activity sheet - oucome 1

8/7/2019 Activity Sheet - Oucome 1

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James Watt College: Centre for the Creative Industries

Music Industry Management 1 (F5CR 34)

James Watt College G Simpson

Activity sheet

Outcome 1

Describe the development of theories of management

Differences between management and leadership

Functions of management

Historical development of management theories

Approaches to management


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Activity 1.1: Leaders I have known

Leaders I have known makes a good starting point. Think about

two or more people whom you would describe as leaders. Theycan be living or dead; people whom you know personally; orpeople you have seen or read about but may never ha ve met; theycan be well-known to many people or people who others may notknow; they can be people you have worked with or people fromoutwith your work experience.

Write down the names of the people you have chosen .

Make a list of the reasons why you would describe these people

as leaders.

1.1 Differences between managers and leaders

These two terms are often used interchangeably. A person with the job title of teamleader, for example, can also be described as having a role as a first line manager.However, the terms can be distinguished and this distinction between managers andleaders is significant for two reasons. Firstly, it is important to be aware of the waysin which the two roles are supposed to differ from each other. Secondly, thedistinction is a good way of illustrating what it is that people in promoted positions

are expected to do.

In what has rapidly become a classic article, Kotter (1990) argued that managersand leaders each have three main tasks but that they accomplish them in differentways. The three tasks are:

1 deciding what needs to be done

2 creating networks of people and relationships that can accomplish an agenda

3 trying to ensure that people actually do the job.

These are in fact very similar to traditional classifications of management such as

Fayols planning, organising, command, co-ordination and control (see Mullins,2005). Kotter (1990) argues, however, that managers and leaders approach each ofthese tasks in different ways, as follows:


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Deciding what needs to be done

Managers concentrate on planning and budgeting , which involves:

y setting targets or goals for the futurey allocating resources to accomplish these plans.

Leaders, however, focus on setting a direction, which consists of:

y developing a vision of the futurey developing strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve them.

Creating a network of people and relationships

Managers are concerned with organisation and staffing , which involves:

y creating an organisational structure and a set of jobs for accomplishing plan

requirementsy staffing the jobs with qualified individualsy

communicating the plan to the peopley delegating responsibility for carrying out the plany devising systems to monitor implementation.

Leaders, on the other hand, are concerned with aligning people , which involves:

y communicating the new direction to those who can create coalitions, who

understand the vision and are committed to its achievement.

Trying to ensure that people do the job

Managers do this by controlling and problem solving which means:

y monitoring in some detail results achieved against the plan through reports,meetings and other tools

y identifying deviations from the plany planning and organising to solve problems.

Leaders focus on motivating people by:

y appealing to their basic needs and values, which k eeps them moving in the rightdirection, despite obstacles to change.


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In many respects Kotters ideas echo those suggested by Zaleznik (1977) whoidentifies four dimensions where managers and leaders differ. These differences aresummarised in the table below.

Managers Leaders

Attitudestowards

goals

Adopt an impersonal attitude.Goals arise out of necessityand, therefore, have to befollowed

Adopt a personal and activeattitude towards goals theyshape goals rather thanresponding to them

Conceptionsof work

Work is seen as a processwhich involves co-ordinatingand balancing opposing viewsto get solutions. Choices aredeliberately limited to ensure

survival

Develop new approacheswhich involve risk. Presentideas as images that excitepeople and open up choices

Relationswith others

Prefer to work with people buthave low emotionalinvolvement. Aim to convertwin-lose into win-win and playfor time

Attract strong feelings ofidentity and seek emotionalcommitment from others sorelations with others may beturbulent

Senses ofself

See themselves asconservators and regulatorsof existing order

Seek opportunities for change

In broad terms, therefore, both Kotter and Zaleznik claim that leadership is aboutcoping with change, while management is about coping with the complexity involvedin bringing the order and consistency needed to maintain organisational activities.

Zaleznik, perhaps, puts an emphasis on risk in that leade rs accept, and may activelyseek out risk, whereas managers are risk averse.


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These rules have much in common with the roles of managers that Kotter andZaleznik identify above. Badaraccos argument also helps to dispel the notion thatleaders are always high profile and well known.

Another example of how the roles of leader and manager may mesh together comes

from Collins (2001). He identified five levels of executive capabilities that could be

ordered in a hierarchy, culminating in what he called the Level 5 Leader.

The levels are:

Level 5 Executive

Builds enduring greatness through a combination of personal humility andprofessional will.

Level 4 Effective leader

Builds commitment and engenders a vigorous pursuit of a clear and compelling

vision; stimulates the group to high performance standards.

Level 3 Competent manager

Organises people and resources toward the effective and efficient pursuit ofpredetermined objectives.

Level 2 Contributing team member

Contributes to the achievement of group objectives; works effectively with others in agroup setting.

Level 1 Highly capable individual

Makes productive contributions through talent, knowledge, skills and good work

habits.

Level 5 leaders are ones who have presided over a period of sustained success fortheir organisations. However, Collins terminology suggests what is important is what

these individuals did rather than how they are described.

Overall, therefore, leadership and management do differ but they can be seen as twosides of the same coin. Prentice (1961), who in many respect s initiated the debateabout leadership and management, defined leadership as the accomplishment of a

goal through the direction of human assistants. He went on to say that leadersachieve goals through their understanding of their fellow workers and the relationshipof their individual goals to the groups aim.

This is in fact a well used definition of a leader. Buchanan and Huczynski (2004) forexample quote a definition by Ralf Stogdill, who defined leadership as an influencingprocess aimed at goal achievement. This type of definition could equally well beapplied to management especially in the twenty -first century.

Activity 1.3: What do you think?


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Doyou think that management and leadershipcanbeseenasdifferent aspectsofwhat amounts to thesame thing?

1.2 Functions of e e s ip

Oneway to furtherdevelop thedistinctionbetweenmanagersand leaders is toconsiderthe functions that leadershave. hismeans lookingat thepurposesofleadershipor, inotherwords, what leadersaresupposed todo. hismight helpalsotoclarifyexactlywhat leadershipentails.

It ispossible to identify threemain things that leadersareexpected todo. heycanbestated in termsof leadinga teamand theyare to:

y developasenseofdirectionorvision forthe team thestrategic functiony achieveobjectivesanddefine the tasksnecessary forthe team toachieve the

objectives the task functiony maintainmoraleandcohesionamongmembersof the team themaintenance

function.

Activity1.4:!

" #

t$e

# %

e&s

%o

Lookback to thedefinitionof leadershipat theendofsection . .owwell doyou think these three functions fit with thedefinition?

Emphasisingwhat leadersdo issometimescalled thegrouporfunctional approachto leadership. Adair used thisapproach todevelopwhat he describedasactioncentred leadership. eargued that theeffectivenessofa leaderdependsonmeeting threeneedswithin theworkgrouporteam.

heyare:

theneedsof individual membersof thegroup equivalent to thestrategic

functionabovetheneed toachieveacommon task equivalent to the task functionabove

theneedsof the teamasawhole equivalent to themaintenance functionabove.

hese threeneedscanberepresentedas threeoverlappingcircles.


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Source: www.businessballs.com/action

The table on the next page gives examples of what the leader should do in order to

meet the three different needs.The diagram highlights the fact that action by the leader in one area will have knock -on effects in other areas. Ideally, all three ar eas should be fully integrated, whichwould mean that the three circles would be superimposed on each other.

As Mullins (2005) points out, this approach illustrates the close relationship betweenleaders and managers. Achieving the team task fits in with the managementrequirement to organise and plan, while team functions and meeting individual needsare part of the leader role of aligning and motivating people.

Looking at the functions of leadership draws attention to the fact that leadership doesnot always necessarily depend on being in a promoted position or having a formaltitle like team leader. Informal leaders can emerge in organisations. These are

usually people who carry out the functions above within a team and gain the respectof others as a result.

Individualfunctions

(strategic)

Task functions(task)

Team functions(maintenance)

giving praise andstatus

reconciling conflicts

between theindividual and theneeds of the team, iealigning individuals

attending to personalissues, ie keepingpeople on board

ensuring individuals

defining work tasks

planning the work

allocating resources

building team spirit

setting standards

developing

communicationsystems within theteam

buildingcohesiveness amongthe team


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areawareof thedirectionof the team

Activity1.5: Informalleaders

Thinkofsomeone inyourorganisationwhomyouwoulddescribeasan informal leader.

hat is it that makesothersseehimorherasa leader?

The functional approachalsosuggests that membersof thegroupare followers, inthesense that they follow the leadset by the leader. eifetz haspointedoutthat thinkingof leadership in termsof leadersand followersmight not behelpful. T heobject of leadership inhisview is tomobilisesupport which, incidentally, ismuchthesameas thedefinitionof leadership insection . . obilisedpeoplearebetterdescribedasactiveparticipantsratherthan followers. Thishelps toemphasise that

buildingcommitment among teammembers isakeypart of theroleofamanager/leader inmodernorganisations.

Adairswork isuseful because it helps togive leadersguidance inwhat theyare

expected todo. It isabout thecontent of leadershipand it i mplies that anyonecanbecomea leader if they learnhow todo the things that leadersareexpected todo. It

has, asaresult, beenwidelyused inmanagement and leadership training in the UKalthough it has, perhaps, become lesspopular inrecent years.

1.3 Models ofleaders 0 ip

Actioncentred leadershipcanbeseenasoneapproach to, ormodel of, leadership.Therearemanydifferent modelsof leadershipand thissectionconsiderssomeofthem. Thedifferent approachescanbegrouped intoanumberofca tegorieswhich,toanextent, reflect theways inwhich thinkingon leadershiphasdevelopedhistorically. Thissectionwill lookat the followingapproaches to leadership:

y the traitsapproach

y behavioural approach whichconcentrateson leadershipstyle y contingencyapproachy modernapproaches to leadership including the transformational approach.

Thesemodelsof leadershiparehelpful because theyhighlight factors that areimportant to leadersandwhich, therefore, can influence theperformanceandeffectivenessof thosewhoare in leadershiproles. Theyaregood, therefore, atpointingout the factors that leadersshould take intoaccount.


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Traits approach

Thisapproachwas theoneadopted inearlystudiesof leadership. It argues thattherearespecificqualitiesassociatedwith leadership. Leaderscan, therefore, be

distinguished fromotherson thebasisofparticularcharacteristicsortraitswhichtheypossessbut whichothersdonot have. Thisapproach, therefore, concentrates

onwhat leadersare.

It assumes that leadersarebornandnot made. It issometimesreferred toas the

great person theoryof leadershipasstudies tended to focusonpeople in importantpositions in industryandpolitics.

Therehavebeenmanyattempts tospecify theprecise personal qualitiesortraits

whichsuccessful leadershave andy claims therehavebeenmore thanahundred. Typical lists include factors likeself-confidence, initiative, enthusiasm,sociability, integrity, decisiveness, determination, dependab ility, judgement andimagination.

Theproblem, however, is that it proved impossible to identifyasingleset of traitsthat couldbeapplied to leadership. andy pointsout that, ofall thestudies,only % of traitswerecommon. It becameapparen t also that successful leaders

oftenhadquitedifferent personalities. Also, if leadershipdependsonhavingaparticularset of traits, it isnot possible to trainanddevelop leaders. Theonlyrequirement is toselect thosewhopossess therequisitecha racteristics. Even thenthe traitswereoftenvagueand ill-definedso that, inpractice, thiswouldnot beaneasy task.

Asaresult of thesecriticisms, trait spotting, as Buchananand uczynski call

it, fell intodisfavour. Nevertheless, the i deaof leadershipqualitiessurvives. It isstillpossible tohearpeople talkabout theneed forleaders to have initiative, beinnovativeandsoon. Suchstatementsshouldbe treatedwithcaution, as theabovesuggests.

Activity1.6:Trait spottin 4

Try to findsomeadvertisements forleadershippositions.Newspapersareagoodsourcebut organisationsoftenadvertisepositions inhouse.

anyou findanyexamplesof the traitsapproach?

Behaviouralapproach

This focuseson thebehaviourof leaders, whichcanalsobedescribedas

management orleadershipstyle. Thediscussion insection . on functionsofleadership isbasedon ideasoriginallydevelopedaspart of thisapproach. Actioncentred leadershipcan, in fact, beseenasanexampl eof themodelsassociatedwith thebehavioural approach.


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In the 1940s and 1950s researchers on separate programmes at Ohio Stateniversity and at the niversity of Michigan attempted to identify critical behaviours

that differentiated between effective and less effective leaders. These studies

identified two dimensions of leadership behaviour:

y focus on people referred to as consideration in the Ohio State studies and as

employee-centred in the Michigan studies. This, as the name suggests, relatesto the extent to which the leader is concerned with meeting the needs of teammembers and establishing good relationships with them.

y focus on the task referred to as production-centred behaviour by the Michiganresearchers and as structure in the Ohio state studies. This is about the extent to

which a leader is concerned with structuring the work of a team towardsachieving goals and targets.

To all intents and purposes these are the same as the task and maintenancefunctions of a leader given in section 1.2. These two dimensions were confirmed inmany subsequent studies. The main consequence was the development of a notion

of leadership or management style that identified the way in which leaders/managersbehave towards members of their team or group.

Lewin et al(1939) originally identified three main types of management or leadershipstyle based on the concern for people and the concern for task dimensions above.They are:

y autocratic (or authoritarian) style where the leader concentrates on getting thejob done: the leader takes responsibility for everything that is done, eg makingdecisions, allocating work, setting targets and ensures, th rough the use of

rewards and punishments, that team members obeyy democratic (or participative) style where the leader concentrates on the needs

of the group or team: leadership is shared with team members who have agreater say in decision making, how tasks are allocated and so on

y laissez faire (or delegative) style as its name suggests this is where the leaderdeliberately allows team members to decide what has to be done and how to do

it: the leader is available for help and advice if needed but does not interfere.

Most attention has been devoted to the autocratic and democratic styles as thelaissez faire style is, effectively, a form of deliberate abdication by the leader, even ifit is for the worthy motive of allowing others to work things out in their own way.

The behaviour approach argued that effective leaders behaved in a way that tookaccount of both dimensions. Leaders should, therefore, pay equal attention to getting

the job done and to relationships within the team.One of the best known models of leadership based on this approach is themanagerial grid originally suggested by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1962. Thegrid, as shown in the following diagram, consists of two axes both using a scale of 1 9. The horizontal axis shows concern for production, while the vertical axis showsconcern for people.

From the diagram, it is possible to locate various types of management or leadership

style. Leaders/managers who are solely concerned with the production are referred


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to as displaying task management style, while country club management is theterm used to describe the style of leaders/managers who concentrate solely onmaintaining good relations among team members. The ideal management style is

where leaders/managers show the same concern for production as they do forpeople described as team management in the managerial grid.

Adapted graphical representation of theBlake and Mouton Grid

Conc rn for roduction

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Countr5

6

lub7 8

nagement - ( 9 .9) Teammanagement - (9.9)

Production is incident @ l to l @ ck ofconflict @ nd A ood fellows B i C .

Production is from integr@ tionof t @ sk @ ndB um @ n requirements.

Dampenedpendulum - (D

.D

)

( E iddleof t B e road) Pus B for

C roduction F ut dont go all out; giG

esome F ut not all. H e fairand firm.

ImpoveriI

P edmanagement - ( 9 . 9 )

Q ffectiG

e C roduction is unobtainablebecausepeopleare laz

R

, apat B etic and indifferent.

S oundandmature relations B ips aredifficulttoac B ievebecause B umannaturebeing

what it is, conflict is inevitable.

Taskmanagement - (9. 9 )

Peoplearea commoditR

,T

ust like

machines.U

managers responsibilitR

is

toplan, direct and control thework ofthose subordinate tohimorher.


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Activity1.7:The Managerial Grid

Themanagerial gridhasbeenwidelyusedas thebas isofleadershipandmanagement development. Leaderscancomplete

aquestionnaireabout theirbehaviouras leadersand from thistheycanworkout theirstyle in termsof themanagerial grid.

There isaproprietaryquestionnairespecificallyassociatedwithBlakeand outonsworkwhich isusedat official traininganddevelopment programmes. owever, thereareotherquestionnaires that havebeendesigned toenablepeople to findout theirmanagement style in termsof themanagerial grid.

Onesuchquestionnairecanbe foundat on the followingwebsite:

www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/bm_model.html

Youcouldgo to thissiteandd o thequestionnaire to findoutwhereyouwouldbeon themanagerial grid.

Thebehaviourapproachsuggests that there isonesinglebest management orleadershipstyle. This iswhere leaders/managerspayattention togetting the jobdoneand tomeeting theneedsofmembersof theirteam. A difficultywith this,

however, is that there isevidence that thereareeffective leaderswhoadopt otherstyles. In leadership, as inmanyotherthings, onesizedoesnot fit all.

Anotherdifficultywith thebehavioural approach isdeterminingpreciselywhat

behavioursdoresult ineffective leaders. It wasnot clear, forexample, just what

leadersshoulddo inordertomaintain focusonboth the taskand the team.

Tannenbaumand Schmidt suggestedacontinuumofmanagement orleadershipbehaviour. In theirview, management stylecouldbeviewedasa

continuumwithautocraticmanagement at the left handendanddemocraticmanagement at theright handend. Anautocraticmanagement style iswhere themanagertakes full authorityand tells teammembersorsubordinateswhat todo,whereasademocraticmanagerallows full freedom tosubordinates. Between thesetwoextremes lieanumberofalternativestyleswhicha leader/managercouldadopt,as thediagrambelowshows.


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www.valuebasedmanagement.net

Leadership Continuum Tannenbaum, Schmidt

Autocratic

Manager

Leadership

Continuum

Democratic

Manager

se of authority by manager

Area of freedom by subordinates

Managermakes and

announcesdecision

Managersells

decision

Managerpresents

ideas andinvites

questions

Managerpresents

tentativedecision

subjecttochange

Managerpresents

problem,gets

suggestions,makesdecisions

Managerdefines

limits;asks

group fordecision

Managerpermits

subordinatesto function

withinsuperiordefined lim its

Managerallows full

freedom

Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1973)

Tannenbaum and Schmidt argue that the different steps along the continuumrepresent choices that a leader/manager can make about his/her management style.This is a development of the basic behavioural approach exemplified by themanagerial grid, because it no longer assumes that there is one best management

style which will work in all situations.

Tannenbaum and Schmidt suggest that there are three factors or forces that willaffect the choice which leaders/managers make. They are:

y forces in the manager such as the confidence in subordinates, knowledge,background and experience

y forces in the subordinates such as readiness to assume responsibility, need forindependence and knowledge of the issues faced by group or team

y forces in the situation such as the type of organisation, time pressure and thenature of the problem to be tackled.


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Activity1.8:The Behaviour Continuum

Thinkabout yourownexperienceofbeingamanagerorbeingmanaged. anyou thinkofexamplesofeachof thestepson the

continuum?

oreachexample, try to thinkof the factorswhichmight haveinfluenced themanager/leader tobehave in thisway.

Thecontinuumof leadershipbehaviourdoesaddresssomeof thedifficultiesof thebehavioural approach. It suggests that leaderscouldadop t more thanonestyleand

removes the ideaofasinglebest approach. It assumes, however, thatleaders/managershavesufficient informationonwhich tomakeasuitablechoice.Thecontinuumalsomakesanattempt tospecifyappropriatebehavioursmore

preciselyeven if it doesnot addresshow leaders follow theirchoiceofstyle through.It canalsoencourage leaderandemployeedevelopment as leaderscanbecomemoreawareof theoptionsopen to themandofhow thesecanbe influencedby teammembers.

Contingencyapproach

TheworkofTannenbaumand Schmidt paved theway forthenext approach toleadership. Inparticular, this tried toaddress thenotion that there isonesinglestyleof leadershipwhichwill beappropriate toall situations. Instead, th isapproach,knownas thecontingencyapproach, argues that effective leadershipdependson the

situation. Inotherwords, it iscontingent on thecircumstances involved.

Leadersdiagnose thesituation inwhich they find themselvesandadopt astyle thatisappropriate to theirparticularset ofcircumstances. Thisrequires the leader toadjust hisorherstyle to thesituation that heorshe faces.

Thereareanumberofmodelsof thecontingencyapproach to leadership, fourofwhichwill beconsideredhere. Theyare iedlerscontingencymodel, ousespath -goal theory, erseyand Blanchardssituational leadershipand olemans

leadershipstyles theory, which is linked tohis ideaofemotional intelligence.


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Fiedlers contingencymodel

Fiedler argued that thebehaviourof leaderswascontingent on threemainfactors:

y leader-memberrelations this involves theamount of trust between the leader

andsubordinatesandhow farteammembersarewilling to follow theguidanceofthe leader

y taskstructure thiscovers theextent towhich the task isclearlydefinedandwhethertherearestandardprocedures forcarrying it out

y thepowerof the leader thiscovers thepositionof the leader in the

organisationand theextent towhichs/hecan influence teammembersegbyrewardsorsanctions.

Fiedlersresearchshowed that a task-oriented leaderwouldbemost effectivewhenthereweregood leaderrelations, therewasaclearlydefined taskstructureand theleaderhadastrongposition. This isasituati onwhich is favourable to the leader. Atask-oriented leaderwouldalsobeeffectivewhencircumstanceswereunfavourable

to the leader. Thiswouldbewhenrelationsbetween thegroupand the leaderwerepoor, the taskwasunstructuredand the leaderspos itionwasweak.

On theotherhand, aparticipativepeople-orientedapproachwouldbemost effectivewhereeachof the factorswas lessclearcut. Thiswouldbewhere leader -memberrelationsweresatisfactory, where the taskhadsomestructurebut wasnot fullydefinedandwhere the leaderhadsomepositionpowerbut wasnot especiallypowerful.

Activity1.9: Fiedlers contingencymodel

It iseasiest to thinkabout Fiedlersmodel in termsof theextremes. anyou thinkofasituationwherea leaderadoptedatask-orientedapproachwhichworked?

hydoyou think thiswas thecase?

Themainmerit ofFiedlersapproach is that it providesaclearframework forleaders.It suggests that leadersshould lookat theirrelationswith theirteam, theirpowerandthestructureof the task. On thebasisof theirassessment of these, leadersc andeterminewhat style toadopt.


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Path- e oal theory

Path-goal theory is another contingency model of leadership. Originally proposed byHouse (1971) it is based on the expectancy theory of motivation. This argues thatpeople will be motivated if they expe ct that effort on their part will lead to improvedperformance, which in turn will lead to what, in their view, are valued rewards. Inother words, they will be motivated if their expectations are met.

Leaders, according to House, can influence the motiva tion of team members byoffering rewards to team members for achieving performance goals, clarifying thepaths that team members need to follow to achieve these performance goals and byremoving any obstacles in the path. Leaders who are able to do this wi ll meet theexpectations of their team members.

House claims that there are four types of management styles which leaders can useto influence the motivation of team members. They are:

1 directive leadership giving specific guidance and direction to tea m members(this is effectively the task oriented approach discussed earlier)

2 supportive leadership using a friendly and approachable manner which showsconcern for team members (this is the equivalent of the people orientedapproach)

3 participative leadership consulting with team members and listening to theirviews before the leader decides what to do

4 achievement-oriented leadership setting challenging goals for team members

and showing confidence in their ability to achieve them.

Essentially, these four styles represent different ways of meeting the expectations ofteam members. The question is, which style should leaders adopt if they are to beeffective? House answers this by saying it will depend on two aspects of the situation

faced by the leader. They are:y the personal characteristics of team members this can include factors like the

subordinates perception of their own ability; their wish for independence and so

on (subordinates who see themselves as very able may be unhappy with adirective style, for example, but might respond to achievement orientedleadership)

y the characteristics of the environment this covers the extent to which the taskis routine and structured; whether the organisation has a formal or informalauthority system and the support offered by the team as a whole (a non -routine

and completely unstructured task may suit participative leadership for instance).


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Thiscanbe illustratedbyadiagram.

The leadership is influencedby thesituation. Ifasuitablestyle ischosen, then theexpectationsof teammemberswill bemet and theworkof the leaderwill beeffective.

Activity1.10:Applying path-goaltheory

owdoyou think leaderscanmakeuseofpath-goal theory? anyou thinkofaspecificexample fromyourownexperience?

Situationalleadership

A third, morerecent model ofcontingency theory is that of erseyand Blanchard88 . It isknownassituational leadership. In thiscase, leadershipstyle is

contingent on theextent towhich teammembersareready toperforman individual

Leadershipstyle

Directive

Supportive

Participative

Achievement-oriented

Personalcharacteristicsof

teammembers

haracteristicsof the

environment

Improvedmotivationand

performance

expectationsaremet


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task. Hersey and Blanchard identify four levels of readiness which they name R1 toR4, a shown in the table below.

Low follower readiness High follower readiness

R1 R2 R3 R4

Followers areunable andunwilling, orare unable andinsecure

Followers areunable butwilling, or areunable butconfident

Followers areable butunwilling, orare able butinsecure

Followers areable andwilling, or ableand confident

Willingness refers to the extent to which followers (or team members) are committed

and motivated, while insecurity refers to team members who lack confidence in theirability.

Hersey and Blanchard make use of the two dimensions of leader behaviour whichform the basis of the behaviour approach. One is directive behaviour, which denotesthe amount of direction given by the leader to team members. The other issupportive behaviour, which refers to the extent to which the leader develops two

way communication with team members and provides support and encouragement.

Four possible leadership styles can be derived from these two dimensions. They aredescribed as S1S4 and each corresponds with a level of readiness. S1corresponds to R1 and so on. The four styles are:

y S1 telling (or directing). The leader gives a lot of guidance and direction by

telling team members what to do and how to do it but does little supportingy S2 selling (or coaching). The leader displays high amounts of both directing

and supporting behaviour, eg telling people what to do but also interacting withthem by providing support and encouragement

y S3 participating (or supporting). The leader engages mostly in s upportingbehaviour by developing two way communications with team members but giveslittle direction

y S4 delegating. The leader does little in the way of supporting or directing.

The diagram below illustrates these four styles.


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The For s

Let

de su

hi vw

x

y y eu

erseyand Blanchardargue that leadersshouldbe flexibleandadapt theirstyleaccording to thereadinessof theirteammembers. Themodel alsohasadevelopmental aspect to it. Asanew teamdevelopsand teammembersdevelopskillsandconfidence the leadercanchangestyle toreflect thechanges in the team.

Activity1.11: Situationalleadership

Thinkof the teamwithwhichyouare familiar it couldbe theteam that youarepresentlyamemberof.

hat stageofreadinessdoyou think themembersof the teamhavereached?

hat styleof leadershipdoes the leader/manageradopt?

Do the twomatch?

Emotionalintelligence

The final contingency theory isbasedonworkbyDaniel oleman for ay

cBer, amanagement consultancy. It involvedasampleof , executives fromallovertheworldandmakesuseof olemanspreviousworkonemotional intelligence

.

Emotional intelligence orEQ foremotional quotient is theability tomanageourselvesandourrelationshipseffectively. It consistsof fivecomponents, eachof

High Supportiv

Low DirectiveBehaviour

Low Supportiveand

Low DirectiveBehaviour

High DirectiveandLow SupportiveBehaviour

High Directiveand

High SupportiveBehaviour

S4

S3 S2

S1

DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOUR(L

W) (HIGH)

(HIGH)


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which has a number of hallmarks or competences, as the following table taken fromGoleman (2004) illustrates.

Component of

EQ

Definition Hallmarks

Self-awareness the ability to recogniseand understand yourmoods, emotions anddrives, as well as theireffect on others

self-confidence

realistic self-assessment

self-deprecating senseof humour

Self-regulation the ability to control orredirect disruptiveimpulses and moods

the ability to suspendjudgement to thinkbefore acting

trustworthiness andintegrity

comfort with ambiguity

openness to change

Motivation a passion to work forreasons that go beyondmoney or status

a propensity to pursuegoals with energy andpersistence

strong drive to achieve

optimism even in theface of failure

organisationalcommitment

Empathy the ability to

understand theemotional makeup ofother people

skill in treating peopleaccording to theiremotional reactions

expertise in building

and retaining talentcross-culturalsensitivity

service to clients andcustomers

Social skill proficiency in managingrelationships andbuilding networks

an ability to find

common ground andbuild rapport

effectiveness inleading change

persuasiveness

expertise in building

and leading teams


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From his research, Goleman (2001) identified six leadership styles which aresummarised in the table below.

Leadership

style

What the

leader does

The style in

a phrase

Underlying EQ

competences

When the style

works best

Coercive Demandsimmediatecompliance

Do what Itell you

Drive to achieve,initiative, self-control

In a crisis; to kickstart a turn-round; withproblememployees

Authoritative Mobilises peopletowards a vision

Come withme

Self-confidence,empathy,change catalyst

When changesrequire a newvision; when aclear direction is

neededAffiliative Creates

harmony andbuilds emotionalbonds

Peoplecome first

Empathy,buildingrelationships,communication

To heal rifts in ateam; to motivatepeople instressfulcircumstances

Democratic Forgesconsensusthroughparticipation

What doyou think?

Collaboration,team building,leadership,communication

To build buy-inor consensus; toget right inputfrom valuable

employees

Pacesetting Sets highstandards forperformance

Do as I do,now

Conscientious-ness, drive toachieve,initiative

To get quickresults from ahighly motivatedand competentteam

Coaching Develops peoplefor the future

Try this Developingothers, empathy,self awareness

To help anemployeeimproveperformance ordevelop long-term strengths

Goleman describes the coercive and pacesetting styles as having a negativeinfluence on the working atmosphere and on performance. All the other four styleshave a positive effect on performance and on the working atmosphere. In his view,effective leaders are people who can move flexibly between all six styles as the


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occasiondemands. Therewill be fewoccasionswhen thecoerciveorpacesettingstyleswill besuitableand, forthisreason, heargues that leaderswhocanuse thefourpositivestylesaremost likely toproduceagoodworkingatmosphereandachievegood levelsofperformance.

olemanconcedes that fewpeoplewill haveall sixstyles in theirrepertoire. This

suggests that leadersshouldendeavourtoexpand therangeofstyleswhich theycanuse. Theycando this, according to oleman, byunderstandinganddevelopingtheaspectsofemotional intelligence that underpin thevarious leadershipstyles. Inprinciple, themoreemotionally intelligent leadersare, themorestyles theyare likelytobeable touse. Hence, themoreeffective theywill beas leaders.

Activity1.12: Emotionalintelligence

Youmay like toassessyourownemotional intelligence. A full

comprehensiveassessment canonlybedone throughprofessional assessment anddevelopment companies. It ispossible, though, toget arough ideausing freeresources.Questionnairesonemotional intelligenceareavailableonanumberofwebsites includingwww.haygroup.com/TL/(thenclickon the link to Emotional Intelligence Quiz).

olemanswork isslightlydifferent fromothercontingency theories. Heargues thatleadershipstyle isamatterofcontinuousadjustment. Othertheories take theviewthat leadersshouldmatch theirbehaviourto thecon text. Once the leaderhasdone

this, the implication is that thechosenstylewill lead toeffectiveperformance.

Overvie

ofcontingencytheories

Overall, contingency theoriesargue that there isnosinglebest styleof leadership.There issomeevidence, however, that styleswhich involveparticipationof team

membersaregenerallymoreeffective than thosewhichdonot. In termsofcontingency theories, thissuggests that therearemoresituationswhereparticipative-typestyleswill beeffective thans ituationswhichdemandhighly task-oriented, autocratic-typemanagement styles.


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Contingency theoriesarehelpful because theydrawattention to thevarious factorswhichcanaffect thestyle that a leadershouldadopt. Theyalsoemphasise thatleadersneed tobeable tousemore thanonestyle if theyare tobeeffective inanumberofdifferent situations. Paradoxically, this isalsoacriticismof them. Leadersmight find it difficult todevelopdifferent styles. Even if theycando this, it isbyno

meanscertain that theywill have the flexibility tomove fromonestyle toanother.Leadersmight alsohavedifficulty inmakinganaccurate judgement of thecircumstances they faceandmay, therefore, adopt astylewhichdoesnot fit with thesituation.

Activity1.13: Lessons forthe leader

Review the fourmodels that exemplify thecontingencyapproachto leadership.

hat factorsdo theyhave incommon? hat practical lessonsdo theysuggest forleaders?

Modern approaches toleadership transformationalv.transactional

Recent thinkingon leadershiphasbeen influencedbydevelopmentssuchasglobalisationanddevelopments in informationandcommunications technology. One

consequence is that organisationsofall kindshavehad to findways tocopewithincreasedcompetitionandwithcontinuouschange. Thishas focusedattentio nontheroleof leaders increatingorganisations that can functioneffectively in thisrapidly

changingenvironment. It hasalsohighlighted theroleof formal and informalleadershipat all levels inorganisations.

Leadership, therefore, isseenasa key factor in transforminganorganisation intoone that will meet thenewdemandsof the st century. Not surprisingly, it has

producedamodel knownas transformational leadership.

Transformational leadershipargues that theroleof the leader is tobui ldmotivationamong teammembers(orfollowers)so that theywill becommitted to theorganisationandwill beprepared togobeyondcompliancewithrequirements toimproveorganisational performance. Developingawarenessof the importanceof theorganisationspurposeorvisionamong followers is, therefore, acritical part of the

leaderrole.

Transformational leadership isassociatedwith theworkof Bass(1990). Heclaimsthat, fortransformational leadership tooccur, leadersmust makeuse the fourkey factors, knownas the Is. Theyare:

y Individualisedconsideration this involvesshowingcare to followersabout theirdevelopment needsandabout themas individuals

y Intellectual stimulation leadersencourage followers toseewhat theyaredoingfromdifferent perspectives, tochallengeexistingwaysofdoing thingsand to findcreativesolutions toproblems


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y Inspirational motivation motivating followersbyraisingexpectationsandinspiring them toexert effort toachieve theorganisationsmissi on

y Idealised influence this isbasedon thecharismaof the leaderandcan involveactingasarolemodel togain therespect andadmirationof followers.

Transformational leadership isoftencontrastedwith transactional leadership. The

latterclaims that the leader/followerrelationship isbasedonanexchangeofmutualbenefits. The leadergives followerswhat theywant and, inreturn, theydowhat theleaderrequires.

Activity1.14:Transactionalleadership

Transactional leadership looksverysimilar to thebehavioural andcontingencyapproaches to leadershipconsideredearlier.

Doyou think this is thecase? Ifso, why?

Transformational leadership is, therefore, seenasqualitativelydifferent fromother

approaches to leadership. Its influence isreflected in the functionsof leadersdiscussed insection1. . Thebehavioural andcontingencyapproachesemphasisedthe taskandgroupmaintenance functionsbut the transformational model stressesthestrategic function.

Transformational leadership issometimesseenas thesameascharismaticleadership, particularlybecauseof theaspect of idealised influence. Charisma isseenasaspecial typeofrelationshipwhichexistsbetween leadersand followers,

ratherthan thepossessionofparticularcharismatic traits. ullins(2005)pointsoutthat charismatic leadersareable to transform followersbycreatingchanges in theirgoalsandaspirations. Theydo thisbyappealing to theirvaluesandpersonalidentity. Inotherwords, followingacharismatic leaderwill enablepeople toset andachievegoals that are important to themas individuals.

Despite theseapparent similarities, transformational leadershipcanbedistinguished

fromcharismatic leadership. Tobeginwith, charisma isonlyoneof the Isand is,therefore, not enoughon itsown fortransformational leadership. There isadanger,also, that charismatic leadershipcan include leaderswhouse theircharisma tomakefollowersweakanddependent on them. Examples could includepolitical leaderssuchasRobert ugabeand SaddamHussein. Transformational leadership, on the

otherhand, emphasises theroleof the leader indeveloping followersandencouraging them toact independently.


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Activity1.15:Transformationalleadership

Transformational leadershiphasbeencriticisedbecause itsuggestsareturn to the ideaof heroic leadersand the great

personapproach.

Doyouagree?

Insomerespects, modernapproaches to leadership take intoaccount ideas fromall

thedifferent approaches to leadershipandmanagement. Theyhavedeveloped inresponse to theneed fororganisations tocopewithrapidchange. Theyserve toemphasise, perhaps, that those inpromotedpostsneed tooperate inbothaleadershipandamanagement role. Theyalsoconfirm that there isnoonesuccessful leadershipstyle.

1.4 Influences on leadership ehaviour

Thissectionbrings togethermanyof thepointsmade so far. Itsaim is toconsiderthe factorswhichmay influencewhat leadersdo. Section1.2explained the functionsofa leader/managerand identified that thebehaviourof the leader involvesstrategic,taskandgroupmaintenance functions.

Section1. lookedat someof the factorswhichcan influence theapproachwhichleaderscan take. Thebehaviourof leaderscanbeaffectedby:

y thosewhoreport to the leader Fiedlerdrewattention to theattitudesof team

memberswhileHerseyand Blanchardshow that thebehaviourof the leadercandependon the readinessof teammembers

y the leaderhimorherself oleman, forexample, pointedout that the level ofemotional intelligencecan influence thestyleswhicha leadercanutilise. Thebehavioural approachsuggests that leadersmaybepredisposed toa taskor

peopleorientationy thenatureof the task tasksmaybemoreorlessstructuredand thiscan

influence thewaya leaderbehaves, asmost of thecontingencymodels illustratey theorganisational environment orculture culturecanbedescribedas the way

wedo thingsaroundhere. Forexample, a leadermight work inaculturewherespecificprocedureshave tobe followed, orinonewhere therisksarehighand

feedbackcanbeveryquick. Leadershave tooperatewithin thisculture.

Organisational culturecanalsoaffect theattitudesandbehaviourof teammembersand thenatureof the task.


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Activity1.17: Expectations ofothers

Howdoyou think that expectationsof(a) thoseat th esame leveland(b) thoseat ahigher level influence thebehaviourofa leader

inyourorganisation?

Theorganisation lifecyclerefers to thestageofdevelopment that theorganisation

hasreached. It isargued that organisationsgrowverymuch likehumanbeings.Theybeginasnewcreations, whichhave to find theirfeet innewsurroundings. Ifsuccessful, theygo throughagrowthphasewhereactivitiesandpersonnel expand,proceduresandprocessesaredevelopedandsoon. Thiscouldbeaperiodwhentheorganisationundertakesa lot of innovation. Thegrowthphase leads toamaturitystagecharacterisedbyconsolidationandaneed toensure that existingactivitiesareproperlymaintainedandsoon. There isusually less innovationduring thisphase

andanemphasisonefficiency. Finally, theorganisationenters thedeclinestage. Itmight becomesmalleras its functionsbecome less important orarereplacedbyactivitiesofotherorganisations.

Therearenospecific timescalesattached toanyof thesephases. anyorganisations in fact remainat thematurestage foravery long time.

Activity1.18: Organisationallife cycle

hat stage isyourorganisationat?

Howmight thisaffect thebehaviourof leaders? henconsideringthis, it couldhelp to thinkabout how thebehaviourof leadersmight bedifferent if theorganisationwereat anotherstage in itslifecycle.

Socio-cultural factorscanalso influence thebehaviourof the leader. Thesearefactors in thewidersocietysuchasvaluesandnorms, whicharesharedby

membersof thesociety. A simpleexample isqueuing. In the UK it isexpected thatpeoplewait inorderuntil it is theirturn. A personwho leaves thequeuehas torejoin

at theend. Inothercountries, different conventionsareobserved. Insome Africancountries, forexample, peoplecanmark theirplace in thequeueand leave. Theycan thenrejoinat thepoint where theymarked theirplace. Inbothcases, thebehaviourisseenasnormal.

Oneway toconsiderthe impact ofsocio-cultural factorson leadership is toconsidercross-cultural studies. Hofstede(1994)carriedout resear choncultural differencesbasedon116,000questionnaires frompeople inmore than 0countries. All,

incidentally, wereemployeesofsubsidiariesof IB . He identified fourcultural


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Music Industry Management 1 (F5CR 34 k

James Watt College l Simpson

dimensionsbut one, power-distance, issufficient to illustratehowsocio-culturalfactorscanaffect thebehaviourof leaders.

Power-distancerefers to thedifferencesbetween those insuperiorpositionsandthose insubordinatepositions. It ishighwhensuperiorsareencouraged toexert the

powerof theirpositionandwheresubordinatesrespect thepowergiven to those ina

superiorposition. Hofstede found that countries in Southern Europesuchas Franceand Spainhadhighpower-distancewhile those in Northern Europesuchas Sweden,Hollandand the UK had lowpower -distance. anagement stylewasmuchmorepaternalisticand task-oriented incountrieswithhighpower-distance than thosewherepower-distancewas low.

Activity1.19: Socioculturaldifferences

Youcan findout moreabout Hofstedesworkandhow it canbe

appliedat hiswebsiteat www.geert-hofstede.com/whichgivesdetailsofhiswork.

Howdoyou think that expectationsof(a) thoseat thesame leveland(b) thoseat ahigher level influence thebehaviourofa leaderinyourorganisation?

Socio-cultural factorsalsohaveaneffect onmanyof the factorsdiscussedso far.Thebehaviourof teammembersandcolleagues, forexample, will reflect thesocial

andcultural normsandvaluesof thesocietysincemost of themwill havegrownupin it.

The final factorthat can influence thebehaviourofa leader isdiversity. Insomeways, this isareflectionofsocio-cultural norms. Perhaps themost important aspectofdiversity, as faras leadersareconcerned, is that leadersmust makesure t hattheirbehaviourdoesnot discriminate inanyway, evenunintentionally, against anyotherperson. Leaderscan, in fact, havearesponsibility toact asarolemodel for

membersof theirteam.


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Activity1.20: iversityandleaders

Howdoesdiversityaffect thebehaviourof leaders inyourorganisation?

Some riefclosingcomments

Outcome1hascovereda lot ofmaterial. uchof it isquite theoretical. The theorydoes illustrate, though, that therearemanydifferent viewson lea dership. In thissense, themainconclusionhas tobe that there isnooneright way tobea leader.However, thereare things that good leaders tend todo, even if theyapproach themindifferent ways. The following list summarises thekey lessons forlea dersandwould-be leaders.

y Leadership in the twenty -first century takesplaceat all levels inanorganisationit ispossible todistinguishbetween leadersandmanagersbut those in

promotedpostsareexpected to fulfil bothroles.

y Leadershave threemain functions task, groupmaintenanceandstrategic.y ood leadersareable tomakeuseofdifferent stylesof leadership theycan

tailortheirstyle to thedemandsof thesituation.

Beinga leader/managerisachallenging task. It isclearfrom thedisc ussion in the

text that leadership isakey factorin thesuccessofmodernorganisations. Perhapsthebest way to finish is to list the things that aneffectivedynamic leader inamodernorganisationshoulddo. Asyou lookat the list whichdevelopswork by Kanter(1983),youcansee that it coversall foursectionsof Outcome1.

Dynamic leadersaim todo the following:

y communicateaclearvisiony be tuned in to thewiderenvironmenty promoteacultureofexcellencebynetworkingand team -workingy act inapeople-orientedmannerand fostertwo-waycommunicationy developpositiveself-regard, perseveranceandconsistency.

In this way theycan be both effective and serve as a role model.

activity sheet - oucome 1

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