insteadofchangingbehaviour,heatingallorpartsof thehomeandreducingtemperatureorturningoffheating,donotcorrelatewithvaluingtheenvironment,knowledgeof

energysavingorCO2emissions.Twoofthesevariablesareaboutheatingandoneisaboutwillingnesstopayforhigherconsumption.AsnotedinSection4.1.4,UKresidentshavebeenobservedtobelesslikelytoperformenergy

savingbehaviourswithahigherperceivedlevelofdiscomfortorcommitment[33],suchasloweringtheheatingtemperature.

4.2PrincipalCcomponentAanalysisAprincipalcomponentanalysis(PCA)wasappliedtoseventeenvariablesusingoblique(Directoblimin)rotationandtheregressionmethodofcalculatingfactorscores,basedontheassumptionthattheunderlyingcomponents

arecorrelatedwitheachother.Thisassumptionisconsideredtobeappropriateforsurveydataonenvironmentalvaluesandknowledge,andcloselyrelatedattitudes,behavioursandhabits.

ThesamplingadequacyforthePCAtest(Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin(KMO)valueof0.79) fallswithinthe0.7–0.8rangeratedas‘Good’byHutchesonandSofroniou[55].SixcomponentswereactedusingKaiser’scriterionofa

minimumeigenvalueof1,sothattogether,theextractedcomponentsaccountfor62.3%ofthevariance(Fig.2).

Tables6and7presenttherelationshipsbetweenthevariablesandcomponents,withinthepatternandstructurematricesgeneratedbyobliquerotation.Whilethepatternandstructurematricesshowtherelativecontribution

ofvariableswhichloadontospecificcomponents,thestructurematrixalsoreflectstherelationshipsbetweencomponents.Allfactorloadingsachievetheminimumlevelof0.4requiredtobeconsideredstatisticallysignificant[43].

Table6Principalcomponentanalysis/patternmatrix.a

Componentnumber

Surveyvariable 1 2 3 4 5 6

Reducinghouseholdenergyusewouldhelpprotectenvironment 0.80

Savemoneytoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.80

Knowof3thingstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.73

Takenstepstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.48

KnowledgeofCO2fromhouseholds 0.82

Knowledgeofsavingelectricity 0.62

Gender −0.59 0.48

Alwaysactivelyreducinghouseholdenergyuse 0.41

Upgradeinsulationorheatingtoincreaseenergyefficiency 0.74

Employment 0.68

Reducinghouseholdenergyuseisinconvenient −0.81

Valueenvironmentandeconomy 0.84

Payingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour 0.47

Usingthemainthermostatormainradiatorvalvestocontrolheating 0.71

Fig.2Totalvarianceexplainedbyinitialandextractedcomponents.

Energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse 0.67

Buyenergyefficientappliancestoreduceelectricityconsumption 0.65

Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdelectricityuse 0.53

Componentsidentified:

1(Pleasecanyouincreasethefontofthelistednumberstobeequaltothetext(i.e.notsuperscript)andatthesamelevelasthetext,asforexample,1.Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;2.

Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;3.Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment;andsoon.). Reducinghouseholdenergyuse.

2. Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.

3. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment.

4. Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.

5. Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour.

6. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheatingtemperatureandchangingenergyhabits.

a Rotationmethod:ObliminwithKaisernormalization.Rotationconvergedin24iterations.Factorscorecalculationmethod:regression.

Table7Principalcomponentanalysis/structurematrix.a

Componentnumber

Surveyvariable 1 2 3 4 5 6

Reducinghouseholdenergyusewouldhelpprotectenvironment 0.80

Savemoneytoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.76

Knowof3thingstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.74

Takenstepstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.62 0.43

KnowledgeofCO2fromhouseholds 0.80

Knowledgeofsavingelectricity 0.69

Gender −0.56 0.47

Alwaysactivelyreducinghouseholdenergyuse 0.54 0.55 0.44

Upgradeinsulationorheatingtoincreaseenergyefficiency 0.75

Employment 0.67

Reducinghouseholdenergyuseisinconvenient −0.81

Valueenvironmentandeconomy 0.85

Payingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour 0.46

Buyenergyefficientappliancestoreduceelectricityconsumption 0.43 0.42 0.71

Usingthemainthermostatormainradiatorvalvestocontrolheating 0.71

Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdelectricityuse 0.50 0.66

Energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse 0.64

Componentsidentified:

1(Pleasecanyouincreasethefontofthelistednumberstobeequaltothetext(i.e.notsuperscript)andatthesamelevelasthetext,asforexample,1.Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;2.

Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;3.Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment;andsoon.). Reducinghouseholdenergyuse.

2. Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.

3. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment.

4. Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.

5. Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour.

6. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheatingtemperatureandchangingenergyhabits.

a Rotationmethod:ObliminwithKaisernormalization.Factorscorecalculationmethod:regression.

Theclustersoffactorloadingssuggestthatthesixcomponentsrepresentrespectively:(1)Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;(2)Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;(3)Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology

andemployment;(4)Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;(5)Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour;(6)Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheating

temperatureandchangingenergyhabits.

TheoutcomeofthePCAindicatesthatdifferentbehaviourstoreducehouseholdenergyusearelinkedwitheachother(Component1).Inaddition,suchenergyreducingbehaviourisalsoassociatedwithgenderandknowledge

ofGHGemissions(Components2and4).ThelinkbetweenenvironmentalknowledgeandenergysavingbehaviourhasalreadybeendiscussedinSection4.1.2above.Withrespecttogender,separatestudiessuggestthatwomenare

morelikelytoperformpro-environmentalbehaviourwhichleadstoenergysavinginhouseholds[39,56].Nevertheless,analysisofUKtimeusedatabyTorritietal.suggeststhatwomen’shigherrateofhouseholdoccupancyduring

weekdays,contributestohigherelectricityconsumptionathome[57].

Tables6and7alsoindicatethattheadoptionofenergyefficienttechnologiesisclusteredtogetherwithemployment(Component3),aswellaschangingenergyhabitsandtheregulationofheatingtemperature(Component6).

WithrespecttoComponent3,aninternationalreviewofmultiplestudiesfoundtheeffectofresidents’employmentstatusonhouseholdelectricityconsumptiontobeinconclusive[58].Similarly,anempiricalstudyintheUKshowed

thathighelectricityconsumptioninhomeswasnotinfluencedbytheemploymentstatusofoccupants[59].Component6mightbeexplainedbythepositivebehaviour‘spillovereffect’,throughwhichtheadoptionofoneenvironmental

behaviourfollowsanother[60].Finally,ourPCAindicatesthatthereisastatisticalrelationshipbetweenvaluingtheenvironmentandeconomy,andwillingnesstopaymoreforelectricityinordertomaintainexistingenergybehaviour

(Component5).However,itisnotpossibletodeducefromthePCAhowvariablesarecorrelated,ordetermineindependentanddependentvariables,i.e.whichactioncamefirst.

4.3ApplianceownershipanduseInoursurvey,wehaveidentifiedahighproportionofrespondentswithamoderateorgoodknowledgeofenergysavingandasubstantialproportionwithareasonableknowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholds(Sections

4.1.2and4.1.3).However,manyofthesurveyparticipantsownedmultipleappliancesanddemonstratedhighlevelsofapplianceuseanddemonstratedhighlevelsofapplianceuse,withobviousimplicationsforelectricityconsumption.

ThisissupportedbyEllegardandPalm,whoarguethatincreasingenvironmentalawarenessandknowledgeofenergysavingmaynotbesufficientonitsowntoreduceenergyconsumptioninhouseholds[61].Onereasonforthisisthe

rapidgrowthinownershipofhouseholdappliancesandpoorlevelsofunderstandingamongstresidentsofhowmuchenergyeachofthesedevicesconsume,evenamongstthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutenergyandenvironmental

issues[61].

However,ouranalysisonlyobtainedalimitednumberofsignificantFischerexacttestcorrelationsbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandknowledge,andapplianceownershipanduse.AsindicatedinTable8,onlyoneof

these correlations was significant at the 99% confidence level, between valuing the environment versus frequency of use ofmicrowaves. In addition, three correlations are indicated at the 95% confidence level. Two of these

correlations are between valuing the environment and the frequency of use of electric ovens and computers, respectively. The third of these correlations indicates that knowledge ofCO2 emissions is associatedwith how often

occupantsusedelectricshowers.InmostcasesthedirectionofstatisticalassociationfortheFischerexacttestcorrelationsisinconclusiveoratbesttentative(Table8).Furthertothis,itwasnotpossibletoobtainavalidprincipal

componentanalysis(PCA)whileincludingapplianceownershipandusevariablesfromthesurvey.

Table8Predispositionandknowledgeversusapplianceownershipanduse(FischerExactTest).

Typeofappliance

Descriptionofthecorrelation

Fischer’sexacttestresult

Observations(Fischer’sexacttest)Significancelevel(2-tailedFischer’sexact

test)(%)

% ofrespondents

Electricoven Valuingtheenvironmentversuselectricovenuse 25.4 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 5 47

Computer(desktop/laptop)

Valuingtheenvironmentversuscomputeruse 24.7 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 5 51

MicrowaveovenValuingtheenvironmentversusmicrowaveovenuse

28.2 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 1 48

ElectricshowerKnowledgeofCO2emissionsversuselectricshoweruse

23.9SomeindicationofanassociationbetweenamoderateknowledgeofCO2emissionsandlessfrequentuseofanelectricshower,whilelittleknowledgeofCO2emissionsisassociatedhigherfrequenciesofelectricshoweruse

5 36.5

Therefore,thissectionpresentsanevaluationbasedondescriptivestatisticsfromoursurveypertainingtoapplianceownershipanduse.Theseareofinterestbecauseincreasingownershipandusageofapplianceshasbeen

demonstratedtoimpactsignificantlyonhouseholdelectricityconsumptioninEurope[62].InthegroupofelevenIEAcountries(IEA-11)forexample,domesticelectricalapplianceswereresponsibleforapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthe

doublingofEuropeanelectricitydemandbetween1973and1998.Kitchenandutilityappliancessuchasrefrigeratorsandclotheswashingmachinesmainlyimpacteduponthegrowthofapplianceelectricityconsumptionintheearly

1980s,whilemorerecentgrowthinelectricityuseisduetohomeelectronicsandkitchengadgets[62].

AtanationalscaleinGreatBritain,theownershipofdomesticapplianceshasincreasedsteadilysincetheearly1970s.Between1973and1991thelevelofownershipforhouseholdutilityorkitchenappliancessuchaswashing-

machinesincreasedby22%(from67%to89%),dishwasherownershipincreasedby12%(ownedby1%and13%ofhouseholdsin1973and1990,respectively),whiletheincreaseoffreezerownershipisremarkable(from3%in1973

to38%in1991,respectively)[63].HigherlevelsofapplianceownershipanduseinhouseholdshaveresultedinadoublingofelectricityconsumptionintheUKbetween1972and2002,from44TWhto89TWhperannum[64].

With respect to ‘entertainment’ appliances, the ownershipof colour-television sets increased from49% in1976 to anaverageof 1.6 setsperhousehold in1994 [63], and2.4TVs respectively in 2004 [51]. By 2004, the

electronicsector,includingtelevisions,videorecorders,andexternalpowersupplyunits(digitalTVadapters),accountedfor17.3TWh,whichisequivalenttomorethan16%ofthetotalelectricityconsumedintheresidentialsector.

Televisionscontributedmosttothetotalconsumptionfromdomesticelectronicappliancesin2004(around40%),whileexternalpowersupplyunitsused18%oftheequivalenttotalin2000[64].

Oursurveyprovidesevidenceofmultipleownershipof‘entertainment’appliancesinhouseholds,suchthat9%ofrespondentsownedthreeLCD/PlasmaTVorthreedesktopcomputers/laptops,comparedto21%and26%of

respondentswhoownedtwoofthesedevices,respectively(Fig.3).Intermsofkitchen/utilitydevices,onewashingmachine,kettleandmicrowaveovenwereownedbymorethan90%ofstudyparticipants,whereaslessthanhalf

ownedoneelectrichotwatersystemorelectricshower.Notably,29%ofhouseholdspossessedtworefrigerator/fridge-freezerunitswithanadditional6%owningthreesuchunits(Fig.3).

Of

Inturn,thefrequencyofuseoftheseappliancesvariesconsiderably,bothbetweenthedifferenttypesofappliancesandacrosstherespondents(Table9).Inrelationto‘utilityappliances’,themedianfrequencyofusewas

higherfordishwashers(3timesperweek)comparedtowashingmachines(2timesperweek)andtumbledryers(onceperweek).Withrespectto‘kitchenappliances’,asmightbeexpected,kettleswereusedmuchmorefrequently

thanmicrowaves(medianof4timesperdayversus0timesperday,respectively).Themedianhoursofusefor‘entertainmentappliances’wastwiceasgreatforLCD/plasmaTVs(4hperday) incomparisontodesktoporlaptop

computers(2hperday).

Table9Frequencyofhouseholdapplianceuse.

Typeofappliance Frequencyofapplianceuse(%ofrespondents)

Min 1stQuartile 2ndQuartile/median 3rdQuartile 4thQuartile/max

Utilityappliances Numberofusesperweek

Dishwasher 0 1 3 6 14

Washingmachine 0 1 2 4 24

Tumbledryer 0 0 1 3 14

Steamiron 0 0 1 2 7

Electricshower 0 2 5 9 37

Kitchen/entertainmentappliances Hoursofuseperday

Electricoven 0 0.75 0.75 1 10

LCDorplasmaTV 1 3 4 5 24

Computer(desktop/laptop) 0 0.5 2 4 25

Kitchenappliances Numberofusesperday

Fig.3Ownershipofhouseholdappliances.

Kettle 1 3 4 6 40

Microwaveoven 0 0 0 1 20

ThesefrequenciesarecomparabletothoseobservedinseparatestudiesofUKhouseholds.Forexample,intheUK,in2007theaveragetimespentwatchingtelevisionwas3.6hperday[65].BuildingResearchEstablishment

(BRE)[66]andYohanis[4]foundthatwashingmachineswereusedmorefrequentlythantumbledryers,whilethelatterwereusedlessinthesummer.Aswiththehouseholdsinoursurvey,Yohanisobservedthatthehighestfrequency

ofuseforeitherofthesetwoapplianceswastentimesperweekormore[4].Nevertheless,bothstudiesfoundhigheroveralllevelsofuseoftumbledryersandwashingmachinesthaninoursurvey:4timesperweekforwashing

machines[66],and2–3timesperweekfortumbledryers[4,66],althoughtheusageoftumbledryerswasrevealedbyBREtodecreasetoamedianof0duringthesummer[66].

5ConclusionEnergyproductionanduseareat thespotlightofanyattempt tocontrolandreduceGHGemissions.Whilework in thebroaderenergydecarbonisation fieldmakesuseof technologicaladvancements in

renewableenergyandenergystorage[67,68],astepchangeisrequiredfromtheenergyconsumptiondomain.Inthiscontext,thehouseholdsectorhasanincreasinglyimportantroletoplay,notleastbecauseofthe

proliferationofrooftopsolarenergy[69],smartmetersandsensorsthatallcontributetoaparadigmshiftfromenergyconsumerstoenergyprosumers[70,71].

Ourstudyfocusedontheearlystageofdevelopment(pre-prosumer)oftheenergyuserandspecificallyonthelinksbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandbehaviour,attitudeandhabitsinenergyuse.In

thiscontextweconfirmedthepositiverelationshipbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandactivitiesthataimtoreduceenergyconsumption(suchasthereplacementofincandescentwithlowenergylightbulbs).

SimilarlywefoundapositivecorrelationbetweenknowledgeaboutGHGemissionsandenergysaving,andactionstoreduceenergyuse.Ingeneral,knowledgeplayedakeyroleinanumberofexaminedactivitiesthe

respondents engaged in such as behavioural changes that helped them reduce energy consumption and even changes in purchasing patterns.Most strikingly, knowledge about energy saving had an impact on

respondents’perceptionoftheconvenienceorinconvenienceofactionstosaveenergy.

The strong role of knowledge is supported further byMills and Schleich [72] who argue thatmost studies [73,74] reveal education level and the adoption of energy efficient technology to be positive

correlated. The authors’ study in 2010 [72] also found that socio-economic factors like higher education levels, higher income, larger households, and higher electricity prices have a positive correlation with

participants’knowledgeabouttheenergyefficiencylabelofappliances.Ourstudyhasinvestigatedtheroleofenvironmentalvaluesandknowledgeininfluencingenergybehaviour,habitsandattitudesofhousehold

energyconsumers.Assuch,wehavenotexaminedtheinfluenceofeducationorhouseholdincomeonknowledgeorenergyconservationinhouseholds.

Furtherresearchshouldseektobothexpandthesurveybaseandinvestigatethelatterstagesofthe“consumertoprosumer”developmenttoincludethosehouseholdswhichactivelyparticipateintheenergy

marketwithenergygenerationfortheirownconsumption,andthosewhichtradewiththegrid,aswellasprovidingauxiliaryservicestothegrid.ThisworkisparticularlytimelyinthelightofthebroaderEU-wide

discussionofwhatessentiallyconstitutes“consumeremancipation”thathasalreadybeentriggeredatapoliticallevel[75].

AcknowledgementsTheauthorswouldliketothankthesurveyparticipantsinthecommunitystudiedaswellastheanonymousreviewersfortheirusefulcomments.

AppendixAAllcorrelationsextractedfromthesurvey(significantat0.01and0.05level,andnon-significant)TableA1.

TableA1AllSpearman’sRankcorrelationsextractedfromthe(significantat0.01and0.05level,andnon-significant).

Non-significantcorrelations.

N=Numberofcases.*Correlationissignificantatthe0.05level(2-tailed).**Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level(2-tailed).

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Footnotes1Thisincludesallheatedroomsinthedwelling,i.e.bedrooms,bathrooms,livingroom,kitchenetc.

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Highlights

• Environmentalvaluesandenergysavinginhouseholdsarepositivelycorrelated.

• Environmentalknowledgeandhouseholdenergysavingarepositivelycorrelated.

• Householdenergysavingislinkedtogenderandemploymentstatus.