71786243 networking basics
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Interconnection of two or more computers and
peripherals
Allows user to share and transfer information
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Computer
Networks
Local
Area Network
(LAN)
Campus
Area Network
(CAN)
Metropolitan
Area Network
(MAN)
Wide
Area Network
(WAN)
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Networks are classified depending on thegeographical area covered by the network
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Covers a small area Connects computers and workstations covering a
local area like, office or home
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Advantages of LAN: Improves productivity due to faster work
Provides easy maintenance
New systems can be installed and configuredeasily
Disadvantages of LAN:
Limited number of systems can only be connected
Cannot cover large area
Network performance degrades as number of
users exceeds
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LAN Types
Ethernet Token Ring Token Bus FDDI
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LANs are classified depending on the techniquesused for data sharing
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Made up of multiple LANs within limited area Connects different LANs in a campus
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Interconnects networks within a city
Supports data and voice transmission
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Covers a wide geographical area which includesmultiple computers or LANs e.g. Internet
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Consists of two elements, Client and Server Server:
A centralized element which provides resources to
client
Manages data, printers or network traffic
Client:
Manages local resources used by users such as
monitor, keyboard, CPU and peripherals
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Also known as ISO-OSI Reference Model
Developed by International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) Describes flow of information from one computer to
another
Consists of seven layers
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Topology refers to physical or logicalarrangement of network
Physical topologies are
Single Node
Bus Star
Ring
Mesh
Tree Hybrid
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Single device, at times device called dumbterminal is connected to the server
Devices operates on files from server andreturns them back after completing task
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Disadvantages:
Network consists ofsingle device
Dumb terminal isdependent on server
Advantages:
Easy to install,configure and manage
Least expensive
Single cable isrequired
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All devices are connected to a common cablecalled trunk Maximum segment length of cable is 200 m Maximum of 30 devices per segment
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Server is at one end and devices are at differentpositions
50 ohm terminator is used
Devices are not responsible for datatransmission
Number of collisions are more
Usually uses Thinnet or Thicknet
Performance degrades as more computers areadded to the bus.
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Advantages:
Installation ofdevices is easy
Requires less cablecompared to startopology
Less expensive andworks better forsmaller networks
Disadvantages:
If backbone breaks,entire network getsdown
Difficult to isolateproblems
Limited number ofdevices
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Each device is connected to a central device called hubthrough cable
Data passes through hub before reaching destination
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Advantages:
Easy to install,configure, manageand expand
Centralizedmanagement
Addition or removalof device does notaffect the wholenetwork
Disadvantages:
Requires more cable
Failure of hub affectsentire network More Expensive
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Advantages:
Data travels atgreater speed
No collisions
Handles largevolume of traffic
Disadvantages:
More cabling isrequired compared
to bus
One faulty deviceaffects the entirenetwork
Addition of devicesaffect network
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Consists of twoindependent primaryand secondary rings
Secondary ring isredundant, used onlywhen primary stops
functioning
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Used in WANs tointerconnect LANs
Every device isconnected to everyother device
Use routers todetermine the best
path ofcommunication
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Full mesh topology All devices are connectedto each other
Partial mesh topology - Some devices areconnected to only those with whom theyexchange most of the data
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Types
Full mesh Partial mesh
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Advantages:
Improves faulttolerance
Failure of one linkdoes not affect entirenetwork
Centralizedmanagement is notrequired
Disadvantages:
Difficult to installand manage
Each link from onedevice to otherrequires individual
NIC
Very much expensive
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Connects groups ofstar networks
Devices are wired toroot hub
Root hub isconnected to secondlevel devices
Lowest level devicesare smallercomputers
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Advantages:
Easy to add newdevices
Point-to-point
wiring for eachdevice
Fault detection iseasy
Disadvantages:
Difficult to configure
If backbone breaks,entire network goes
down More expensive
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Combines two or more different physical
topologies Commonly Star-Bus or Star-Ring
Star-Ring uses Multistation Access Unit (MAU)
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Advantages:
Used for creatinglarger networks
Handles largevolume of traffic
Fault detection iseasy
Disadvantages:
Installation andconfiguration is
difficult
More expensive thanother topologies
More cabling isrequired
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Segment Length Length of single wire Attenuation Indicates loss of signal
Bandwidth Amount of data carried by cable
Number of Segments Maximum number of
segments in network Cost Copper cables are cheapest, fiber optic
cables are expensive
Interference susceptibility and crosstalk Defines concept of electronic interference oncables
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Copper medium is the cheapest mode of data transfer
Types of cables
Coaxial cable Twisted pair cables
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Consist of a solid copper core surrounded by
an insulator mainly made up of Poly VinylChloride (PVC) or Teflon
Coaxial cables are less prone to interference(both internal and external)
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Coaxial cables are mainly divided intofour categories
Types of
Coaxial cables
RG58 RG8 RG6 RG59
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Maximum segment length is 200 (185) meters Interference protection is better than twisted
pair cables
BNC-T connector is used to connect this cable
Used in thinnet (10BASE2) network
Mostly used in changing environments
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Maximum segment length is 500 meters Interference protection is good compared to
any copper cable
BNC-T or Vampire Tap connector is used to
connect this cable Used in 10BASE5 network
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Broadband quad-shielded cable
Provides lowerattenuationcharacteristics
Useful in cable TV,CCTV and satellite dishantenna
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Solid conductor issurrounded by afoam polyethylenedielectric
Useful in securitycamera, cable TV andhome theatre
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A pair of cables twisted around each other forms a
twisted pair cable.
Twisted Pair cables
UnshieldedTwisted Pair
ShieldedTwisted pair
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Pair of unshielded wireswound around eachother
Easily gets affected byEMI, RFI and crosstalk
Maximum segment
length is 100 meters
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Cat 7
Cat 6
Cat 5eCat 5
Cat 4
Cat 3
Cat 2
Cat 1
UTP
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Pair of wires woundaround each other isplaced inside shield
Better protectionfrom EMI, RFI andcrosstalk ascompared to UTP
Maximum segmentlength of 100 meters
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Consists of centre glass core surrounded bycladding
Electrical signals are converted into light signals
LED or laser is used to transmit signal
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Bandwidth Carries large amount of dataranging from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
Segment Length Transmits data signals overlarger distance
Interference No electric signals pass throughthese types of cables thus providing security
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Fiber optic cables can carry signals in asingle direction.
Fiber Optic Cable
Types
Single Mode Multi mode
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A type of cable that has only a single strandof glass fiber with a thin diameter. Fiber optic cables that use lasers are known
as single mode cable.
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A type of cable that contains a glass fiber witha larger diameter.
It is a 62.5/125 micrometer fiber cable.
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Straight Tip (ST) Joins individual fibers tooptical devices
Subscriber Connector (SC) Attaches two fibersto send and receive signals
Medium Interface Connector (MIC) Joins fiberto FDDI controller
Sub Miniature Type A (SMA) Uses individualconnectors for each fiber stand
Fiber Jack Attaches two fibers in snap lockconnector
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Characteristics UTP STP Coaxial Cables Fiber Optic Cables
Bandwidth 10 Mbps100 Mbps 10 Mbps100 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps - 1 Gbps
Maximum cable segment 100 meters 100 meters 200500 meters 2 k.m.100 k.m.
Interference rating Poor Better than UTP Better than twisted pairwires
Very good as comparedto any other cable
Installation cost Cheap Costly than UTP Costly than twisted pair
wires
Most costly to install
Bend radius 360 degrees / feet 360 degrees / feet 360 degrees / feet or 30
degrees / feet
30 degrees / feet
Security Low Low Low High
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Networking devices interconnects networks Manage data flow and network traffic
Networking
Devices
Repeaters Hubs Bridges Switches Routers GatewaysOther
Devices
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Operate at Physical Layer of the OSI model
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Reshape the weak signal
Connect two segments of the same LAN
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Simplest and low cost device Also known as Multi-port Repeater
Operate at Physical Layer like Repeater
Data transfer to all the ports
Hub types:
Active hub Provides signal regeneration
Passive hub No signal regeneration
Intelligent hub
Provides management of each port
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Layer 2 devicesas works at Data
Link Layer of the
OSI model
Interconnectmultiple LANs
and manages
data flow
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Working of a bridge
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Capable of passing a frame
Check Physical address
Pass frame to the specified segment
Perform error checking on the frame
Bridges
Transparent
Bridge
Translational
Bridge
Source-route
Bridge
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Easy to use as just plug in device Helps in network expansion Divides large network into small segments Used for increasing network reliability
Frames are buffered so provides network delay During high traffic may overload network Does not filter broadcast packets Expensive than Repeaters
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Switching
Methods
Cut-through
Method
Store & Forward
Method
Fragment-Free
Method
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Provide signal flow management
Replace slower hub
Being a Data Link Layer device uses MAC address
for data transfer
Data transfer to specific port
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Operate at Network Layer of the OSI model
Can connect nearer or far network segments
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Decide the best route with the help of network layeraddress
Responsible for Source to Destination delivery of
packet
Route types: Static route Routing tables are manually configured
Dynamic route Routing tables are automatically
configured
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Helps routers to learn network topology and
network changes
Routing algorithms are used by routing protocols for
deciding the path
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Gateway
Types
Address
Gateway
Protocol
Gateway
Application
Gateway
Transport
Gateway
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Operate at all layers of the OSI model Act as gate to other networks
A default gateway is on the same subnet as your
computer
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OtherDevices
Multi-Protocol
RoutersBrouters
Layer 3
Switches
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Multi-protocol router supports multiplecommunication protocols
Like router, it operates at Network Layer
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Brouter provides combined functions of Bridge and
Router
Works at two layers, Data Link and Network
Can operate only as bridge or only as router
High performance switch operating at network layeris Layer 3 Switch
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Set of predefined rules used by devices innetwork for data transfer
Network Protocols: TCP/IP ARP/RARP ICMP/IGMP UDP IPX/SPX HDLC/SDLC
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Two layer communication protocol used byInternet
TCP provides connection-oriented reliabletransport service
Divides the message into smaller packets calledsegments
IP is a connectionless and unreliable datagramprotocol and provides no error checking
IP transfers data in the form of packets called
datagrams
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Designed beforeOSI model
Consists of fivelayers
Providesindependentprotocols at eachlayer
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.
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Fragmentation refers to breaking datagramsinto pieces
Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) is maximumamount of data that frame can carry
Datagram is fragmented when its size exceedsMTU of network
Fragments follow different paths to reachdestination
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To deliver packet both physical and logicaladdresses are necessary
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) providesphysical address when logical address is known
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)maps logical address to physical address
RARP is useful when device is booted for firsttime
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Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides
error reporting and query managementmechanism
ICMP handles problems occurring while packettransmission
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) managesmulticasting and group membership of devices
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Error Reporting
Destination
Unreachable
Router Solicitation
and Advertisement
Timestamp request
and reply
Address Mask
Request and reply
Echo request
and reply
Query
Source Quench
Time Exceeded
Redirection
Parameter Problem
ICMP Messages
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) providesconnectionless process-to-processcommunication
UDP packets are called user datagrams.
User Datagram Format:
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Novell NetWare system uses IPX/SPX ascommunication protocol within networks
IPX operates at Network layer forconnectionless communication
SPX operates at Transport layer for connection-oriented communication
Together, IPX/SPX provides same services asTCP/IP
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High Level Data Link Control (HDLC) andSynchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) are bit-oriented synchronous protocols in which dataframes are interpreted as series of bits
Both are useful for half-duplex and full-duplexcommunication
Windows XP still support DLC
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OSI Layers Protocols
Physical Layer No protocols defined
Data Link Layer HDLC, SDLC
Network Layer NetBEUI, IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, RARP, IPX
Transport Layer NetBEUI, TCP, UDP, SPX
Session Layer NetBIOS, SAP, SMTP, FTP, DNS, SNMP,
Presentation Layer NCP, RIP, NLSP, SMTP, FTP, DNS, SNMP, NFS
Application Layer SMTP, DNS, SNMP, NFS, TFTP
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Specifies how mail should be delivered fromone system to another
Standard protocol used for transferring emailfrom one computer to another
Makes connection between senders server andrecipient and then transfer messages
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A two-way transmission channel established between the
sender SMTP and a receiver SMTP
Commands are generated by sender SMTP and sent toreceiver SMTP
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Set of rules used to exchange files on WorldWide Web
Users can exchange text, graphic images,sound, video and other multimedia files
Defines how messages are formatted andtransmitted over the Internet
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HTTP works on requestand response betweenbrowser and server
Web server is designatedto handle HTTP requeststhen sends requestedHTML page
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Proxy servers is used with firewalls to monitor and
direct HTTP traffic through proxy to externalinternet
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
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Used over Internet to exchange files Uses Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data
transfer
Establishes two way connections between
computers
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File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
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Machine that are involved in an FTP transaction Client (local host) machine and a server(remote host)
Client machine initiates transfer
Get command used tocopy files from server to
client
Put command is used to
copy files from client to server
Ch
apt
er
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Used to transfer files to and from a remotecomputer
Used by servers to boot diskless workstations,X-terminals and routers
Start with a small amount of built-in software
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Connection and Communication betweenClient/Server
Communication and messaging different in TFTPwhen compared with FTP
TFTP uses UDP Process of transferring a file:
Initial Connection
Data Transfer
Connection Termination
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Used to transfer Usenet news from onemachine to another machine
Usenet news is a large collection of discussiongroups, covering a wide range of topics
NNTP provides connection-oriented service Communication takes place between a client
and a server that keeps netnews on both theplaces
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Framework for managing devices over Internetusing TCP/IP protocol suite
Provides set of fundamental operation for
monitoring and maintaining devices in thenetwork
Agent is server process that maintainsManagement Information Base (MIB) database
for host
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Used to retrieve email from remote server tolocal client over TCP/IP connection
E-mail clients using POP3 connect, retrieve allmessages or store them on user's PC as newmessages or delete them from server and
disconnect POP3 is a TCP/IP client/server protocol Session States:
Authorization State
Transaction State Update State
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Enables the users to work with the mail on theserver
Does not download the mails
Used to access e-mails from a local server
Working with mails Accessing and deleting mails
Attachments
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Advantages: As the e-mail folders
are stored on theserver, the user isable to read email
from any computerwhich belongs to thenetwork
To access more thanone account fromdifferent locations,IMAP will be the mostefficiently
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Disadvantages: Complicated
Results in higher server
loads than POP3
Utilizes a lot of server
resources
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BOOTP First automated configuration tool for
IP hosts Bootstrapping Provides the host with the
capability of getting IP addresses while machineboots
Requires two phases: Client provided with address and other parameters
Client downloads softwares to function on network andperform tasks
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Successor of BOOTP with different features
Dynamically assign addresses to clients andcentrally manage
Consists of two major components 1.Address allocation mechanism 2. Protocol thatallows clients and server to communicate
DHCP standard includes three different address
allocation mechanisms: Manual , Automatic and Dynamic
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Network protocol used on internet or local areanetwork connections
Terminal emulation program for TCP/IPnetworks
Enables to control server and communicatewith other servers on network
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Telnet client Software that acts as interface touser, processing user commands andpresenting output from remote machine
Telnet server - Program running on remotecomputer that has been set up to allow remote
session Telnet runs over connection-oriented TCP TCP connection maintained for duration of
Telnet session Client and server send information at same
time over Telnet session because TCP is a full-duplex
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WWW is a network of Internet servers, whichsupport documents that are developed usingHTML
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a
language in which these documents areformatted
Client-side
Computer application Web browser that runs on
users local computer and connects to server Interpreter that interprets code in an HTML page
Operations carried out on client-side
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Server Side Software program Web server that runs on a
remote server
Manages and shares web based applications
Operations include processing and storage ofdata from client to server
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Wireless networking allowsyou to establish: Communication using standard network
protocols
Communication without the use of
cables Technologies used for wireless access
based on
Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi)
Home Radio Frequency
(HomeRF)
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Peer-to-Peer(P2P) or Ad-Hoc Connected wirelessly with the use of wireless
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Computers can access printers and share files
Wired LAN can be accessed using bridging
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Access point orInfrastructure wireless LAN
Wireless device connectsto the access point toconnect to the network
Access point acts as ahub to connect twowireless devices
Wireless bridge used toconnect wireless networkto wired network
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Security Four methods of wireless network security:
Data encryption - WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)and WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)
Port based access control Service Set Identifier (SSID)
Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering
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The important components required for settingup a wireless network are:
Medium
Access point and Extension point
Wireless bridges and Power line bridges Antennas
Wireless adapters
Wireless Station and Server
Software
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Wireless medium is an unguided form ofnetworking medium
Wireless transmission involves use of technologiessuch as Bluetooth, Infrared, Lasers, Radio signalsand Microwave technologies
Mobile computing allows users to do their work atany location
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Access Point Device that bridges a wireless connection and a
wired connection
Two types of access points: Hardware access
points and Software access points Extension Point
Used if single access point is not able to coverentire area
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Hardware access point is a physical device that
is used to establish a connection between awired network and a wireless network
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Software Access Points are computer whichincludes a wireless network interface card.
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Extension points are used if a single accesspoint is not able to cover the entire area.
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Antennas are used to increase the range ofwireless network
Types of antennas used: Omnidirectional antennas - Used indoors and
small in size Directional antennas - High gain and used for
long range outdoor use Wireless adapters help to connect computer or
PDA to a network Wireless adapters are available as PC cards, PCI
and mini PCI, USB, and CompactFlash.
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Wireless Local Area Network consists ofwireless station and wireless server
Wireless station - Connects wireless networkinto a wireless medium
Wireless Stations
Wireless Clients Access Points
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Wireless server The main server which controls
all devices within the wireless network
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Wireless network adapter requires two types ofsoftware so as to function properly:
Driver
Configuration Utility
Windows XP has built-in tools for configuringnetwork adapter settings