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Perception and Diversity: Why Viewpoints Differ

Copyright © 2008 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/IrwinOrganizational Behavior, Core Concepts

2Organizational Behavior

core concepts

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Learning Objectives

• Describe perception in terms of the social information processing model

• Give examples of how social perception affects organizational behavior

• Explain how individuals formulate causal attributions

• Discuss why diversity is important in today’s organizations

• Summarize organizational practices for managing diversity

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Social Perception: A Social Information Processing Model

Figure 4-1Figure 2-1

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A Social Information Processing Model of Perception

• Perception – the process of interpreting one’s

environment.

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A Social Information Processing Model of PerceptionSocial perception involves a four-stage

information processing sequence

1. Selective attention/comprehension

2. Encoding and simplification

3. Storage and retention

4. Retrieval and response

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Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension• Attention

– being consciously aware of something or someone

• Salient – something that stands out from context

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Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification• Cognitive categories

– mental depositories for storing information

• Schema – mental picture of an event or object

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Question?

What is a belief about the characteristics of a group?

A. Consensus

B. Stereotype

C. Personality

D. Trait

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Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification• Stereotype

– belief about the characteristics of a group

• Not always negative

• May or may not be accurate

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Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification• Stereotypes

– Can lead to poor decisions– Can create barriers for older individuals,

people of color, and people with disabilities– Can undermine loyalty and job satisfaction

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Stereotyping Process

1. Categorize people into groups according to various criteria

2. Infer that all people within a category possess the same traits

3. Form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes

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Stereotyping Process

4. Stereotypes are maintained by:• Overestimating the frequency of

stereotypic behavior exhibited by others• Incorrectly explaining expected and

unexpected behaviors• Differentiating minority individuals from

oneself

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Common Perceptual Errors

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Stage 3: Storage and Retention

• Event memory – information about both specific and general

events

• Semantic memory – general knowledge about the world, mental

dictionary of concepts

• Person memory – information about a single individual or

groups of people

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Stage 4: Retrieval and Response

• Decisions are based:– On the process of drawing on, interpreting,

and integrating categorical information stored in long-term memory

– Retrieving a summary judgment that was already made

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Cultural Influences: Perceptions of Time

• Monochronic time – preference for doing one thing at a time

because time is limited, precisely segmented, and schedule driven

• Polychronic time – preference for doing more than one thing at

a time because time is flexible and multidimensional

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Managerial Implications: Hiring

• Interviewers make hiring decisions based on their impression of how an applicant fits the perceived requirements of a job

• Inaccurate impressions in either direction produce poor hiring decisions

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Managerial Implications: Performance Appraisal• Important for managers to accurately

identify the behavioral characteristics and results indicative of good performance

• Characteristics serve as the benchmarks for evaluating employee performance

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Managerial Implications: LeadershipGood leaders exhibit the following

behaviors:– Assigning specific tasks to group members– Telling others they had done well– Setting specific goals for the group– Letting other group members make

decisions– Trying to get the group to work as a team– Maintaining definite standards of

performance

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Managerial Implications: Leadership

• Poor leaders exhibit the following behaviors:– Telling others they had performed poorly– Insisting on having their own way– Doing things without explaining themselves– Expressing worry over the group members

suggestions– Frequently changing plans– Letting the details of the task become

overwhelming

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Causal Attributions

• Causal Attributions – suspected or inferred causes of

behavior

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Kelley’s Model of Attribution

• Internal factors – personal characteristics that cause behavior

• External factors – environmental characteristics that cause

behavior

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Question?

What involves comparing a person’s behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks?

A. Consensus

B. Distinctiveness

C. Consistency

D. Personality

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Kelley’s Model of Attribution

• Consensus – involves a comparison of an individual’s

behavior with that of his peers.• Distinctiveness

– involves comparing a person’s behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks.

• Consistency – determined by judging if the individual’s

performance on a given task is consistent over time.

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Kelley’s Model of Attribution

• Consensus relates to other people

• Distinctiveness relates to other tasks

• Consistency relates to time

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Attributional Tendencies

• Fundamental attribution bias – ignoring environment factors that affect

behavior

• Self-serving bias– taking more personal responsibility for

success than failure

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Managerial Implications

• Managers tend to disproportionately attribute behavior to internal causes

• Attributional biases may lead to inappropriate managerial actions

• An employee’s attributions for his own performance have dramatic effects on subsequent motivation, performance, and self-esteem

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Defining and Managing Diversity

• Diversity – the host of individual differences that make

people different from and similar to each other

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Four Layers of Diversity

Figure 2-2

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Defining and Managing Diversity

• Affirmative action– voluntary and involuntary efforts to achieve

equality of opportunity for everyone

• Managing diversity – creating organizational changes that enable

all people to perform up to their maximum potential

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Diversity in the Workforce

1. Women and minorities are experiencing a glass ceiling

2. Racial groups are encountering perceived discrimination

3. There is a mismatch between workers’ educational attainment and occupational requirements

4. The workforce is aging

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Diversity in the Workforce

• Glass ceiling – invisible barrier blocking women and

minorities from top management positions

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Glass Ceiling

See an article on “Breaking the Glass Ceiling” by Wirth

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Diversity in the Workforce

• Underemployment – the result of taking a job that requires less

education, training, or skills than possessed by a worker

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Impact of Diversity on OrganizationsTwo recommendations to help

organizations adapt to an aging workforce:

1. Firms should help employees deal with personal issues associated with eldercare

2. Employers need to make a concerted effort to keep older workers engaged and committed and their skills current

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Barriers and Challenges

1. Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice

2. Ethnocentrism

3. Poor career planning

4. An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees

5. Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees

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Barriers and Challenges

6. Difficulty in balancing career and family issues

7. Fears of reverse discrimination

8. Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority

9. The need to revamp the organization’s performance appraisal and reward system

10. Resistance to change

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Specific Diversity Initiatives

• Accountability practices – focus on treating diverse employees fairly

• Development practices – focus on preparing diverse employees for

greater responsibility and advancement

• Recruitment practices – attempts to attract qualified, diverse

employees at all levels