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Eva Dick • Karin GaesingDaniel Inkoom • Teodoro KauselEditors

Decentralisationand Regional DevelopmentExperiences and Lessons from FourContinents over Three Decades

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EditorsEva DickFaculty of Spatial PlanningTU Dortmund UniversityDortmundGermany

Karin GaesingFaculty of Spatial PlanningTU Dortmund UniversityDortmundGermany

Daniel InkoomDepartment of PlanningKwame Nkrumah University of Scienceand Technology

KumasiGhana

Teodoro KauselDepartment of Economics, AdministrationUniversidad Austral de ChileValdiviaChile

ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)Springer GeographyISBN 978-3-319-29365-3 ISBN 978-3-319-29367-7 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29367-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016938651

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar ordissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemptfrom the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material containedherein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

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This Springer imprint is published by Springer NatureThe registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

The original version of this book was revised.An erratum to this chapter can be found atDOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29367-7_10

Foreword

Einhard Schmidt-Kallert: A Life in Search of Understanding

We have reached a point in the evolution of our Western Civilisation, in which weknow a lot, but understand very little. Our evolutionary voyage has been conductedby reason which leads to the conquest of knowledge. In that process we have beenoverwhelmingly successful. Never in the history of humanity have we accumulatedmore knowledge than during the last 120 years. We are celebrating the apotheosisof reason, but in the midst of such a celebration we are suddenly feeling thatsomething is missing. We realise that despite so many spectacular achievements,our quality of life has deteriorated and life in general is facing the possibility ofextinction if we continue with more of the same. So, what has been the benefit of somuch knowledge?

As I have pointed out elsewhere,1 we can achieve knowledge about almosteverything we want. We can, for instance, guided by our beloved scientific method,study everything there is about a human phenomenon called love. The result will bethat we will know everything that can be known about love. But once we achievethat complete knowledge, we will sooner or later discover that we will neverunderstand love unless we fall in love. We will realise that knowledge is not theroad that leads to understanding. We will then be aware that we can attempt tounderstand only that of which we become a part. That understanding is the result ofintegration, while knowledge has been the result of detachment. That understandingis holistic, while knowledge is fragmented.

The world in which we are is the world of incomplete human beings. If we wantto improve the catastrophic situation in which we are living today, we don’t need toknow more, but to understand more. We should remember Goethe who proposedthat “science is as much an inner path of spiritual development as it is a disciplineaimed at accumulating knowledge of the physical world. It involves not only arigorous training of our faculties of observation and thinking, but also of other

1Smith and Max-Neef “Economics Unmasked” Chapter 1. Green books, U.K. 2011.

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human faculties which can attune us to the spiritual dimension that underlies andinterpenetrates the physical: faculties such as feeling, imagination and intuition”.We should realise that knowledge without understanding is hollow, and under-standing without knowledge is incomplete. Our greatest challenge is, therefore, tobecome complete beings capable of understanding the completeness of life.

Feeling, intuition and spirituality are absent from the world of science, AlbertEinstein notwithstanding, who said that “the intuitive mind is a sacred gift and therational mind is a faithful servant. We have created a society that honours theservant and has forgotten the gift”.

It seems to me that if change is to occur, the greatest responsibility lies in theuniversity; and this is something that Einhard Schmidt-Kallert understands, and hasfought for all his academic life. Of course it has cost him painful problems,unjustified criticisms and hostilities, as it always happens to those who cease to trustthe mainstream.

A programme like SPRING is a unique conception, difficult to find in otherplaces outside Dortmund. The fact that students from all over the world can comefor 1 year to Germany to study theory with the greatest rigour (and in passinglearning German), and then go during the second year to another country (not theirown) to find some often remote areas where to collect evidences, experiences andknowledge of people of a totally different culture from their own, in order to writetheir thesis (and in passing learning another new language) is a very rare caseamong the innumerable Master Programmes that exist. I can personally vouch forthe fact that the students that arrive are no longer the same when they leave. Theygo away with a new personality that will allow them to integrate themselves asinnovative members of their society, in the sense that they have not only acquiredmore knowledge but have developed the capacity to understand.

I will never forget the case of one of our SPRING courses in Valdivia. It was atotal of eight students with seven religions plus one atheist. It was almost magic tosee the synergy that they developed and the camaraderie with which they acted andbehaved. It was a small but an important example that convinced us that peace andunderstanding are possible if human stupidity could be minimised. No one a prioriwants to hate anybody else. This was, of course, something that the studentsthemselves understood.

All this has been possible because of a man that managed, in spite of all thedifficulties, to become and remain coherent with himself. We are proud of him!!

Einhard Schmidt-Kallert, VIVAT, CRESCAT, FLOREAT ET GAUDEAT!!!

Manfred Max-Neef

viii Foreword

Editorial

It is with great pleasure to write this editorial in honour of a mentor, friend andcolleague Prof. Dr. Einhard Schmidt-Kallert on the occasion of his retirement fromTU Dortmund University, Germany. We also wish to recognise his contribution tothe conceptualisation, establishment and continuous advancement of the SPRING(Spatial Planning for Regions in Growing Economies) Master Programme withwhich he has been associated since its inception in 1984. From its initial design as aco-operation between the TU Dortmund and the Kwame Nkrumah University ofScience and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana, SPRING has now grown to a currentstatus of a network of five universities jointly offering a Master course in RegionalPlanning and Management in developing countries. Apart from Dortmund andKumasi, the network includes the School of Urban and Regional Planning,University of the Philippines, Ardhi University in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania andUniversidad Austral de Chile in Valdivia, Chile.

Decentralisation and regional development, the subject of this book, is, in ourview an appropriate subject, as Schmidt-Kallert committed a lot of his time andeffort contributing to the decentralisation process in countries where he livedand worked, especially in Ghana, where he was a DAAD Guest Lecturer on theSPRING Programme in the late 1980s.

Currently, governments all over the world are encouraged to enhance popularparticipation in decision-making and issue-informed policies that are based on andrespond to the needs of local communities. This has led to a paradigm shift fromcentralised governance to decentralised, local governance systems (EuropeanCommission 2007). The latter is promoted in contemporary literature as a means ofcontributing to efficient public sector management, local level empowerment,equitable resource distribution, political stability and effective public servicedelivery (Harriet 2008; Bornwell 2010; Rodríguez-Pose 2008), all of them leadingto poverty reduction.

The benefits of decentralisation across the world are thus many and welldocumented. It was shown that decentralisation, when practiced effectively, canprovide the impetus for pro-poor growth and remove disparities among regions by

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way of a balanced national development. For instance, in sub-Saharan Africadecentralised states have made more progress in reducing poverty and achieving theMillennium Development Goals as compared to states with a lower decentralisationscore (Beerfeltz 2013). The phenomenal industrial growth in China in the last twodecades in the non-state private sector for example has been attributed to theframework of decentralisation. India introduced far-reaching constitutional reformsin favour of decentralisation around the same time it launched a major programmeof economic reform in the early 1990s (Bardhan 2002). For many countries bothfrom the global South and North, decentralisation has been the mechanism throughwhich effective governance, availability of financial resources, and the provision ofbasic public services have been delivered.

From a spatial point of view, the link between decentralisation and regional anddistrict development is particularly interesting. Regions—territorial units betweenmunicipalities and nation states—are defined as socially or historically constituted‘soft spaces’ and a result of dense interactions between space-based stakeholdersfrom public and private sectors, and civil society (Benz et al. 1999). In economicgeography the important role of regional value chains in the light of globalisedcompetition has been stressed (Amin and Thrift 1994). Both in the North and in theSouth, regional or district development is attributed a distinct potential foradvancing social and economic development, even more so in decentralised policysettings. Space-based networks on regional or district levels, e.g. between urbancentres and their rural hinterlands are considered instrumental for strengtheningrural–urban linkages and responding to locally specific challenges, e.g. in eco-nomically lagging areas (Douglass 1998).

Despite the orientation of decentralisation and regional development whichpromotes grassroots participation and collectivism, their ultimate form and extent ofimplementation continues to breed much concern among researchers and policymakers. Thus, the trending debate on best practices in decentralisation and regionaldevelopment in relation to promoting effective and efficient resource allocation andsocio-economic development continues to linger. The debate is highly entrenchedin developing countries most of which are still trying to find their way to stableeconomic and political governance.

In an attempt to analyse the complexities of decentralisation and regionaldevelopment, the European Commission (2007) suggested that the effectivenessand extent of decentralisation is affected by internal (national and local) andexternal factors (international and global). These include the institutional arrange-ments to support decentralisation as well as the willingness of political authorities toundertake extensive administrative, fiscal and political decentralisation (devolution)(Bornwell 2010; Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom 2010). These core factors are furtheraffected by the overall status of democratisation at local and national levels and theconcrete strategies adopted in formulating, harmonising and implementing nationaland local level strategies. These factors partly explain the disparities in the devel-opment between developing and developed economies due to stronger institutionsand extensively devolved authority and responsibility in the latter.

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Thus, the practice of decentralisation and regional development in Europe andNorth America for example is characterised by extensive administrative, fiscal andpolitical autonomy. Meanwhile, in Africa and Asia (Bornwell 2010) one observes acontinuous control over the sub-national bodies by the central governmentauthorities (Kiwanuka 2010; European Commission 2007). This is opposed to theaim of decentralisation and regional development—to devolve decision-making andservice delivery to local level thereby enabling grassroots communities to takecharge over their own development while streamlining the process of developmentat national, regional and local levels (Harriet 2008).

Informed decision-making and the political will to decentralise also hinge onissue-based education and capacity building of the responsible actors. The inter-national Master programme “Spatial Planning for Regions in Growing Economies”(SPRING) has an almost 30 years track record in studying decentralisation andregional development. As a centre of learning and debate and international aca-demic network, SPRING has effectively contributed to scientific and policy debatein these areas and the implementation of regional or district planning reforms indifferent countries and world regions.

The present volume offers insight into this expertise and at the same timecontributes to cross-continental comparison. It analyses decentralisation andregional development paths and success factors in different policy sectors in eachof the five SPRING partner countries and looks at overarching aspects of relevance.It takes account of particular historical, socio-economic and political contextswithin which decentralisation reforms have been implemented. It analyses successstories as well as challenges and provides hints for improving the overall processfor the benefit of citizens. Each country is represented with two articles referring todistinct fields of relevance in the respective national context.

The article of Imoro Braimah and Daniel Inkoom starts off with exploringGhana’s District Development Facility as a means of financing decentraliseddevelopment in Ghana. They argue that even though this funding allowsMetropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDA) to finance criticaldevelopment projects, the sustainability of such funding is questionable till today alarge part of the funds being derived from Ghana’s international developmentpartners. They point to the fact that the country should earmark some of itsresources from recent economic developments (e.g. the production of oil and gas) tobridge some of the funding gaps identified at the MMDA level.

Also with respect to Ghana, Eric Oduro-Ofori examines the contribution ofGhana’s decentralisation process to local economic development (LED) promotion.The roles played by local governments through municipal development planningand implementation, provision of infrastructure, land use planning and physicaldevelopment are examined. Challenges such as weak institutional set-up andinadequate capacity for LED promotion within the local government set-up areidentified. Notably, the absence of a national and local level policy framework toguide LED promotion has compromised its effectiveness.

In Germany, post-war decentralisation policies have resulted in relatively equalstandards of living between regions as well as urban and rural areas, by both

Editorial xi

international and European standards. The article of Volker Kreibich points to thecentral place system as the underlying planning paradigm and discusses the chal-lenges German re-unification has posed to developing similar service and infras-tructure provision levels in the eastern and western parts of the country. In spiteof the experienced problems, the German case provides insight into spatial devel-opment pathways and instruments balancing economic requirements and socialobjectives.

In the German context, notably innovative planning concepts and tools beyondstatutory regulations have proved key ingredients of successful decentralisation andregional development. In their paper titled “Decentralisation in the German context:An assessment of governance actors and approaches ‘from below’” Katrin Bäumerand Günter Kroës analyse such emerging governance approaches of decentralisa-tion. They show how more informal and temporary approaches are articulated withexisting bureaucratic power structures for a more effective regional development.This is illustrated by way of the initiative ‘Land-Zukunft’ (future of the rural region)which seeks to strengthen entrepreneurial linkages in self-defined functional regionsspanning rural–urban and administrative boundaries.

The next paper in the volume is from Tanzania and is written by Wilbard Kombeand Ally Namangaya. It deals with decentralisation and urban governance inTanzania and particularly analyses the implementation of the Development-by-Devolution programme in eight urban centres. The authors argue that despite thepolitical will and commendable achievements, e.g. in stakeholder participation inservice delivery in solid and liquid waste management, there are still many chal-lenges to overcome. Most of all, it appears that the local government authorities areassigned functions and responsibilities to implement the programme, but they arenot given the mandate and resources to perform the roles or deliver the servicesexpected from them.

The second paper from Tanzania touches on decentralisation of municipal ser-vices in Tanzania, with a particular emphasis on the opportunities and challenges.Authored by Alphonce Kyessi and John Lupala, the paper traces the history ofdecentralisation of service delivery from the first decade of independence from1961 to 1971 and uses two cases of decentralised water supply and solid wastemanagement to demonstrate that there are still challenges mainly due to the cultureof hoarding power, and the unwillingness of central authorities to devolve power tolower units.

For the Philippines, the article of Mario Delos Reyes and Nicasio B. Espina Jr.analyses decentralisation and its implications on land use and local environmentalplanning and management, using Marikina city as a case study. The authorsexamine the operational effectiveness of the Local Government Code (LGC) andthe autonomy of Local Government Units (LGUs). They come to the conclusionthat like other good legislations, the conditions and implementing rules and regu-lations have to be continuously reviewed and modified to address new problems oflocal and regional significance. The study demonstrates that almost 23 years afterthe enactment of the code, critical issues such as regional land use, zoning and localenvironmental planning and management are yet to be adequately addressed.

xii Editorial

This among other constraints as manpower and funding is cited as reasons why thecode has not seen its full benefits in the implementation of the decentralisedprocess.

The Philippines is among the countries worldwide most confronted by andvulnerable to natural disasters. The second Philippine article, written by KristineFollosco-Aspiras and Arlene D.R. Santiago, thus assesses the effectiveness ofdecentralisation policies on Disaster Risk Reduction Management (DRRM) usingthe case of Hagonoy in Bulacan. The key objective of the paper is to see how thesalient features of DRR are strengthened by decentralisation. The paper drawsseveral lessons including the following: through decentralisation, people have beenempowered to use their skills and knowledge to strengthen DRR Managementefforts at local level and that leadership at national level is still necessary foreffective decentralisation to occur. The paper, however, stresses that both verticalintegration and complementary policies are needed if decentralisation is to play itsfull role in DRRM.

The last paper in the volume authored by Felix Fuders is on smarter money forsmarter cities. Fuders asks how regional currencies can help promote a decen-tralised and sustainable regional development. Pointing to the subprime and Eurocrisis that hit financial markets and relating to various cases in the Chilean andLatin-American context, he argues that local or regional money does not onlystrengthen the local economy and support decentralised and prosperous regionaldevelopment, but that it can also be a true alternative to the fractional reservefinancial system.

The volume provides a good overview of decentralisation and regional devel-opment across continents, and a fitting piece for one of the ardent advocates.

The editors would like to take this occasion to extend special thanks toMs. Helen Labuschagne, who diligently polished the English language of allcontributions. In addition, we are very grateful to Ms. Hanna Wülk, who assisted uswith the editing and the layout of the contributions.

Eva DickKarin GaesingDaniel InkoomTeodoro Kausel

References

Journals and ArticlesBardhan, P. (2002). Decentralization of governance and development. Journal of Economic

Perspectives, 16(4), 185–205.Beerfeltz, H.-J. (2013). A lever for reducing poverty. Development and Cooperation (D+C) (3),

104–106.Bornwell, C. (2010). Democratic local governance in the Southern African development

community region. Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, (5), 145–157.

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Douglass, M. (1998). A regional network strategy for reciprocal rural-urban linkages: An agendafor policy research with reference to Indonesia. Third World Planning Review, 20(1), 1–33.

Harriet, C. (2008). Communities in control? The challenges of neighbourhood governance withreference to local government reform in England. Commonwealth Journal of LocalGovernance (1), 49–69.

Kiwanuka, M. (2010). Decentralisation and good governance in Africa: Institutional challenges toUganda’s local governments. Journal of African and Asian Local Government Studies, 44–59.

Yeboah, E., & Obeng-Odoom, F. (2010). ‘We are not the only ones to blame’: DistrictAssemblies’ perspectives on the state of planning of planning in Ghana. CommonwealthJournal of Local Governance (7), 78–98.

Books and ChaptersAmin, A., & Thrift, N. (1994). Living in the global. In A. Amin & N. Thrift (Eds.), Globalisation,

institutions and regional development in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Benz, A., Fürst, D., Kilper, H., & Rehfeld, D. (1999). Regionalisierung. Theorie – Praxis –

Perspektiven. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.European Commission. (2007). Supporting decentralisation and local governance in third

countries. Luxembourg: European Commission.Rodríguez-Pose, A. (2008). Decentralisation and local and regional development. Caracas,

Venezuela: CAF.

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Contents

Theoretical Reflections on Ghana’s Decentralisation: IncreasingDiscretional Funding Through the District Development Facility . . . . . . 1Imoro Braimah and Daniel Inkoom

Decentralisation and Local Economic DevelopmentPromotion at the District Level in Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Eric Oduro-Ofori

Levelling the Gradients—Planning for EquivalentStandards of Living, The German Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Volker Kreibich

Decentralisation in the German Context: An Assessmentof Governance Actors and Approaches ‘from Below’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Katrin Bäumer and Günter Kroës

Decentralisation and Urban Governance: Trends and Lessonsfrom Cities in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Wilbard Kombe and Ally Namangaya

Decentralisation of Municipal Servicing in Tanzania:Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Alphonce G. Kyessi and John Lupala

Analysis and Lessons from Decentralisation and Its Implicationsto Local Environmental Planning and Managementin the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Mario R. Delos Reyes and Nicasio B. Espina, Jr.

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Assessing the Effectiveness of the Decentralisation Policyon Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: The Case of Hagonoy,Bulacan, Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Kristine Follosco-Aspiras and Arlene D.R. Santiago

Smarter Money for Smarter Cities: How Regional CurrenciesCan Help to Promote a Decentralised and Sustainable RegionalDevelopment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Felix Fuders

Erratum to: Decentralisation and Regional Development . . . . . . . . . . . E1Eva Dick, Karin Gaesing, Daniel Inkoom and Teodoro Kausel

xvi Contents

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Dr. Eva Dick has an MA in Urban Sociology, Hispanic Literature and LatinAmerican Studies from the University of Hamburg and a Ph.D. from the Faculty ofSpatial Planning of TU Dortmund University where she has been working as aResearch Fellow and Lecturer since October 2005. Her research focus is aboutrural–urban linkages and migration, as well as urban and regional governance in theGlobal South, particularly Africa and Latin America. She has conducted empiricalresearch on these topics in different countries and published the results of herstudies in contributions to several books and journals. In addition to her academicwork she has worked as an urban and community development consultant insub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Southeastern Europe.

Dr. Karin Gaesing holds a Diploma (equivalent to M.Sc.) in Geography andCultural Anthropology from the University of Bonn. She obtained her Ph.D. (Dr.rer. pol.) at the Faculty of Spatial Planning of TU Dortmund University. She hasbeen working at the Faculty of Spatial Planning, Department of Planning inDeveloping Countries, as Senior Researcher and Lecturer since 2004. Her fields ofexpertise include participatory planning, gender issues, regional rural developmentand land use planning. Apart from her academic career, she has worked as anexpatriate in GTZ projects in Côte d’Ivoire and Ethiopia and conducted numerousconsultancy assignments in Africa and India.

Dr. Daniel Inkoom is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Planning of theKwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi(Ghana), where he obtained his undergraduate degree. He obtained Post GraduateCertificates in Forest Policy Analysis and Organisation and Systems Developmentfrom the European Forest Institute in Joensuu, Finland and the Gestalt Institute ofCleveland (USA), respectively, and a doctoral degree from the Technical Universityof Dortmund (Germany). He is a member of the Ghana Institute of Planners (GIP),and a certified Organisation Development Professional with consulting experience

xvii

in Ghana and abroad. His research interests include urban governance, resource andenvironmental management on which he has published in several internationalpeer-reviewed journals.

Prof. Dr. Teodoro Kausel is a civil engineer, he graduated from Universad deChile and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Münster, Germany. Since 1992 hehas been with the Universidad Austral de Chile in Valdivia, first as an expertconsultant on behalf of GTZ and later as a regular university professor, affiliated tothe Economics Institute. He has been involved in teaching and research in generaleconomics, regulation theory, regional development, environmental and climatechange economics and energy policy. He has also been involved in higher edu-cation policies and management issues in the areas of strategic planning, campusplanning, quality assurance and accreditation. From 2008 to 2012 he directed theSPRING-Chile Master’s program.

Contributors

Dr. Katrin Bäumer Spatial Planner (Dipl. Eng.), Ph.D. in Economics and SocialSciences studied Spatial Planning at the TU Dortmund University and theUniversity of Newcastle (GB). Dr. Bäumer has been working as Lecturer andResearcher at TU Dortmund University (Germany) and is associate professor at theGerman Jordanian University (Jordan).

During the past 10 years, she has focused her work on analysing the outcomeand efficiency of regional development funds and the formulation of respectiverecommendations for future national policies in Germany. Besides her Germanexperience, Dr. Bäumer has been involved and has coordinated several evaluation,research and consulting projects in the field of integrated regional development,decentralisation and good governance in East Africa and the Middle East. The focusof her teaching and training competences is on regional economic development,financial questions in spatial planning and problems of plan implementation.

Prof. Imoro Braimah is currently the Provost of the College of Humanities andSocial Sciences in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology(KNUST). He is Associate Professor of Planning. He received his Bachelor ofScience (Honours) degree in Development Planning from the KNUST, Master ofScience in Development Planning and Management from the TU DortmundUniversity (Germany) and KNUST, and a Ph.D. from the University of Kassel(Germany). He has considerable research, teaching and consultancy experience instrategic planning, demography and social infrastructure planning including edu-cation, water and sanitation and energy, information and communication policyanalysis, decentralisation and urban planning and management.

xviii Editors and Contributors

Dr. Mario R. Delos Reyes is presently the Dean of the University of thePhilippines—School of Urban and Regional Planning (UP-SURP), Diliman,Quezon City, Philippines. Dr. Delos Reyes finished his Ph.D. degree in NaturalScience at the University of Hamburg (Germany) and his Postgraduate Diploma inHigher Education and International Development at the University of Kassel(Germany). He received Master of Science in Fisheries/Coastal Management andBachelor of Science in Zoology both at the University of the Philippines in Dilimanand Los Banos, respectively. His fields of interests and experiences include urbanand regional planning, environmental planning and policy, climate change adap-tation and disaster risk management, public–private partnerships for the urbanenvironment and coastal planning and management.

Nicasio B. Espina Jr. is a registered and licensed architect in the Philippines. Hehas a BS in Architecture and a Diploma in Urban and Regional Planning from theUniversity of the Philippines, School of Urban and Regional Planning (UP-SURP).He is currently completing his Master’s degree in the same university with aspecialisation in Environmental Management and Natural Resources Planning. Mr.Espina is working with local government units, national government agencies,national and international academic institutions, NGOs and private companies as adesign architect, training and project coordinator, research and planning assistant,spatial development planner, project manager and as a technical consultant. He iscurrently working as a training coordinator for the Training and Extension Servicesdivision of UP-SURP.

Assistant Prof. Kristine Follosco-Aspiras environmental planner by profession,is currently the Director for Training and Extension Services Division of the Schoolof Urban and Regional Planning in the University of the Philippines, School ofUrban and Regional Planning (UP-SURP). She obtained her Master’s degree inUrban and Regional Planning from SURP in 2009 and graduated batch valedic-torian. Lastly, she finished Bachelor of Arts in Public Administration, graduatingcum laude at the University of the Philippines National College of PublicAdministration and Governance. She has been teaching planning process, planninganalysis and techniques, special problems in urban and regional planning at theUP SURP for 3 years now.

Dr. Felix Fuders studied economics and holds an MA in International BusinessAdministration and a Ph.D. in Economics and Social Sciences (both University ofErlangen-Nuremberg, Germany). He works as Professor and Researcher at theUniversidad Austral de Chile, Economics Institute, serves as Director of SPRINGLatin America and has been Visiting Professor at the University ofErlangen-Nuremberg and the University of Applied Sciences, Munster (Germany).He is author and co-author of several publications concerning regional economicintegration (EU and MERCOSUR) as well as ecological economics and sustainabledevelopment. His current research interest includes the subject of regional cur-rencies as a solution to the global (financial) crisis and sustainable development.

Editors and Contributors xix

Wilbard J. Kombe is a Professor of Urban Planning and Management at the ArdhiUniversity, Tanzania, specializes in Urban Land Management. He did his under-graduate studies from the Ardhi Institute in Tanzania, and M.Sc. Urban Design atthe Royal Danish Academy, School of Architecture Copenhagen. He obtained hisPh.D. in Urban Land Management at the Faculty of Spatial Planning of DortmundUniversity. His major areas of research include urban land management, urbangovernance and climate change; basic services and livelihoods of the urban poor;institutional dynamics and urbanisation in poverty in the south. He has worked inSouth Africa as well as conducted and supervised research in various countriesincluding South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Uganda, Botswana, Seychelles,Ethiopia, as well as worked with various consultancy teams.

Prof. Dr. Volker Kreibich is a geographer by training and a planner by profes-sion. Before his retirement in 2005, he held the Chair of Spatial Planning inDeveloping Countries at the Faculty of Spatial Planning, TU Dortmund University.Informal urbanisation, his prime research interest, since 1990 (with funding by theGerman Research Foundation and the Volkswagen Foundation) has been the focusof continuous interdisciplinary, collaborative and international research and Ph.D.supervision first in Rome and Madrid, then in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and inDhaka, Bangladesh. Rural regional development, another research field, was thesubject of field work and Ph.D. supervision in Kenya and Northern Iraq.

Prof. Dr. Günter Kroës held the Chair of Economics, Financing and Budgeting atthe Faculty of Spatial Planning at the TU Dortmund University between 1976 and2005. His main research activities and fields of expertise are integrated ruraldevelopment in Europe and developing countries. Since 1967 Günter Kroës hasbeen involved in the design (consultant for LEADER I and the Ora Programmeof the EU, co-author of the strategies for the development of rural areas ofECOVAST) and the review of various strategies for rural regional development(e.g. effects of consolidation of farming and settlement). At the same time heattended to the methodical questions and the practical implementation of evalua-tions, monitoring and impact analysis.

Prof. Dr. Alphonce G. Kyessi is an urban planner with more than 30 years ofprofessional experience in urban planning, urban development and urban man-agement. He has been an academic and research staff at the Institute of HumanSettlements Studies since 1993. From 1980 to 1992 he worked for the Dar esSalaam City Council. Apart from research and consultancy services, Prof. Dr.Kyessi gives lectures and dissertations/theses supervision at Ardhi University,University of Dar es Salaam and the Open University of Tanzania. His currentresearch interests and consultancy services at national and international levels focuson climate change, housing finance, informal settlements including security of landtenure, land regularisation, infrastructure planning and development, communityparticipation, urban agriculture, land use planning, geographical information tech-nology (GIT) and local development financing.

xx Editors and Contributors

Dr. John Lupala is Senior Lecturer in the School of Urban and Regional Planningat Ardhi University (ARU) in Tanzania. He obtained a Ph.D. in Built EnvironmentAnalysis from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) of Stockholm in 2002.At ARU, he has served as Manager to the Programme Management, Head ofArchitecture Department, Dean of the School of Urban and Regional Planning andin June 2013, was appointed Director of the Institute of Housing and HumanSettlements Studies (IHSS). Apart from teaching courses such as settlement plan-ning, urban design, housing and disaster risks settlement planning, he has partici-pated in research projects on public transport in Dar es Salaam, slum upgrading,climate change and land use planning as well as privatisation and decentralisationof services in Tanzania.

Dr. Ally Namangaya has been trained as an urban and regional planner. Heobtained his Ph.D. from TU Dortmund University. He is Lecturer and Head of theRegional Development Planning Department at the School of Urban and RegionalPlanning, Ardhi University (Tanzania). His specialties are natural resources’ con-flict management and applied remote sensing, geographical information systems,land use planning and socio-economic studies. Recently he has been undertakingresearches and consultancies on linkages between urban spatial development andgovernance, economy and climate change resilience; linking rural communities intourism value chains; development of spatial databases for revenue enhancement inurban areas and land tenure mapping for peripheral communities.

Arlene D.R. Santiago serves as University Extension Specialist at the Universityof the Philippines, School of Urban and Regional Planning (UP-SURP) Trainingand Extension Services Division. She earned her Bachelor’s degree in PublicAdministration from the University of the Philippines and was involved in researchand development work at the U.P. National College of Public Administration andGovernance (U.P.-NCPAG) through its Center for Leadership, Citizenship andDemocracy for 9 years. Currently she is towards completing her Master of Arts inAsian Studies at UP, concentrating on Northeast Asian region, specialising onJapan studies. Her research interest is on valuing volunteering in disaster riskreduction and climate change adaptation.

Dr. Eric Oduro-Ofori studied Planning at the Department of Planning KwameNkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi-Ghana, wherehe currently works as a lecturer and Director of the SPRING Programme. He holdsa Masters degree in Development Planning and Management from the same uni-versity. He obtained his Ph.D. in Local Governance and Local EconomicDevelopment from the Faculty of Spatial Planning, University of Dortmund,Germany in October, 2011. His research interests include local governance, localeconomic development and urban spatial development management.

Editors and Contributors xxi

Abbreviations

BayLplG Bavarian State Planning Act, Bayerisches LandesplanungsgesetzBMVBS Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung

(Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development)BPDRRMO Bulacan Provincial DRRM OfficeBROP Federal Regional Planning Programme,

BundesraumordnungsprogrammCEMO City Environmental Management OfficeCLUP Comprehensive Land Use PlanDACF District Assembly Common FundDAWASA Dar es Salaam Water Supply AuthorityDAWASCO Dar es Salaam Water and Sewerage CorporationD-by-D Decentralisation-by-DevolutionDDF District Development FacilityDRR Disaster Risk ReductionDRRM Disaster Risk Reduction and ManagementDRRMC Disaster Risk Reduction and Management CouncilDRRMO Disaster Risk Reduction and Management OfficeDRVA Disaster Risk and Vulnerability AssessmentECB European Central BankEMB Environmental Management BureauEU European UnionFOAT Functional Organisational Assessment ToolGG Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Basic Law for

the Federal Republic of Germany)IMF International Monetary FundLED Local Economic DevelopmentLGA Local Government AuthorityLGC Local Government CodeLGRP Local Government Reform PolicyLGU Local Government UnitLLDA Laguna Lake Development AuthorityMC Minimum Condition

xxiii

MDRRMO Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management OfficeMKRO Ministerkonferenz der Raumordnung (Conference of Ministers on

Spatial Planning)MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal and District AssembliesNEDA National Economic and Development AuthorityNGA National Government AgencyNGO Non-Government OrganisationOCD Office of the Civil DefensePAGASA Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services

AdministrationPAYE Pay-As-You-Earn TaxPDRRMC Provincial Disaster Risk Reduction and Management CouncilPPP Public–Private PartnershipRA Republic ActROG RaumordnungsgesetzUF Unidad de FomentoUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeVAT Value-Added Tax

xxiv Abbreviations

List of Figures

Theoretical Reflections on Ghana’s Decentralisation: IncreasingDiscretional Funding Through the District Development Facility

Figure 1 Institutional framework for decentralised planning.*Regional Coordinating Council (RCC)/Regional PlanningCoordinating Unit (RPCU). Source Author’s constructbased on MLGRD, community-based rural developmentproject, draft report on analysis of institutional frameworkand clarification of roles, functions, and responsibilitiesof MDAs, RCCs and DAs to support decentralizationand efficient delivery of infrastructure services(Accra: Undated) (Unpublished). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Figure 2 The overall framework for the management of the FOATand DDF. MLGRD-Ministry of Local Governmentand Rural Development, DDF-District Development Fund,LGS-Local Government Service, CAGD-Controllerand Accountant General’s Department. Source Author’sconstruct based on MLGRD (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Decentralisation and Local Economic Development Promotionat the District Level in Ghana

Figure 1 Ghana’s government structure. Source Author’sown construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Figure 2 Ghana’s district assembly structure. Source Governmentof Ghana (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 3 Planning process. Source Author’s own constructwith inputs from National Development PlanningGuidelines to district assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Figure 4 Proposed LED institutional structure and frameworkat the district level. Source Oduro-Ofori (2011: 217) . . . . . . 32

xxv

Levelling the Gradients—Planning for Equivalent Standardsof Living, The German Experience

Figure 1 Ensuring services of public interest.Source MKRO (2013: 15). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Decentralisation in the German Context: An Assessmentof Governance Actors and Approaches ‘from Below’

Figure 1 Levels and components of the German planning system.Source Pahl-Weber and Henckel (2008: 39) . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Figure 2 Selected pilot regions. Source Federal Ministry of Foodand Agriculture (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Decentralisation and Urban Governance: Trends and Lessonsfrom Cities in Tanzania

Figure 1 Average percentage of grants (budgetary independence)from the central government among cities (2008–2011).Source Income and expenditure records from treasurersof the respective urban authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Figure 2 Level of municipal service provision in eight urbancentres (2010/2011). Source Compiled from recordsfrom the eight urban centres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 3 Funding sources by project thematic area. Source Recordsfrom planning officers in the eight urban centres . . . . . . . . . 80

Figure 4 Cities’ performance in political efficacy and participationissues in percentage of the policy requirements.Source Records from the case study urban council . . . . . . . . 82

Analysis and Lessons from Decentralisation and Its Implicationsto Local Environmental Planning and Management in the Philippines

Figure 1 Existing Marikina City land use plan. Source MarikinaCity Development Authority—Planning Office . . . . . . . . . . 113

Figure 2 Flood risk assessment of Marikina City. Source Departmentof Science and Technology—Project NOAH 2009 . . . . . . . . 116

Figure 3 Marikina valley fault line system. Source Marikina CityDevelopment Authority—Planning Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Assessing the Effectiveness of the Decentralisation Policyon Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: The Case of Hagonoy,Bulacan, Philippines

Figure 1 Relationship between decentralisation and DRRM(Philippine context). Source Own construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

xxvi List of Figures

Figure 2 Location of the Province of Bulacan in the Philippines.Source Bulacan Philippines (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Figure 3 Administrative map of Hagonoy, Bulacan.Source Municipality of Hagonoy 2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Figure 4 National disaster risk reduction and managementcouncil strategies. Source Authors’ constructbased on RA 10121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Smarter Money for Smarter Cities: How Regional CurrenciesCan Help to Promote a Decentralised and SustainableRegional Development

Figure 1 USD money supply M3 estimated (Billions USD).Source Own construction based on data providedby Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Figure 2 US Federal Debt (Millions USD). Source Own constructionbased on data provided by Federal Reserve Bankof St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Figure 3 Kondratieff waves. Source own construction . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Figure 4 Wealth gap. Source Own construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Figure 5 Free money bill “Lutzetaler” in Köthen, Germany

(backside with best-before-date). SourceOwn photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Figure 6 Free money bill in Wörgl, Austria 1932.Source Wikimedia Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

List of Figures xxvii

List of Tables

Theoretical Reflections on Ghana’s Decentralisation: IncreasingDiscretional Funding Through the District Development Facility

Table 1 Total DDF funding: indicative timetable for disbursements(in USD million). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Decentralisation and Local Economic Development Promotionat the District Level in Ghana

Table 1 DACF releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Decentralisation and Urban Governance: Trends and Lessonsfrom Cities in Tanzania

Table 1 Amount of land rent remitted by Central Governmentsto selected LGAs July 2013–May 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Table 2 Percentage of projects conceived and implementedat ward level 2007/08–2011/12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Table 3 Response rate in voting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Decentralisation of Municipal Servicing in Tanzania:Opportunities and Challenges

Table 1 Results of decentralised water services managementin DAWASCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Table 2 Waste production and collection before privatisation(tons per day) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Table 3 Waste production and collection after privatisation(tons per day) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Table 4 Service level before privatisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Table 5 Service level after privatisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

xxix

Analysis and Lessons from Decentralisation and Its Implicationsto Local Environmental Planning and Management in the Philippines

Table 1 Local environmental ordinances of Marikina City . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Assessing the Effectiveness of the Decentralisation Policy on DisasterRisk Reduction and Management: The Case of Hagonoy,Bulacan, Philippines

Table 1 Hagonoy’s existing land distribution (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Table 2 Stakeholder participation at each level of governance. . . . . . . . . 143

xxx List of Tables