Ṣafawid poets and india

British Institute of Persian Studies

Ṣafawid Poets and IndiaAuthor(s): Aziz AhmadSource: Iran, Vol. 14 (1976), pp. 117-132Published by: British Institute of Persian StudiesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4300548 .

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SAFAWID POETS AND INDIA

By Aziz Ahmad

I

During the seventeenth century there was a large influx of poets from Safawid Iran to Mughal India and the Deccan. Persian poetry throve in India rather than in its natural homeland, Iran. The theory so far held is best summed up in Mirzi Muhammad Qazwini's communication to E. G. Browne:

The chief reason for this [i.e. lack of patronage by the Safawids] seems to have been that these kings, by reason of their political aims and strong antagonism to the Ottoman Empire, devoted the greater part of their energies to the propagation of the Shi'a doctrine and the encouragement of divines learned in its principles and laws.

Browne subscribed to this theory fully, as have all his successors, including Rypka more recently, who asserts that the " cultural " interest of the Safawids was confined to the consolidation of Shi'ism, and that in the Safawid Iran there was a " palpable lack of interest in the poets, their works and their burial-places "; though he does concede some development of, and interest in, non-religious poetry in the Safawid Iran as exemplified by Ismd'il I's Turki diwdn and Sam Mirzd's tadhkira.1

The theory can be traced to a pious anecdote narrated in the Ta'rikh-i '.lam-drd'i 'Abbdsi that Tahm~sp (1524-76) was not pleased with the two panegyrics sent by Muhtasham Kashi from Kashan in praise of the Safawid monarch and the Princess Pari Khan Khanum, and observed that eulogies should be written only in the honour of the Prophet and the Imams, which would earn reward in the hereafter and from himself. On this, Muhtasham composed and sent him his famous devotional haft-band.2

Even if this hagiological anecdote has a kernel of truth, it is relevant only to a particular occasion, and one has to weigh against it the evidence that a great deal of non-religious poetry was written in the age of Tahmasp. One cannot easily rule out the possibility that the anecdote may have had its origin as a legend to extol Tahmdsp's piety and to provide an apocryphal genesis for Muhtasham's haft-band. One has also to take into account the fact that Muhtasham had written earlier several panegyrics in honour of Tahmdsp and much erotic verse. There is no doubt that in the age of Tahmasp painting and calligraphy became the major arts, and a certain poet complained of the better opportunities of advancement for the " calligraphist, the painter, the Qazwini and the donkey "; but it does not follow that poetry had necessarily become a minor art, as Browne has asserted.3

Minorsky advanced the view that the decline of poetry under the Safawids might be explained as due to the decline of mysticism in Iran.4 But then there was also a decline of Siffism in poetry in Mughal India, where poetry flourished; and the few rare instances of

S.ifi poets there include only a few names, such as Dird Shukoh, Sarmad and Bidil.

Rypka is closer to the truth in suggesting that the comparative decline of interest in poetry in early Safawid Iran could have been due to economic decline in the Middle East after the disappearance of Italian colonies in the Black Sea and the development of a sea route to India by the Portuguese. The facts of the matter seem to be that the India of Akbar, Jahingir and Shah Jahdn was richer than was

1 Qazwini to Browne, in E. G. Browne A Literary History of Persia, IV, p. 26; J. Rypka, History of Iranian Literature, Dordrecht, 1968, pp. 292-3. I am grateful to my friends Dr. Turhan Gandjei and Professors R. M. Savory and G. M. Wickens for their comments and suggestions concerning this paper.

2 Iskandar BFg Turkman, Ta'rikh-i 'Alam-drd-i 'Abbdst, Tehran,

1337 Shamsi, I, p. I78. The same view has been repeated by Rid! Quli-Khin in his Majma' al-fupsahd', Tehran, 1284-95 Shamsi.

' Iskandar Beg, I, 170-7; Browne, IV, 97, 241. * V. Minorsky, " Iran: Opposition, Martyrdom and Revolt ",

in G. E. von Grunebaum (ed.), Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilisation, Chicago, 1955, p. 196.

117



118 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES

Iran from Tahmdsp to 'Abbas II, and that the Safawid resources of patronage of poets were inadequate compared to the resources of the Mughals; a sojourn in India, whether permanent or temporary, appeared to offer better opportunities of economic gain to the Persian poets, as also to a considerable cross-section of the Persian dlite. As Browne has noted, a considerable number of Persian poets returned to Iran after making their fortunes in India where they had enjoyed more affluent and, therefore more

generous, patronage; but he is wrong when he talks about " lack of patronage " in Iran.5 It would have been more appropriate to say that patronage in Iran during the second half of the sixteenth and

throughout the seventeenth century was inadequate compared to India. The exact nature and extent of the inadequacy of the Safawid patronage of poets needs careful

examination. To begin with, there is the direct evidence of some of the dissatisfied poets. Perhaps the most articulate of these was Kawthari, a panegyrist of 'Abbas I (1588-1629), who wrote candidly of the poor patronage of poets in Iran:

There is no buyer of poetry in this land; no one is active in the market of poetry which has no value or

appreciation. There is no purchaser of meaningful verse; From the highest to the lowest no one is attracted towards poetry. .... My life has become intolerable in Iran; I should go to India ...

This poor patronage of Kawthari had nothing to do with the Safawid religious policy, as he was also a

martyrologist and wrote Shi'i religious poetry.6 Another poet, Kamdli, composed a Shdh-Jdma on the victories of 'Abbas I, either at the request of that monarch or on his own account, but remained

unrecognized and unrewarded.7 Even earlier, panegyrists of Safawid monarchs had migrated to India. Mulld Saba'i, a panegyrist of

Tahmasp, went to India and attached himself to the entourage of Khan-i Zaman 'Ali Quli Khan Sistdni, an eminent amir of Akbar's court. After Tahmdsp, the Ozbeg threat to Khurasan and in-

security there led to the migration of some poets to India, such as .Hayrati

of Herat.8 There were some poets who for one reason or the other incurred the displeasure of a Safawid

monarch and tried to escape to India. Thus Ghurfiri KKshi incurred the displeasure of 'Abbas I for

having plagiarised a qasida of Anwari, came to India and attached himself to 'Abd al-Rahim Khdn-i Khandn.9 There are two accounts of 'Abbas I's displeasure with Hasan Bag Takkalti 'Itabi. The more

convincing is that the poet claimed to be a qutb; the less convincing is that he refused to drink a cup of wine offered by the monarch. In any case, he was forgiven and did not visit India until later, accom-

panying Akbar's envoy Mir Ma'sfim Bakkari on his return journey in 1602, and later went back to Iran. He revisited India during the reign of Jahangir and attached himself to the entourage of Mirzd Ghdzi Bag Tarkhan at Kandahar, and afterwards to that of Nfir Jahan's father, I'timad al-Dawla, and died in India, probably in 1025/1616.10 Rukna Kashi was a poet and physician whom 'Abbas I held

;q such esteem that he visited his house twice. He incurred the royal displeasure and came to India where he joined the service first of Akbar and then of Jahdngir, probably as a hakim. Rukna must have been a difficult person, for we next find him at Golconda where he soon annoyed Mir Muhammad Mi'min Astarabadi, the all-powerful wakil of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah. He then tried the court of

Bijapur without much success. Later he returned to Mughal India and joined the survice of Mahabat Khan. In old age, he left for Iran in 1041/1631-2 and tried without success to gain access to the court of Shah Safi (1629-42). He died in Iran in o66/I656.11 Fasihi Khurasani, who was a panegyrist of 'Abbas I, incurred later either his displeasure or that of his governor of Khurasan, HIusayn Khan

6 Rypka, 293; Browne, IV, p. 25. " B.M. Or. Ms. 342, f. I2a; Rieu, Cat. II, p. 673. 7 Lutf 'Ali Brg Adhar, Atashkada, ed. Hasan Sidst Ndsiri,

Tehran, 1336 Shamsi, I, p. 406. 8 Ibrahim 'All Khan, Suhuf-i Ibrahimi, Berlin Or. Ms. 711

(Pertsch, 663), f. 222 b; 'Abd al-Qadir Badd'ani, Muntakhab al-tawdrikh, Bibl. Ind. Calcutta, 1868-9, III, p. 219.

9 'Abd al-Bdqi Nihdwandi, Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, ed. M. Hiddyat Husayn, Bibl. Ind. Calcutta, 1924-3, III, pp. I1133-4; Mirza Muhammad Tahir Nasrdbddi, Tadhkira, Tehran, 1317 Shamsi, p. 291; 'Abd al-Nabi Fakhr al-Zamdni Qazwini,

Maykhana, ed. Ahmad Gulchin-i Ma'kni, Tehran, I340 Shamsi, pp. 692-3; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, f. 250 b.

10 Maykhdna, 437-43; Abu'l-Fadll 'Allimi, Akbar Ndma, Bibl. Ind.

Calcutta, 188 -3, III, p. 836; Muhammad Qudrat-Allih

Gopdmawi, Natd'ij al-afkdr, Bombay, 1336 A.H., p. 474; Nawwdb Siddiq IHasan Khdn, Sham'-i anjuman, Bhopal, 1293 A.H., p. 292. On Mir Ma'sim Bakkari's embassy, see Riyazul Islam, Indo-Persian Relations, Tehran, 1970, pp. 65-7.

'x 'Ali Quli Khan Wdlih Ddghistani, Riydd al-shu'ard', Berlin Or. Ms. Sprenger, p. 332 (Pertsch 656), f. 498a.



SAFAWID POETS AND INDIA 119

Shamlil. Fasihi attempted to escape to India, but was taken prisoner and interned at Herat. Released

later, he was restored to the Safawid monarch's favour.12 Mir 'Imdd al-Din IlIhi Asadabddi is reported to have left for India because 'Abbas I, displeased at his pretentious takhallus, hit him in a qahva-khdna (coffee-house).13 A much later immigrant was Mirza Abu'l-Baqd', a Tabataba'i Sayyid, who was dissatisfied with his lot in Iran, and who came to Sh.h Jahdn's court, and with his permission settled down in Kashmir where he took to opium and other drugs.14

There are a few cases of poets who fell into the disfavour, not of the Safawid monarchs, but of their wazirs and governors, and therefore left for India. Salim Tihrani, a disciple of Khalifa Sultan, rose to be shaykh al-Isldm of Tehran, but fell from favour when Mirzd Mahdi became wazir, and felt that he could find peace only in India. Muhammad Bdqir Khurda Kashi escaped to Deccan, first to the

Nizdm Shahi, then to the 'Adil Shdhi court, from the displeasure of his patron in Khurasan.15 There are a few cases of persecution in Iran of poets who were either zealous Sunnis or " heretics ".

Mawldan Qasim Amiri was first blinded, then executed, on charges of heresy.16 Kimi Qazwini emigrated to India because of the persecution of his family by Tahmdsp for zealous Sunnism. His father Mir Yahyd was arrested in Iran and died in prison. His elder brother 'Abd al-Latif Qazwini was Akbar's teacher and friend.17 It is not clear whether Kami accompanied his brother to India or joined him later. His tadhkira, the Nafd'is al-ma'dthir,18 is one of the major sources of Badd'iini's notices on

poets of Akbar's reign. Qadi Ahmad Ghifari Qazwini came to India, perhaps because he was a staunch Shdfi'i.19 Ghazili Mashhadi's escape to the court of Akbar, where he rose to be poet laureate, was due basically to the charge of heresy (ilhdd) laid against him, and also to fear for his life.20 But cases of escape for fear of religious persecution in Iran are few, and almost all of them have been reported only by Badd'Uini, whose account has to be accepted with a certain amount of reserve because of his fanatical approach to this history of his times.

Finally, there are a few cases of officials of the Safawid administration who came to India to improve their prospects. In their case, the quest for service in India rather than a search for patronage as poets may have been the primary objective. These include

S.diq Brg Afshir, a kitdbddr of 'Abbds I, and

Mirz I.Hasan

Brg Wdhib, 'Abbds's governor of Yezd, who finally settled down in Kashmir.21

II

On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that most of the Safawid monarchs from Isma'il I to 'Abbas II continued to write poetry and to patronize religious as well as non-religious verse. It would be wrong to assume, as is generally held, that compared to other arts they were indifferent to

poetry in general and hostile to non-devotional panegyric or to erotic poetry in particular. Probably they enjoyed poetry as much as the Mughal emperors. If their patronage made lesser impact on Persian poets, and the latter migrated to India, the probable reason is the greater wealth and richer economic resources of India at that stage in history.

Ismd'il I was a great poet in Adhari Turkish, but not so distinguished a poet in Persian.22 Among his panegyrists was Ummidi, a disciple of the disciples of Dawdni.23

12 Maykhdna, pp. 571-6. 13 Nasrdbadi, p. 255; Ma'dthir-i Rahfmi, III, pp. 781-3; Ghulam

'Ali Azzd Bilgrami, Sarv-i Azdd, Hyderabad Deccan, 1913, p. 85.

14 Nasrabddi, p. 103; Lachmi Nara'in Shafiq, Shdm-i gharfbdn (text serialized in the Urdl, Karachi, based on the Asafiyya Ms.), Urdui, 45/4 (i969), p. 40.

16 Nasrabadi, p. 182; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdz, 46/1 (1970), p. 134; Maykhdna, p. 617.

16 Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 63b. 17 Badi'fini, III, pp. 97-8; Abu'l-Fadl 'Allimi A'in-i Akbarf (tr.

Blochmann), Calcutta, 1927, I, pp. 447-8; Shah Nawaz Khan, Ma'dthir al-umard', Calcutta, 1888-90, III, pp. 813-15-

s18 Storey, 1/2, p. 8oi; Aumer, p. 3; Sprenger, p. 1o. f1 Bad'ifini, III, p. I75.

20 Ibid., III, pp. 170-I. 21 Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 213a; Aslah Mirza, Tadhkira-i Shu'ard'-i

Kashmir, Karachi, 1346 Shamsi, pp. 524-6; 'Ali Hasan Khan, Nigaristdn-i Sukhun, Bhopal, 1293 A.H., p. I40; Muhammad Muzaffar Husayn Saba, Rfz-i rawshan, Bhopal, 1297 A.H., pp. 750-1.

22 Tourkhan Gandjei (ed.), II Canzoniere di Sdh Ismd'Il Hata'i, Naples, 1959; V. Minorsky, " The Poetry of Shah Isma'il I ", BSOAS, X/4 (1942), pp. Ioo6-53; cf. Nasiri's note in Atash- kada, I, p. 57; also Sam Mirza, Tuhfa-i Semi, ed. Wahid Dastgardi, Tehran, 1314 Shamsi, pp. 6-9.

23 Ibid., pp. ioi-2; Atashkada, III, p. og97; Nasrabadi, p. 526; Maykhdna, p. 126.




Tahmasp, who is accused of turning his back on non-religious poetry, occasionally composed verses.24 Although the emigration of poets to India begins in his reign, it is significant that the two who were the greatest by any standard, stayed on in Iran. They are Wahshi Bdfqi (d. 1583), basically a romantic poet though he also wrote didactic poetry, and Muhtasham Kdshi (d. 1587-8) who, though famous for his religious poetry, also wrote erotic verses. His Jaldl~yya is a mundane collection of sixty-four ghazals interspersed with lyrical prose describing his love for a singer, Shdtir Jaldl. However, Muhtasham did try through his brother 'Abd al-Ghani to establish contact with the Mughal court. Walhshi Bdfqi wrote panegyrics in honour of Tahmasp and of some of his nobles.25

Sam Mirzi, the second son of Ismd'il I, and the author of Tuhfa-i Simi, gives in that tadhkira brief notices of about 700 poets of the reigns of the first two Safawid rulers, about whom he asserts that they were superior to former poets and deserved comparison with such poets as Khusraw, Sa'di or Firdawsi. His tadhkira remains an incontestable proof of the early Safawid interest in poetry. Sam MirzZ was himself a poet; 8,ooo verses and a Shdh-Ndma in praise of his brother Tahmdsp are attributed to him.28 Even Iskandar BEg, who had related the anecdote of Tahmasp's displeasure with non-religious poetry, gives an impressive list of twenty poets of Tahmdsp's reign, of whom only three visited India, and only one, Malik Qummi, settled there permanently.27

Tahmisp's other brothers Bahrdm Mirzd and Alqis Mirzd were also poets, as was Tahmdsp's son Sultan IHasan Mirzd.28 Tahmasp's wazir Mirz4 SharafJahan Qazwini was a good poet, whose fame had reached India."9 Ismi'il II also wrote poetry, and his takhallus 'Adli sounds ironical in view of his cruelty.

In spite of his preoccupation with affairs of state 'Abbds I found time to write poetry and to enjoy the company of poets. In ghazals his takhallus was 'Abbis; a number of tadhkiras give specimens of his verses which are devotional or topical. He visited qahva-khdnas and listened to poets reciting verses, and occasionally he encouraged them to compete in extempore versification.30

Contrary to the theory that 'Abbas I appreciated only devotional verses, he was usually flattered by highly eulogistic verses in his own praise, as in the case of Taqi Awhadi, who later left for India in I6o6 and became famous for his tadhkira the 'Arafdt al-'ishiqin.31 'Abbds I had Sha'ni Takkalii, a poet of Qizilbash origin, weighed in gold for a qasida that he wrote in eulogy of 'Ali; but he also composed panegyrics in honour of his royal patron.32 Mir Haydar Mu'amma'i was attached to 'Abbas I; accused of having written a lampoon on his patron he was imprisoned, but escaped from prison and fled to India, as we shall see later. Via the Hijaz he made his way back to Iran and was received back in favour by 'Abbas I. However, he was again accused by his enemies of satirizing the Shah, and fell into disgrace again.33 Fuzilni Astarabidi, who had migrated first to Kashmir, then to the Deccan, dedicated his Sdqi-Ndma to the Safawid monarch.34 Mirza Abu'l-Baqd Baqi'i is said to have compiled a tadhkira of the poets of the period of 'Abbas I.35 The better known tadhkira, Khayr al-baydn was dedicated by its author IHusayn b. Ghiyath al-Din Mahmid to 'Abbas I.36 Even Rypka concedes a certain amount of goodwill towards secular poets under 'Abbas I; this he attributes to the economic impetus brought about by the Safawid monarch's skilful home and foreign policy and efficient administration of revenues.37

24 Atashkada, I, p. 74; Riyd?d al-shu'ard', f. 307a. 25 Rypka, p. 298; Wahshi Bgifqi, Diwdn, ed. Husayn Nakha'i,

Tehran, 1347 Shamsi, pp. 187-91, 273-4, and passim. 26 Tuhfa-i Sdmi, 4; Atashkada, I, pp. 62-3;

S.diq Bag

S.diqi, Majma' al-khawass, Pers. tr. A. R. KhayyAmpfir, Tehran, 1327 Shamsi, pp. xIo-I I.

27 Iskandar Beg, I, pp. 178-89. 28 Tuhfa-i Sdmi, pp. 9-ro; Atashkada, I, pp. 43-4, 49 Iskandar

Bag, I, 126. 29 Maykhdna, pp. 151-60. 30 Iskandar BEg, II, p. 988; Nasrabddi, pp. 8-9; Atashkada, I,

pp. 76-7; Majma' al-khawdss (Pers. tr.), pp. 5-6; Rid;i Quli Hiddyat, Majma'

al-fu.ahad', Tehran, 1284, p. 39; Nasr Allah

Falsafi, Zindagdni-yi Shdh 'Abbds Awwal, Tehran, 1337 Shamsi,

II, 23-6, pp. 37-8. 31 Ibid., II, p. 38; Natd'yj al-afkdr, p. 126; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urda,

45/4 (1969), PP. 57-8; 'Arafdt al-'dshiqin', India Office Ms. 3654.

32 Iskandar Beg, I, p. 515; Falsafi, II, 30-2; IHusayn b. Ghiyath al-Din Malhmfid, Khayr al-baydn, B.M. Or. Ms. 3397, if. 303b-31oa.

a3 Falsafi, II, pp. 32-3- 31 Maykhdna, pp. 674-5- 35 Nawwdb Siddiq IHasan Khin, Sham'-i anjuman, Bhopal, 1293

A.H., p. 81. 36 B. M. Or. Ms. 3397. 37 Rypka, p. 294.




As a matter of fact, relations between the Safawid monarchs, especially 'Abbas I, and the court poets were of a more personal and intimate nature than those between the Mughal emperors and their court poets. Akbar's friendship with Faycdi is an exception which proves the rule that the Mughal emperors held themselves in exalted aloofness from poets, as from other courtiers.

A number of Safawid princes, including Sultan Mustafd Mirzi, a grandson of Tahmasp, and other grandsons of Tahmdsp and of 'Abbas I wrote secular poetry, as did a number of Safawid nobles and courtiers. These latter included Murtada Quli Khan, a nobleman of the court of Safi, and Mirza

Ma'sfim, an officer of the royal stable, who wrote prose as well as verse and was commissioned by Safi to write a chronicle of his reign.38

Verses have been attributed to 'Abbas II, who in any case was a patron of poets, including some who had returned from India.39 Mulla 'Ali Rid~ Tajalli, who had served in India as a tutor to the son of 'Ali Mardan Khan who had defected to the Mughals, had surrendered Kandahar to them in 1638 and was consequently a traitor in Safawid eyes, returned to Iran, received a land grant from 'Abbas II and later became a favourite court poet of Shah Sulaymin.40

Most eminent of the Persian immigrant poets returning to Iran was Sa'ib, who may have been a Sunni, though he wrote an eloquent qasida in honour of the Imam 'Ali Rida. He became the poet- laureate (malik al-shu'ard) of the court of 'Abbas II on his return, and as such identified himself com- pletely and loyally with the Safawid cause on such occasions of Mughal-Safawid conflict as the recapture of Kandahar by 'Abbas II (1659).41 Other Safawid poets who returned to 'Abbas II's Iran, though not necessarily to his court, were Yahya Kashani or Lahijani, who had benefited greatly from the bounty of Shah Jahan,42 and

.Hasan Brg Withiq who gave up a Mughal mansab to return to Iran.4,

In Safawid Iran a few sayyids, 'ulama' and mujtahids wrote poetry. Some of the specimens of their verse cited by Nasrabadi cannot be classified either as devotional or ethical. On the other hand religious fervour was not necessarily a sufficient pull for the zealous Shi'is to remain in Iran and not to migrate to India. If religious zeal meant automatic advancement in Safawid Iran, QOadi Nir Allah Shushtari, who was also a poet with the takhallus of Nfiri, would not have emigrated to India where he was eventually executed for that same religious zeal.44

There are at least two cases of Kashmiri poets who made Iran their home, though probably not in quest of patronage, Mulla Muhammad and Darwish YiIsuf.45

III

The fact remains that a large number of Persian poets migrated to India either permanently or temporarily. Among the earliest immigrant poets were: Shawqi, who had enjoyed the patronage of Sam Mirzi but incurred the displeasure of Tahmasp, who accompanied Humayuin on his way back from Iran and died at Kabul in 963/1556;46 the poet and mathematician Ulfati Yazdi who attached himself first to Humaytin's court, then to the entourage of Khan-i Zamin 'Ali Quli Khan;47 Baqi Isfahani48 and Bayani,49 both of whom found access to Humaiyin's court, as did also Farighi Shirazi, who later joined the service of Bayrim Khan.,0 Other early immigrant poets who arrived either during the

38 Nasrabddi, pp. 0o-15, 23-4, 77. 39 Ibid., pp. 9-Io; Atashkada, I. p. 77. 40 Muhammad Afdal Sarkhush, Kalimdt al-shu'ard', Madras,

1951, p. 38; GhulIm 'Ali Azad Bilgrami, Sarv-i Azdd, Hyderabad Deccan, 1913, pp. II5-I6; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 95-6; Rziz-i rawshan, 127,

41 Bilgrami, Khizdna-i 'Amira, Cawnpore, 1871, pp. 287-8; Natad'j al-afkdr, p. 408; Muhammad 'Ali Tarbiyat, Ddnishmandcn-i Adharbd'ijan, Tehran, 1314 Shamsi, pp. 217-36.

42 Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 196; Ma'dthir al-umard', III, p. 469; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 86; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, ff. 382 a-b. Riz-i rawshan, p. 790o. Nasrdbddi has treated this man as two separate poets (cf NasrTbadi, p. 292); probably it was the same person who came from Ldhijan to Kdshdn (cf. Husdm al-Din Rdshidi

Tadhkira-i Shu'ard'-i Kashmir, Karachi, 1346 Shamsi, IV, pp. I695-7.

43 Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 193- 44NasrTb~di, pp. 95-6, 148-71; Riyd4d al-shu'ard', f. 553a;

Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 360a. 45 Nasrdbadi, pp. 170, 204- 46 TuhZfa-i Sdmi, p. I og; Atashkada, I, p. I i9; Tarbiyat, op. cit.,

p. 208. 4 Badd'flni, III, p. 189; Nat~d'y al-afkdr, p. 22; Shdm-i gharibdn,

Urda 45/3 (1969), P. 25; Shibli Nu'mAni, Shi'r al-'Ajam, Azamgarh 1920-3, III, p. 17.

48 Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 96a. 49 Riyd• al-shu'ard', f. 94a. 50 Bada'ini, I, p. 475-6; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 359.




last years of Humaiyin or very early in the reign of Akbar were Sartidi Khwinsdri and Ashki Qummi.51 Fakhri Harawi, a panegyrist of Tahmdsp who had dedicated his Lattd'if-Ndma and his Tuhfat al-Habib to Habib-Alldh Sawaji, wazir to the governor of Khurasan,52 came to Sind either during the reign of 'Isd Tarkhan (1554-64) or his predecessor Mirza Shah IHasan,53 and wrote his Jawdhir al-'ajd'ib54 consisting of notices of twenty poetesses in Sind. Mirzt Quli Mayli of Mashhad or Herat also emigrated to India where he died in I575.55

More significantly, the fact also remains that with the exception of Muhtasham Kashi and Wahshi Bafqi, all the great poets of Safawid Iran migrated to India, and only one of them, Sa'ib, returned permanently to his homeland. Their cases have to be examined individually. The first of these was Ghazali Mashhadi, who left Tahmasp's court after being slandered for heresy, first for the Deccan, later for Mughal India where he joined the service of Khan-i Zaman 'All Quli Khan. After the revolt and death of his patron, he gained access to Akbar's court where he was appointed malik al-shu'ard', a title introduced for the first time in the Mughal court.56

'Urfi Shirazi (d. 999/159I) tried his fortune first in the Deccan where he did not prosper. In Mughal India his patron was Faydi, but soon a bitter rivalry broke out between the two poets, who represented two distinct styles of poetry, and 'Urfi turned to the patronage of an eminent fellow-Persian Hakim Abu'l-Fath Gilani and later that of 'Abd al-Rahim Khan-i

Khanmn. Though he wrote several panegyrics eulogizing Akbar, it was probably due to his rivalry with the influential Faydi that he could not gain a permanent foot-hold in the Imperial court.57 During his lifetime his fame had spread throughout India, Iran and Central Asia, and people carried his Diwdn around " like an amulet "; along with the Diwdn of Faydi, it was the most popular reading of his time.58

Naziri Nishapfiri (d. 1021/1612) travelled as a merchant in Iran and lived for some time at Kashan, and had already gained fame as a poet when reports of 'Abd al-Rahim Khan-i Khanan's generous patronage attracted him to India. Though he gained access to Akbar's court and wrote panegryics in his honour, he continued to remain in the entourage of Khan-i Khanin, until

Jahmngir called him

to the imperial court in 0oI9/16Io, two years before his death, impressed by his reputation.59 It is quite possible that Naziri was a Sunni. Though the hagiological report that he spent the last twelve years of his life as a pious recluse has to be discounted in view of the historical evidence, he did perform the hajj and he studied tafsir and hadith under Mawlana IHusayn Jawhari and Ghawthi Mandawi.60

Talib Amuli was born near Amul in Mazandaran in 996/1588. Though there is a qasida in his diwdn in honour of 'Abbas I, and though he stayed for some time at Isfahan, it seems unlikely that he gained access to that monarch's court. He did attach himself to the patronage of Mir Abu'l-Qasim the Hdkim of Mazandaran, and later to that of Khwaja Muhammad Shafi', the Hdkim of Khurasan. For some time he also served the governor of Mary. Finally, he decided to try his fortune in India, and after a few months in the entourage of Ghazi

Brg Tarkhan at Kandahar, he wandered about India,

became a disciple of Shah Abu'l-Ma'ali at Lahore and wrote in praise of that city. In o108/16o9 he returned to the service of Ghazi

Brg at Kandahar, with whom he remained for two years. He then joined

successively the service of Chin Qilich Khan in Gujarat, 'Abd-Allah Khan Firaiz Jang and Diyanat Khan, who presented him to Jahangir, but he made the wrong impression on the emperor as he [Tilib] was under the influence of a drug. He was again presented to the emperor by I'timad al-Dawla, this time successfully, in 1025/1616. In the following year he petitioned NiirJahin to find him a bride and was married. In 1028/1619 Jahangir appointed him his malik al-shu'ard', the second Persian to hold that

51 Rjydad al-shu'ard, ff. 58a, 239a. 52 Storey, 1/2, pp. 795-7. 53 Mir Ma'siam Bakkari, Ta'rtkh-i Ma'suimi (Ta'rikh-i Sind), ed.

U. M. Daudpota, Poona, 1938, p. 2o6. 54 Ed. Lucknow 1873. 56 His Diwdn is in the Staats-Bibliothek, Berlin, Berlin Ms. Or.

Sprenger 1491; Pertsch 917. 56 Atashkada, II, p. 471; Majma' al-khawdss, 138-9; Mir Shams

al-Din Mulhammad Simi Rfimi, Qdmis al-a'ldm, Istanbul, 1306-11 A.H., V, p. 3278; Muhammad 'Ali Mudarris Tabrizi, Rihdnat al-adab, Tehran/Tabriz, 1326-33 Shamsi, III, pp. 151-2; Riydd al-shu'ard, ff. 361a-362a; Subuf-i

Ibrdhimi, f. 249a; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 337-8; Shibli, III, p. 16.

5' Riydd al-shu'ard', ff. 339a-348a; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 297; Shibli, III, pp. 85-8.

51 Ma'dthir-i Rah imi, III, pp. 293-6; Badi'fini, III, p. 285- 59 Atashkada, II, pp. 711-13; Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, p. I5;

Badd'fini, III, p. 375; Maykhana, pp. 785-93; S.u.uf-i

Ibrdhimf,

ff. 357b-358b; Riydd.

al-shu'ard', ff. 54o0b-55Ia; QOdmas al-a'ldm, VI, p. 4590; Rihdnat al-adab, V, p. 220; Majma' al-fusahad', II, pp. 48-9; Majma' al-khawass, pp. 219-20; Natd'ij al-afkdr, pp. 7 11-18; Ruiz-i rawshan, pp. 70o8-i .

60o Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 24-5; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 453; Shibli, III, p. 140.




honour in the Mughal court, but in 1034/1625 he became insane and died two years later at the age of 49.61

Muhammad Jan Qudsi Mashhadi, who was unhappy (dilgir) in Iran,62 migrated to India through the Hijaz in 1042/1632-3. He soon gained the favour of Shah Jahan and composed for him a Pddshdh- Ndma in verse, but he was not appointed his malik al-shu'ard',63 an office which went to Kalim, and the statements of several tadhkira-writers that he was appointed to that position have to be discounted.64 Nevertheless, he enjoyed Shah Jahan's bounty, was weighed in gold, and on one occasion accompanied the emperor to Kashmir. He died in 1056/1646.65

Kalim Hamadani tried his fortune first in the Deccan, like 'Urfi before him, and joined there the service of Shah Newdz Khan Shirazi (d. I02o0/1I6I) wazir of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II and later of Mir Jumla Shahrastani.66 In Io28/I619 he returned to Iran with a group of hajjis for two years. There is definite evidence in his diwdn that he was happier in India, and unhappy for having undertaken a journey back to his homeland.67 He returned to India, this time to Shah Jahin's court, and was appointed malik al-shu'ard'. He versified the Bddshdh-Ndma under the title Zafar-Ndma'i Shah Jahdnf; he also wrote poems on the occasions of imperial festivities and on the rare objects in possession of the emperor such as the Peacock Throne, the emperor's sword, shield and pen-box. On the throne as elsewhere his verses were inscribed in gold letters. Of all the Persian immigrant poets, he had the most successful career in India; and though the malik al-shu'ard' of the court, he was granted the emperor's permission to live in Kashmir on grounds of ill-health. Also, compared to other eminent poets of Persian origin, he was more responsive to Indian culture. He uses Hindi words frequently, such as tanbilli, dhobi, Pathdni, gadhal and nim.68

Sa'ib, well-educated and from a rich merchant family, had travelled through the Hijaz and the Ottoman Empire in his youth, and came to India in 1036/1627 " frustrated with his life in Isfahan ... either in the fashion of the poets of the age or for the purpose of trade ".69 In India he joined the service of Zafar Khan Turbati at Kabul, and later at Burhanpur and Kashmir. He was presented to the imperial court and received from Shah Jahan the title of Musta'id Khan, but preferred to continue in the service of Zafar Khan. His old father came to fetch him whom he accompanied back to Iran in 1042/1632-3 where, as we have seen, he became 'Abbas II's malik al-shu'ard' and lived in honour and comfort during the reign of Sulayman, until his death in Io8I/I670. He had lived in India for only six years.70

Of these seven great immigrant poets, three, Ghazali, Talib and Kalim rose to the rank of malik al-shu'ard' in the Mughal court, while Naziri preferred the service of Khan-i Khanan and Sa'ib that of Zafar Khan to the Mughal imperial service. Only two of them returned to Iran, Kalim reluctantly and temporarily, and

S.'ib alone permanently. The traditional theory of the rise of the Sabk-i Hindi

begins with Wilih Dighistani, who asserts that these great immigrant poets, especially 'Urfi, Naziri

61 Atashkada and N~siri's notes (II, pp. 870-92) who also cites the exhaustive study of Talib by Muhammad Mursilin

.Husdm al-Din Rdshidi, Ghdzf BNg Tarkhdn awr uski bazm-i adab, Karachi, 1970, pp. 328-32; Jahdngir, Tuzuk-i Jahdngtri, Lucknow, 1914, p. 289; Maykhdna, pp. 545-51; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 272-3; 'Ali Shar Qani' Tattawi, Maqdldt al- shu'ard', ed. Husdm al-Din Rdshidi, Karachi, 1957, p. 373; Khizdna-i 'dmira, pp. 300-3; Nasrabadi, p. 223; Shibli, III, pp. 166-7;

.Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 24oa-b; Rzyd(d al-shu'ard',

ff. 30Ia-303a. 62 Nasrdbdi, p. 225; Atashkada, II, p. 492. 63 According to the authentic account of Muhammad SAlih

Kanbo, 'Amal-i .Sdih,

Bibl. Ind., Calcutta, 1923-39, III, p. 402.

64 ShPr Khan Lodi, Mir'at al-khaydl, Bombay, 1906, p. 86; Natd'j" al-afkdr, p. 563.

65 Kanbo, I, p. 50o8, II, pp. 87, I61, 472; Maykhdna, pp. 821-2; Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 148;

.Suhuf-i Ibrdhmif, ff. 285a-286b;

Riydd al-shu'ard', ff. 426b-427a; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 61-2. For his career in ShAh JahAn's court, see 'Abd

al-.Hamid Lahori,

Badshdh Ndma, Bibl. Ind., Calcutta, 1867, I, pp. 444-6, 530; II, 10

pp. 19, 21-2, 50-I; 78-86, 142, 351-3; III, p. 400, and for his death, Ibid., III, p. 504, and Natd'ij al-afkdr, p. 563, which gives Kalim's chronogram on his death.

66 Nasrdbddi, p. 220; Sharif al-Nist' Ansdri, IHaydt wa tasnzfdt-i Mirzd AbZ7 Tdlib Kalim Hamaddni, Hyderabad Deccan, I961, pp. 22-40. Az~d Bilgrami has erroneously confused him with ShSh Nawiz Khan, son of Rustum MirzA Safawi (Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 77-80).

67 The poem written on that occasion is cited by Shibli, III, p. 205.

68 Kalimdt al-sh'ard', p. 155; Sham'-i Anjuman, p. 402; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 295a; Mir'at-al-khaydl, p. 90o; NasrSb~di, p. 220; Shibli, III, p. 211.

69 NFsiri's note in Atashkada, I, p. 120.

70 Nasrdbqdi, pp. 217-18; Ri.hdnat al-adab, pp. 408-1o; Mir'at al-khaydl, pp. 88-90; Majma' al-fusahd, II, pp. 23-4; Atash- kada, I, pp. 120-9; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 101-3; Tarbiyat, pp. 217- 26; Sham'-i Anjuman, pp. 251-2; Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. Iio; Shibli, III, pp. 190-4, Riydd al-shu'ard', ff. 284a-297b;

.Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, ff. 225a-226b; Nata'yi al-afkdr, p. 408; Sh'm-i gharibdn, Urda, pp. 158-6o.




and Sa'ib, all of whom who followed the stylistic tradition of Fighani, implanted the " Indian style " in India, although this theory has been recently contested." In any case the style of these great immigrant poets influenced the Ottoman Turkish poetry,72 and their work may have been quite popular in Safawid Iran.

IV

Compared to the Safawids, the Mughal patronage of poets from Akbar to Shah JahAn was, to some considerable extent, of a " decorative " nature. The poet and his qasidas added to the lustre and glamour of the court. Of these emperors, perhaps Jahangir alone had a genuine sense of appreciation of poetry for its own sake. For Akbar and for Shah Jahin, poets and their poetry served as means to promote the ostentation and magnificence of the imperial court. It is, therefore, not surprising that Naziri and

Sa'ib preferred their respective patrons to the imperial court. Kalim and Qudsi were not merely panegyrists of Shah Jahan, but were also the versifiers of the chronicle of his reign.

Because the position of the poet in the Mughal court was of a decorative nature, it attracted a large number of poets, rather than the poets of great quality. We find, therefore, a large number of minor poets attached to the imperial court. Both Badd'fini and Abu'l Fa;dl have mentioned a large number of poets attached to the court of Akbar who had received no formal education, and probably could not appreciate the fine points of Persian poetry.73 The Emperor's friendship with Faydi was partly of a personal, and partly of a pseudo-intellectual nature.

An account of the poetry of the Mughal court is therefore largely an account of minor poets, most of whom were immigrants from Iran and who managed to gain access to the Mughal court. We shall mention only the more remarkable of these.

Faghffir Lthijdni, whose earlier takhallus was Rasmi, had been a panegyrist of 'Abbas I; He came to the Mughal court in the last years of Akbar's reign, and probably after Akbar's death joined the service of 'Abd al-Rahim Khan-i

Khdn•n and later that of Akbar's grandson Parwiz.74 Qaydi Shirazi

came to India, via the Hijaz, joined the service of Akbar, but later fell into disgrace. Farigh Tabrizi was in Akbar's service for a time, but later returned to Iran. Zarifi Sawaji was a writer of obscenities and satire, some of whose victims were Akbar's courtiers, but finally repented, went to the Hijaz and died

there.75 Mulki Qazwini joined first the service of Akbar, then ofJahangir; he travelled extensively in India and obviously became quite prosperous.76 Lutfi Tabrizi also came first to the court of Akbar; later Jahangir bestowed upon him the title of Mawziin al-mulk and appointed him to small posts in Sind and later in Gujarat.77 Darwish Jawid was presented to Jahangir by his father-in-law I'timtd al-Dawla; a pension was settled on him from the treasury of Ahmadabad.78 Shawqi Sawaji was also

presented to Jahangir by I'timid al-Dawla, in whose service he had earlier been. He incurred the imperial displeasure and was imprisoned, but later returned to Iran and died in poverty.79 Kami Shirazi, author of a diwcdn and the Waqd'i' al-zamin (Fathndma' i Niir Jahdn Begum)80 came to the

Mughal court via the Deccan, but eventually left for Iran. Mawlanm

Taqi Pirzad, a jester and satirist, though not well received in India, managed to get the patronage first of Khan-i Khanin and then of Jahangir. Another poet who made his way from Khan-i Khandn's entourage to Jahangir's court was 'Abd al-Baqi Tdbini.8x Shaydt, another court poet, temporarily incurred Jahangir's displeasure. Taqi Isfahani joined the service ofJahdngir's son Parwiz.82

7n Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 382b; Alessandro Bausani, " Contributo a una definizione dello " stile indiano " della poesia persiana ", Annali dell' Istituto Universitario di Napoli, n. s. VII (1956); Aziz Ahmad, " The Formation of Sabk-i Hindi ", Iran and Islam, ed. C. E. Bosworth, Edinburgh I971, pp. I-9. The latest and the most detailed study of the subject is Wilhelm Heinz, Die indische Stil in der persischen Dichtung, Wiesbaden, 1973-

72 E. J. W. Gibb, A History of Ottoman Poetry, London, 1909, I, pp. 5, 127; Browne, IV, p. 242.

73 Bad'ifini, III, the section on the poets; Abu'l-Fa;dl, A'in-i Akbari, passim. See also A. Ghani, A History of Persian Language and Literature at the Mughal Court, Allahabad, 1929-30.

14 Nasrgbidi, pp. 243-4; Atashkada, II, pp. 843-5; Mla'dthir-i Rahimi, III, p. 902; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 37-8.

75 Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 286-7, 376, 394. 76 Maykhdna, pp. 68o-8. 77 Ibid., pp. 818-19; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, ff. 297a-b. 78 Maykhdna, pp. 919-21. 79Nasrlbidi, p. 331; Atashkada, III, pp. 1136-7; Shdm-i

gharibdn, Urdsi, 46/1 (1970), p. 144; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 49; Sham'-i

anjuman, p. 228. 80 Blochet, III, pp. 1874-5; Storey, I, p. 563- -3 Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, pp. 1057-8; 1452-4- s2 Kalimat al-shu'ara', pp. 101-2; Atashkada, III, p. 928; Sutuf-i

Ibrdhimi, f. 1o4a.




At least three poets of Persian origin were weighed in gold by the order of Shah Jahan and received gold equal to their weight. They were Sa'ida'i Gilani, Kalim and Qudsi.83 Among the minor poets of Shah Jahan's reign were Mirza

S.lih, father of this historian Mirza

S.diq; Ahmad Bag Isfahani,

who first tried his fortune in Bihar and Bengal, then found access to the imperial court; and Saydi TihrAni, who wrote several panegyrics for the emperor and paid compliments to the princess JahAn Ard.84

Of Shah JahAn's sons, Dara Shukoh and Murad Bakhsh were patrons of poets. Hilmi Kashi was, for instance, attached to the entourage of Dara Shukoh, and Baqir Shah to that of Murid, who sent him to Mashhad to do the pilgrimage on his behalf.85

However, there was no place for poets, as there was none for musicians or painters, in the puritanical court of Awrangzib. We find Persian immigrant poets in his reign and in his service, but only as career mansyabddrs, and Sarkhush plainly states that it was hopeless for poets to expect any generosity from Awrangzib.86

V

Poetry appreciation and patronage was one of a Mughal amir's pre-eminent cultural occupations. A large number of amirs and higher mansabddrs had poets in their entourage. Patronage of poets was a status symbol for a cultivated Mughal nobleman, and the expense incurred was well-justified in his view, since his

man.ab and estate was not hereditary; he tried to spend his wealth as lavishly and as

elegantly as possible during his lifetime. Some of the higher noblemen of the Mughal court stand out here as patrons of poets, several of

whom were immigrants from Iran. We have seen that several poets of Tahmasp's age found a patron in Khan-i Zaman 'Ali Quli Khin Sistani, a nobleman of the age of Akbar.8A Other Persian poets in his entourage were Subtiri Hamadani and Laqa'i Astarabddi.88

Most outstanding of the patrons of poets among the Mughal nobility, and himself a poet in three languages, was 'Abd al-Rahim Khan-i Khanan. His generosity was princely. He had Mulla Nawa'i weighed in gold; gave a thousand gold coins to Shakibi; and took Hayati and Shawqi to his treasury to carry away as many gold coins as they could."9 His proteg6 'Abd al-Baqi Nihawandi has left in his Ma'dthir-i Rahimi accounts and specimens of verses of scores of poets, most of them of Persian origin, who enjoyed his patronage. The principal luminary of his entourage was Naziri. Another distinguished poet of his circle was Shakibi Isfahani (d. I023/1614), who was later appointed to the religious office of Sadr by Jahingir and who may have been a Sunni.90 Other poets worth mentioning, from among the multitude of them in his service, were Mahwi Hamadani who wrote good ghazals; Qudsi Gilani; Abil-Turab Ridawi Mashhadi, who was earlier in the service of the Nizam Shahs at Ahmadnagar and had been entrusted to carry the bones of Chand Bibi to Mashhad, and for that reason had temporarily incurred the displeasure of Jahangir; Baqi Damtwandi, who was in Khan-i Khanan's service, but later settled down at Golconda in the Deccan;9' Baqi Isfard'ini, a friend of Naziri and Shakibi; Qaisim Asirl, who left Akbar's service to join that of Khan-i Khanan; Sharari Hamadani, who finally returned to the life of a darwish;92 Baqa'i Khuratsani, who wrote in the style of 'Urfi; Fahimi, who returned to Iran enriched by his patron's bounty; Tadarwi Abhari, who had earlier gained access to the court of the Ottoman Sultan; Anisi Shamlti (d. 1013/1604); and Siraj Isfahani, who was also a good poet and the compiler of 'Urfi's Diwan.93

83 Ldhori, I/i, p. 493, I/ii, pp. 84, 142. 84 Nasrabddi, p. 452; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdii, 45/4 (1969), P. 40;

47/x (1971), P. I53; Natd'ij al-afkar, pp. 49, 218; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 257; Aslah, pp. I239-42; Kalimdt al-shu'ard', pp. 114-16; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. I 1- 12; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 226b; Atashkada, pp. o89-90o; Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 284b.

85 Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdii, 45/4, (1969), p. 50. 88 Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 124. 87 For his career, see Mla'dthir al-umard', I, pp. 622-9. 88 Shdm-i gharibdn, Urda, 47/1 (197i), p. I50; Badi'nli, III,

p. 318. 89 Ma'dthir al-umard', I, pp. 693-712; Shaykh Farid Bhakkari,

Dhakhirat al-khwdnin, Karachi, 1970, I, p. 61. 90 Badd'fini, III, p. 253; Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 269a; Natd'ij

al-afkdr, p. 371.

9' Ma'dthir-i Rabhzm1, III, pp. 56o, 1224-5, 1237-8, 1408-9.

92 Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, f. 97a-b; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdii, 45/3 (1969), p. 27; Maykhdna, p. 8o0.

9 Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, pp. 887-9, 1354-6, 1427; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. o05a; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 21; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 25.




Nizim al-Din Bakhshi, the famous author of the Tabaqdt-i Akbard, also had some poets in his entourage. These included one Baqa'i, who later changed his takhallus to Mashghili, and 'Ahdi Shirdzi.94

Next only to Khan-i Khdndn, the most eminent patron of poets in Jahdngir's India was Ghazi Beg Tarkhin.95 During his governorship of Kandahar several Persian poets who came to India tried their fortune first in his service; several remained with him permanently and sought other patrons only after his death. Murshid Burlijirdi received from him a jdgir in Sind; and he was the cause of arrival from Iran of other poets to seek the patronage of GhTzi Beg, including Mahwi Ardabill and Wasli Shirizi, who later received from Jah.ngir the title of Rashid Khan.96 One of his protdgds, Sariirl Yazdi, had earlier been in the service of 'Abbas I. Ahsani Gildni returned to Iran after Ghazi Beg's death."9

Mahabat Khan Zamana Beg, a Kabuli Sayyid, a Shi'I and a rough soldier, who had for a time held the person of the Emperor Jahingir in detention, was also a patron of poets, probably more for prestige rather than for any genuine appreciation of poetry.98 Among the poets in his service were Sdlik Qazwini, a friend of Kalim, and Subhi Hamaddni.99

Zafar Khan, the generous patron of Sd'ib, attracted several Persian poets to his entourage.100 Mir IlThi Hamadani, who had gained access successively to the courts of

Jahmngir and Shah Jahtn,

chose finally to attach himself to Zafar Khan whom he accompanied to Kashmir in 1041/163I-2;101 he is the author of a diwdn and a tadhkira of poets, the Khazina-i ganj-i Ildhi.x02 Other poets in Zafar Khan's service were Farigh, Subhi Burtijirdi, and Mulli Ashfib.103

Some Mughal mansabddrs in far-flung provinces like Bengal employed poets in their service to enliven their cultural life. Thus Sattir Tabrizi was in the service of Mun'im Khan in Bengal during the reign of Shah Jahdn, and Ibrahim Farsi was in the entourage of Ibrahim Khin Fath Jang, the governor of Bengal.'04

Patronage by the nobility declined under Awrangzib, but some nobles continued to employ poets; for instance, Abfi Turab Beg Bida was in the service of Dhulfiqdr Khan 'Alamgiri.15o

VI

There were furthermore Persian nobles in the Mughal court who were poets themselves and patronised and helped other poets of their land of origin.

Asaf Khan Mirza Ja'far of Qazwin, who came to India under Akbar and rose to be governor of the Deccan under JahAngir, was a good poet in his own right.106 Poets attached to his entourage included Mu'min Tabrizi, who accumulated considerable wealth, Mir Muhlammad Qasim Rdzi, and Safi Kizariini.107 Also attached to Ja'far Khdn's patronage, and earlier to that of AbUi'l-Fadll 'Allami, was Asad Beg Qazwini, basically a mansabddr.x08 Bdqir Khan was a descendant of the famous Safawid general Najm-i Thani. He came to India under Jahangir and received a high mansab, and for him writing poetry was an ancillary activity.'09 An extraordinary case of a Persian nobleman who was also a poet and whose economic interests embraced India as well as Iran was Mir Jumla Mulhammad Amin Shahrastdni. In his youth he came to India to join service under Jahangir, but left the Mughal service

94 Bada'ini, III, pp. 196-7, 282. 95 A comprehensive study of his literary circle is Husm al-Din

RLshidi, Mfrzd Ghdzi Big Tarkhdn awr uski bazm-i adab, Karachi, i970. For his official career, see Dhakhirat al- khawdnin, II, pp. 18-31; and Ma'dthir al-umard', III, pp. 345-8.

98 Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, p. 784; Khayr al-baydn, f. 361a-b; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 39-41; Rdshidi, 469; Maykhdna, pp. 669-70.

97 Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, p. 785; Raz-i rawshan, p. 291; Rashidi, pp. 254-5; Khayr al-baydn, f. 358a-b.

98 Dhakhfrat al-khawdnin, II, pp. 116-173; Ma'dthir al-umard', III, pp. 385-409.

99 Nasr~bidi, p. 328; Atashkada, III, pp. 1169-70; Sarv-i Azdd, p. Io9; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 205; ShAm-i gharibcn, Urdzi, 47/1 (1971), p. 156.

100oo Dhakhirat al-khwdnfn, II, pp. 290-1.

101 Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 4; Riyd•d al-shu'ard', f. 66b; Natd'ij al-afkdr, pp. I7-18 Mahdi Darakhsh, Buzurgdn-u Sukhun- Sardydn-i Hamaddn,; Tehran, 1341 Shamsi, I, pp. 241-4; Storey, 1/2, pp. 815-I6.

102 Rieu, II, p. 6876; Berlin Ms. Or. 646. 103 Nasrbaidi, pp. 309, 339; Shdm-i gharfbdn, Urdz, 47/1 (1971),

p. 152; Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 71b. 104 Sham'-i anjuman, p. 195; Maykhdna, pp. 898-9. 105 Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 94b. 106 Dhakhirat al-khwdnin, I, pp. 187-90; Maykhdna, pp. 159-6o;

Atashkada, III, pp. 1156-7; Nasrabddi, p. 53; Sham'-i anjuman, p. i I; ;Natd'?j al-afkar, p. I55.

107 Nasrdbldi, pp. 386-7; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, f. 278a. 108 Maykhdna, pp. 748-9; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdia, 57/3 (i969),

pp. 30-1; Subuf-i IbrAhimW, f. 53b. 109 Natd'ij al-afkdr, p. io5.




and went to the court of Golconda. He then returned to Iran and enjoyed the favour of 'Abbas I. Due to rivalry with his cousin Mirza Radi he returned to the Deccan. After the death ofJahangir he rejoined the Mughal service and enjoyed the favour of Shah Jahan, sending back a great deal of money to Iran.110

Though Awrangzib was no patron of poets, quite a few of his Persian nobles wrote poetry. They include 'Aqil Khan Razi, who rose to be the ndzim of Delhi and is the author of a mathnawi Sham' wa parwdna which relates the Indian story of Padmavati."'1 Ni'mat Khan 'Ali, (d. 1123/1711), more famous as a writer of rhetorical prose with doubles entendres than as a poet, was a zealous Shi'i who joined the service of Awrangzib and received the title of Danishmand Khan under Shah 'Alam I.112 Hasan Bag Rafi' Mashhadi, probably a Sunni, tried his fortune at the court of the Ozbeg Nadhar Muhammad Khan before he came to India under Shah Jahan. He was an accomplished writer of ins~ha' and a poet. Under Awrangzib he was appointed to the diwdni and buyatati of Kashmir.113 Mu'izz al-Din Fitrat came to India under Awrangzib, who later conferred upon him the title of Muisawi Khan."4 Mukhlis Khan Payda was tan bakhshi under Awrangzib. Apart from poetry, he wrote excellent prose.,15 Qizilbash Khan Ummid, a disciple of Mirz~ Tahir Wahid served Awrangzib and his successors, and later Nizam al-Mulk in the Deccan. In his old age he returned to Delhi and lived a life of pleasure and luxury; he knew Indian music well.16 Badhil Mashhadi received from Awrangzib the title of Rafi' Khan and rose to be the governor of Burhanpur."11 Sayyid IHusayn Khdlis received the title of ImtiyAz Khan from Awrangzib and was appointed the diwdn of Patna. In the reign of Shah 'Alam I he returned to Iran and was assassinated there in I I22/1710.118

VII

Well-placed Persians in India helped poets arriving from Iran by extending hospitality and some limited patronage, and by introducing them to the Mughal imperial court or to some generous nobleman.

.Hakim Abu'l-Fath Gildni helped a number of poets including 'Urfi and

.Hayati Gilani. The latter

had a luckier career in the Mughal court; Jahangir had him weighed in gold.x19 Thana'i Mashhadi was, on the other hand, disappointed in Hakim Abu'l-Fath's patronage and spent his last days in obscurity.'x2

Some Persian poets came to India attracted by the reports of the success of greater poets and received help from them. Ashki Qummi came after hearing of Ghazali Mashhadi's success; Tajalli Kashi and Nadim Lahijani received considerable help from Naziri Nishiptiri.121 Nadim, however, returned to Iran after travelling extensively in India. Rawnaqi Hamadani came to India, because he knew Kalim.122

Safawid princes or noblemen, who had deserted to the Mughals and received high appointments in India, also helped immigrant Persian poets. Thus Rustum Mirza Safawl was the patron of Mahwl Ardabili and others; while Mulla Shah Muhammad Amuli, who had migrated to India in dire poverty, joined the service of'Ali Mardan Khin's son Ibrahim Khin.123 Muhammad Quli Salim (d. 1057/1647) a poet of some distinction who later found the patronage of Shah Jahan's wazir Islam Khan, found help

110 Dhakhirat al-khawdnfn, II, pp. 217-20; Ma'dthir al-umard', III, pp. 413-18; Nasrdbddi, p. 56; Sham-i gharfban, Urdi 46/1 (1970), p. I0o.

ux Ma'dthir al-umard', II, pp. 821-3; Saftna-i Khushgi7, III, pp. 13-I4.

u2 Ibid., III, pp. 59-61. 11 Khizdna-i 'amira, pp. 233-8; Natd'ij al-afkdr, pp. 270-2;

Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 2o9a; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. o107-8. 114 Atashkada, II, pp. 491-2; Mir'at al-khayal, pp. 164-6;

Ma'dthir al-umard', III, pp. 633-5; Su4uf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 276a. 1,s Saffna-i Khushgi, III, p. 59.

n1 Ibid., III, p. 250; Suhuf-i Ibrdahfm, f. 77a; Natda'i al-afkdr, p. 63; Shdm-i gharfban, Urda, 45/4 (1969), pp. 43-4; Riydd

al-shu'ard', ft. 87b-89a; Sham-'i anjuman, p. 36. '17 Sarv-i Azdd, p. 141; RiyddI al-shu'ard', ff. oIoib--Iowa.

118 Ibid., f. 189a; Sarv-i Avzd, p. 139; Alabi, pp. 60-5; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 141.

119 Maykhdna, pp. 218, 8o9-Io; Rjydd al-shu'ard', f. 145b. 120 Badi'fini, III, p. 208. 121 Natd'*j al-afkdr, pp. 41, 719; Sham-i gharibdn, Urda, 45/3 (1969),

p. 24, 45/4 (1969), p. 59; Ma'dthir-i Rahimf, III, pp. 1266-8; Nasraibdi, p. 240; Maykhdna, p. 837; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 56.

122 Nafrdbadi, p. 257; Riydd al-shu'ard', f. 207b; Maykhdna, pp. 868-9.

123 Shimn-i ghariban, Urda, 47/1 (I971), p. 147.




initially from Mir 'Abd al-Salam, a nobleman of Persian origin.124 Salik Yazdi, an eloquent poet, came through Golconda to Mughal India and attached himself to an Irani amir, Danishmand Khan.125

VIII

What was known to the Safawid poets as the Dakani-i thaldthal26 or the three kingdoms of the Niz~m- Shahis of Ahmadnagar, the Qutb-ShAhis of Golconda and the 'Adil-Shdhis of Bijapur, also constituted considerable temptation for immigration. All the three states were ruled by Shi'i rulers; all the three had close religious, cultural and political ties with the Safawid Iran. In these kingdoms noblemen of Persian origin, orthodox Shi'is, had established cultural patterns and avenues of patronage which attracted immigrants from Persia, including poets.

At Ahmadnagar, Shah Tahir, savant, theologian, administrator and poet who converted Burhan Nizam Shah (1510-53) to Shi'ism, set the cultural pace. Earlier he had held an honoured position in the court of Isma'il I, but had to leave Iran as he was unjustly accused by his enemies of being an Isma'il.127

At Golconda, opulent in that age due to its mineral resources, many Persian noblemen-poets made their fortunes. Amir Taqi al-Din (Mir Shah) became the wakil of Ibrahim Qutb Shah (1550-80).128 Much more eminent was Mir Muhammad Mu'min Ada'i, appointed the Pishwd of the state by Muham- mad Quli Qutb Shah (1580-1611) in 993/1585. Earlier he had been the tutor of the Safawid prince Ijaydar Mirza. When that prince was executed by the order of Isma'il II, Ada'i took refuge at Gol- conda. After his death his dd'ira (in the sense of location of burial) became the graveyard of Persian immigrants, so that the poet Fitrat Mashhadi was buried there.129 Several other Persian poets came to the court of Golconda. One of them, Kawkabi (d. 1624) was a runaway Georgian slave of 'Abbas I.130 Mawlina Hamza took service for a time with 'Abd al-Rahim Khan-i Khanan and later with the rulers of Golconda and Bijapur before returning finally to Iran.131 'Abd Allah Qutb Shah (1626-72) attracted several poets to his court, including the witty, learned and conceited Ulfati whom Nasrabtdi met and disliked in Isfahan. More eminent among his court-poets was Mirza Racdi Danish, who had earlier served Dara Shukoh and Shah Shuja' and had taken refuge at Golconda to escape the indifference and possibly the ire, of Awrangzib. He was later sent by 'Abd Allah Qutb Shah as his nd'ib al-ziydrat to Mashhad.132 Salih Razi also chose to emigrate from India to his court. Another poet, Faraj Allah Shfishtari, gained considerable recognition at the Qutb-Shahi court.133

The court of Bijapur was proud to have in its circle the great Zahilri (d. 1025/1616) who preferred the patronage of Ibrahim 'Adil Shah II (I580-I627) to that of Akbar, despite his contact with Fayodi who admired him and wanted to take him to the Mughal emperor. Less renowned, but quite a good poet, was his contemporary at Bijapur, Malik Qummi, whose fame had also spread to Mughal India. He and Zahfiri versified Ibrahim 'Adil Shdh's treatise on music, Nawras, and received generous reward.134 Others who were at Bijapur at that time include Baqir Khurda Kashi, his rival Jismi Hamadani, and Dhani Kashi. Shahidi Qummi is another poet attached to the court of Bijapur, mentioned in several tadhkiras.x3s

124 Nasribddi, p. 227; Natda'" al-afkar, p. 332; Atashkada, I, p. 64; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 20o1. 125

NasrAb-di, p. 329; Sarv-i Azdd, p. I lo; Sham'-i anjuman,

p. 207. 126 Maykhdna, p. 751. 127 H. K. Sherwani and P. M. Joshi (eds.), History of Medieval

Deccan, Hyderabad, 1973, I, pp. 235-6, 240, 283, 317-21, 339, 421, 444, 507; Tuhfa-i Sdmf, p. 29; Atashkada, III, pp. 1266-8; Rida Quli HidRyat, Riydd al-'drifin, Tehran, 1305 Shamsi, pp. 169-70; Rihanat al-adab, II, p. 294; Natd'yj al-afkdr, pp. 436-8; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 276-7; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, f. 32a-b.

128 Atashkada, III, p. 928.

1as Sherwani and Joshi, I, p. 456; Atashkada, II, pp. 798-9, and N3siri's note; Nasrabddi, pp. 291-2; S~uuf-i IbrAdhmi, ff. 32ob-32ia; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 375.

1310 Ibid., p. 400. 131 Ma'dthir-i Razhimi, III, pp. 1414-15. 132 Nasrab.di, pp. 253, 326; Mir'at al-khaydl, p. I68; Khizdna-i

'amira, pp. 217-21; Nata'b" al-afkar, p. 246; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 146-7; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 87-8.

133

.Suhuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 215b; Nasribadi, p. 334.

134 BadS'fini, III, pp. 269, 332; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 284-5; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 31-2-

135 Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdil, 45/4 (I969), PP. 49, 68-9, 10o4, 47/I (1971), 146; Nasrfbadi, pp. 294, 397; Rjydd al-shu'ard', f. 256a.




IX The emigration to India of Persian poets was only a current in the general flow of immigration

of all kinds of Persians, belonging to all classes and various professions, in search of better opportunities; in a way, this immigration can be compared to that of Europeans coming to North America in modern times.

Judging from the selections in most of the tadhkiras, excluding the Maykhdna, the work of the greater majority of poets who migrated to India was mediocre. Many of them found no patrons or only minor ones. For the majority of them, writing poetry was an ancillary activity, and their professional expertise or success lay in some other field.

In some cases whole families migrated to India, such as Mir IHaydar Mu'amma'i and his two sons who followed him, Mir Sanjar and Mir Ma'saim. Of these, Mir IHaydar went back to Iran and Mir Sanjar, who had a successful career in Mughal India, died while on his way back to Iran at the invita- tion of'Abbas I; but Mir Ma'suim, who came much later, stayed on in India.136 If a Persian established himself at the Mughal court or elsewhere in India, there was an incentive for his relatives to migrate and try their fortune. Qardri Gilmni

came to India because his brother IHakim Abu'l-Fath Gilani was influential at Akbar's court. Mulld

.Hakimi, who lived in Bengal and the Deccan was a nephew of

'Urfi; and Bayin Isfahani, who did not prosper much under Awrangzib, was a nephew of Kalim.137 Wajhi was a brother of Haydar Khisdli, who was in the service of the immigrant Safawid prince Muzaffar IHusayn Mirza and later of Mahabat Khan.13s Rdqim Mashhadi followed his father, who was a merchant, to India and joined the service of Islam Khan. Mirza Muhammad Sakit came to India after the death of his father Mirza Mu'min, who had held a minor mansab under Shah Jahmn, and took service under Awrangzib.139 Tdhir Isfahdni and his younger brother came to India, and joined the service of Awrangzib; the former received the title Iltiftt Khan.140 There are numerous other cases of immigration of two or more members of the same family.

Several immigrant poets were recognized scholars. Mir Murtad;t Sharifi Shirizi was a scholar of mathematics, logic and scholasticism and famous in the first place as such. Qadi Ahmad Ghifdri Qazwini was primarily a munshi and a historian. Mir 'Aziz Allah, who rose and fell in Akbar's administration, was basically an expert accountant.141 Muhammad Qasim Asir, in the entourage of 'Abd al-Rahim Khdn-i Khandn, was a scholar of astronomy and mathematics. Mir Abu'l-'Al'i Shrishtari was primarily an exegete.142 Mir 'Ahdi, also in the service of Kh.n-i Khdndn, was an astronomer and a prosodist. A Persian 'dlim and poet Mawldnd Muhammad Sa'id was appointed by Awrangzib as the tutor of his daughter Zib al-nisa', even though he was a devout Shi'i.143

Due to India's unhealthy climate, and because of excesses in sexual life and in eating, physicians were very much in demand in Mughal India.144 Some of the physicians who came from Iran were also poets, such as IHakim IHdhiq, brother of the influential Hakim Abu'l-Fath Gilani, Hakim Sadr al-Din Ildhi Shirazi, who received the title of Masih al-Zamdn from Akbar, and Diyd' al-Din, who received the same title from Jahdngir.145 Rukna Kashi, another physician-poet, left Iran because his expecta- tions of patronage were not fulfilled by 'Abbas I, and after spending some time in India, returned to Iran where he was again disappointed in Shah Safi, but stayed on there;146 he must have been a difficult person. A number of other physician-poets made their way to India, including Rafi' Dastiir who attached himself to Asaf Khan; 'Ishrati Gildni who joined the service of Mir Jumla's son Amin Khan; Kazim Tini, author of a mathnawi on the theme of JalMl al-Din Khwdrizmi's resistance against the Mongols; 'Abd al-Razziq Mushrib, who came later under Awrangzib and practised at Lucknow

136 Badi'fini, III, p. 232; Natd'd al-afkdr, p. 263; Riyd.d al- shu'ard', ff. I8gb-I99a; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 197, 437; Ma'dthir-i Raifmi, III, pp. 622, 732; Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 26, 81; Nasribidi, p. 250; Subuf-i Ibrdhimi, f. 31 7a.

137 Sham'-i anjuman, p. 384; Shdm-i gharibcn, Urdfi, 45/4, p. 86; Raz-i rawshan, p. 70; Natad' al-afkdr, p. o8.

138 Mlaykhdna, pp. 845-6. 139 Natda'j al-afkar, p. 268; Sham-i gharibdn, Urda, 46/1 (1970),

pp. 111-12, 135-8.

140 Sham'-i anjuman, p. 279- 141 Badi'uni, III, pp. 279-80; 320-1; Natda'" al-afkdr, p. .51 142 Ma'dthir-i Rahimi, III, pp. 855-7; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urda,

45/4 (1969), P- 33- 143 Ma'dthir-i Rahim~, III, pp. 1305-6; Nasrabddi, p. 181. 144 'Ali Kawthar Chandpfiri, Afibbd'i 'ahd-i Mughuliya, Karachi,

I96o, passirn. 145 Nasrdbadi, pp. 61-2; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urda, 45/4, P- 34. 146 Nagsrab3di, pp. 214-15.




and later in Kashmir; Fakhr al-Dawla 'Amid al-Din, who gained his title and honour in the imperial service; and several others.147

There was considerable trade between Safawid Iran and Mughal India. Some of the Persian traders who visited India for long or short durations were also poets. IHaydari, who visited India several times and the Hijaz twice, was treated generously by Akbar.148 Aqd Shdptir Tihrani, related to I'timad al-Dawla, gained access to the courts of Akbar and Jahangir through him and Asaf Khan Mirzd Ja'far, throve in business in India and returned to Iran.149 Mir 'Askarl Kashdni, who had earlier refused to

join the service of the rulers of Golconda and Bijapur and preferred to remain independent as a merchant, joined the service of Mughal nobles only after he had been ship-wrecked and lost his property near Surat.

S.lih Tabrizi, who had earlier travelled as a merchant in the Ottoman empire, joined in

India the service of Khwaja Bag Mirzti Safawi, but on the death of that prince resumed the career of merchant.150 Mirzi Muqim Jawhari, son of a goldsmith and himself a merchant, gained access to

Mughal princes and nobles through his tact and witty tongue. Mas'fid, a contractor of coal and fire- wood, accompanied his father to India, but later returned to Iran where he gained recognition as a writer of chronograms.151 Several other Irani merchant-poets are mentioned in various tadhkiras.152

Amongst other professional people, Mirzd Jaldl, a Tabatabd'i sayyid, was an expert at inshd' and was held in esteem in the court of Shah Jahdn. Sa'idd'i Gildni, an accomplished goldsmith, and a versatile expert in painting and calligraphy, was appointed by Jahangir the ddrfigha of his zargarkhdna (" gold- smithery") and given the title Bibadal Khan. Muhammad Ridda Radi and Rashidd were expert gold- smiths as well as poets, who tried their fortune in India for a while and then returned to Iran.s53 Mirzi Kazim, Awrangzib's official wdqi'a-nawis (chronicler) and the author of the 'Alamgir-Nama, was of Persian origin; he also composed poetry.154 Fusini Yazdi, Iskandar and Asad155 were professional story-tellers (qissa-khwdn) who also wrote poetry. Ashraf Khan Mir Munshi, Tali'i Yazdi, Qasim Arslan Mashhadi, Khwaja Muhammad Muqim and his son 'All Tabrizi, Shamsd'i Zarrin-raqam, Taqi Kashi, known as Marwdrid-raqam, and RfIzbeh Shirtzi, were calligraphists as well as poets.156 Mulld Muhammad Sa'id Ashraf, whom Awrangzib appointed Zib al-Nisa's tutor, was a scholar, a

calligrapher, a painter and a poet. Sharif Farsi, son of the famous painter Khwa-ja 'Abd al-Samad, was a painter as well as a poet. Akhtari Yazdi was basically an astrologer as his takhallus shows.157 Tasalli Shirazi was a craftsman who also won recognition as a poet in India; Fikri was a weaver; and

Taqi Halwa'i a seller of condiments.158 Mulld Rawghani extracted oil and wrote satirical and obscene verses; Zamdna sold and applied henna.159

X A very interesting category of Persian immigrant poets was that of qalandars and dervishes, most of

them motivated by Wanderlust and the quest of new spiritual or emotional experiences. Mir Amani wandered alone, clad in skins, in parts of India and was held in respect. Mudami Hamadani was a

IHaydari qalandar. Ddnihi was an eccentric who wrote ghazals both in the rustic dialect of his part of Iran and in elegant Persian.o60 Sarfi Sawaji, though a dervish attached himself successively to the

141 Ibid., pp. 204, 270, 402; Atashkada, II, p. 841, III, pp. 967-8; SaJfna-i Khushga, III, pp. 81-2.

148 Atashkada, I, pp. II4-15; Majma' al-khawasy (Pers. tr.), pp. 217-18; Tarbiyat, pp. I25-6, 193-

149 Nasribddi, p. 237; Maykhdna, pp. 535-9; Nata'f" al-afkar, p. 362; Aslah, p. 152.

150 Maykhdna, pp. 719-21, 881. 151 Shdm-i gharibdn, Urdia, 45/4, pp. 69-70; Nagsrabdi, p. 424. 15 For instance, Nasrtbadi, pp. 135-9, 399, Sarv-i Azdd, p. 57;

Riy.dd al-shu'ard', ff. 64b, etc.

153 Nasribadi, pp. 10o2, 388, 393; Jahingir, Tuzuk, Lucknow, 19I4, PP. 335; L hori, I, pp. 489-95; Suhuf-i Ibrdhfmn, f. I86b; Khizdna-i 'dmira, p. 198; Natd'ji al-afkdr, 269. 1

" Nasribddi, p. 132. 15 Bad•1'5ni, III, p. 297; Ma'4thir-i

Ra.imf, III, p. 1242;

Riy.d al-shu'ard', f. 57b.

156 BadSl'ini, III, pp. I81, 266; Riyddal-shu'ard', f. 57b; Ma'athir-i Rahimi, III, pp. 781, I419; Napsrnbdi, p. 20o8; NVatd'yi al-afkdr, p. 129; Shdm-i gharibdn, Urda, 45/4, P. 58, 46/1 (1970), p. 114.

157 Nasrgbidi, p. 181; Natd'ij al-afkdr, p. 54; Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 13;

. Suhuf-i

Ibrdhimf, f. 68b; Sarm-i Azdd, pp. 116-I 7; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 32; Bad'fini, III, p. 310;

Riyd•d al-

shu'ard', f. 56b. 158 Nasrdbgdi, pp. 258, 419; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 365. 159

Ri?ad al-shu'ard', f. 207a; Shdm-i ghariban, Urd 46/I (1970), p. Io7; Nasrabddi, p. 400.

16o Ma'dthir-i Ra4fmf, III, I40oo0-1; Bad'afini, III, pp. 174, 229, 341-2.




patronage of Nizdm al-Din Ahmad and Faydi. Wafa'i Isfahani, a tramp, attached himself for some time to Zayn Khan Koka.1i1 Talib Isfahani, a dervish and a Siifi, was friendly with the luminaries of Akbar's court, and was appointed to the religious-administrative post of sadr of Gujarat; later he was given a diplomatic assignment in Kashmir. Rasmi was a qalandar and a

Si.fi, but laterjoined service as a

soldier under Khan-i Khdnin.162 Then there were convinced heretics who escaped to India where Akbar's, and to a certain extent

Jahangir's, liberal religious policy offered them refuge and freedom of belief. Wuq-i'i Nishapuiri, a believer in metempsychosis and possibly inclined towards Ism'illism, gained access to Akbar's court. IHayati Kashi was persecuted in Iran for his association with Nuqtawi heretics; he took refuge at Ahmadnagar and finally gained access to Jahdngir's court. Tashbihi Kashi, also branded a Nuqtawi and a heretic, gained the protection of Abi'l-Fadl 'Allami in his second or third visit to India and was granted a pension by Akbar which was continued by Jahdngir.163

Mir Abi'l-Qatsim Findariski (d. 1640-41) was rebuked by 'Abbas I for his association with vaga- bonds and qalandars; he went to India, absorbed Zoroastrian and Hindu influences, but returned to Iran under Safi.164 Some unconventional dervish poets sought and fell under Hindu religious and cultural influence. Baqi Nd'ini was friendly with Brahmins, visited Hindu temples and became an expert on Indian music. Later he seems to have become an orthodox Muslim, visited Mecca, was generously treated by Shah Jahdn and finally returned to Iran.165 Naw'i Khabiashini wrote a moving poem Sfz-u guddz on the sati (suttee) of a Hindu woman.166 Shawkati Isfahani went twice to India; during his second visit he tried to sodomize a Hindu boy, who killed him. Zamani Yazdi believed in trans- migration of souls. Mirzi Ibrahim Adham was a qalandar and somewhat insane, living in India a life of tactlessness and licentiousness, as a result of which he was imprisoned.16' Mast 'Ali and Khasmi Isfahani were maldmi qalandars; Ijifzi Isfahani and Mulli Hasan 'Ali were travelling dervishes who roamed through the Ottoman empire and India.'68 Most eminent of the qalandar poets was the maldmi mystic Sarmad, who went about naked in ecstasy and wrote moving quatrains, was held in esteem by Dart Shukoh and was executed by Awrangzib.169

XI

After Awrangzib, during the period of the decline and subsequent powerlessness of the Mughals, some Persian poets continued to migrate, from the twilight of the Safawids to the twilight of the Mughals, from chaotic Iran to chaotic India.

Fadl 'All Khan rose to be the diwdn of Lahore and a mansabddr under Farrukhsiyar (1713-19). Another Persian poet, Fdrigh Qummi, who had married the daughter of a lowly boatman in Sind, received the title of Nizim Khan and a mansab from the same weak emperor. Mir Muhammad Matla', a sayyid from Iran, lived like a dignified mirzd in India during the same reign.170 Another Persian poet, Racdi Shfishtari, came first to Gujarat, then joined successively the service of Shuja' al-Dawla in Awadh, of Murshid Quli Khan in Orissa and of Nizim al-Mulk in the Deccan. After the death of his patron Tahmasp II in 1731, 'Ali Quli Khan Wglih Daghistdni, author of Riydg al-shu'ard', came to

161 Majma' al-khawdss, (Pers. tr.), pp. 222, 289; Raz-i rawshan, P. 393; Subh-i gulshan, p. 596.

162 Ma'dthir-i Raihmi, III, pp. 1259-60, 1297-8; Khayr al-baydn, f. 373b; Raz-i rawshan, p. 406; 'Alldmi, Akbar Ndma, III, PP. 552, 568, 731; Bad'i'ni, III, p. 265; Jahdngir, Tuzuk, pp. 286, 345; Raz-i rawshan, p. 241; Shibli, III, p. 13.

163

Ni.zm al-Din Ahmad, Tabaqdt-i Akbari, Bibl. Ind. Calcutta,

1927-35; III, p. 505; BadS'fini, III, pp. 20o4-6, 378-81; Amin b. Ahmad Razi, Haft Iqlim, Calcutta, 1939, II, P. 273; Natd'ij al-afkdr, p. 88; Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 95, 124-5; Maykhdna, p. 887; Suhuf-i Ibrdhimf, f. o105a; Riydd al-shu'ard', f. io6b.

84 Mulsin Fani (attributed to), Dabistdn-i madhdhib, Eng. tr. D. Shea and A. Troyer, Paris, 1843, I, pp. 140-I; Nasrdbhdi,

P. 153; Atashkada, II, pp. 792-3; Suhuf-i Ibrdhfmf, f. 53b; Browne, IV, pp. 257-8.

165 Suhuf-i Ibrdhfmi, f. 97a; Maykhdna, pp. 872-3; Kanbo, II, 229; Khizdna-i 'dmira, p. I50; Nasr5bbdi, pp. 306-7; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 79.

s16 Berlin Ms. Or. Sprenger, p. 1469 (Pertsch, p. 928); Bada'fini, III, pp. 361; Haft IqlPn, II, pp. 307; Khizdna-i 'dmira, pp. 435-6.

167 NasrdbS di, pp. 244, 336, 359; Kalimat al-shu'ard', p. 5; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 41.

168s NasrAtbddi, pp. 418-I9; Sham-i gharibdn, Urdfi, 45/4 (1969), PP. 84, 94-

169 Ibid., 46/1 (1970), p. 133; Nat"d'j al-afkdr, pp. 334-6. 170 Sham'-i anjuman, p. 361; Saftna-i Khushga, III, pp. 89, 147.




India and was appointed by Muhammad Shah (1719-48) to a mansab of4,ooo and was given the title Zafar Jang.171 Most eminent of these later immigrants was Shaykh 'Ali Hazin (I692-1766). He had come in contact with TahmAsp II, but the Afghan invasions of 1721-2 had already reduced him to destitution. In 1734 he made his way to India and was in Delhi during Nrdir Shah's invasion (1739). In India he remained unhappy, and had an unmitigated contempt for the country and its inhabitants. He was helped by Walih Daghistani, but he had many bitter enemies, including the famous Urdu poet and lexicographer Siraj al-Din 'All Khan Arzti, whose Tanbih al-ghdfilin is. a withering criticism of his poetry. For a long time he cherished the vain desire of returning to Iran, but finally settled down at Benares and died there.172

XII

The attitudes of the Safawid immigrant poets to India range from enthusiastic nostalgia to bitter dislike. Usually they came full of hope and expectation. Many of them, like 'Abd al-Nabi, the author of the Maykhdna, had heard the praise of India from merchants and other Iranians who had been there. 'Abd al-Nabi's first impression was that it was an extraordinary country where everything was cheap and plentiful. Everyone had the freedom to live as he pleased without any interference or persecution. The same author reports the impression of another immigrant, IHakim 'Arif who found India populous and plentiful, providing all the comfort of living one could desire.173 Aq Hasan, who had been connected with the shrine of the Imam 'All al-Ritda, wrote nostalgically in the age of 'Abbas I, about India that " Hind " (India) and " Jahdn " (the world) have the same numbers as chronograms; later he left for India.1"7 Talib Amuli, on his way to India wrote in a quatrain that he was leaving his bad luck in Iran, as no one carried a Hindu [of dark skin] to India. He also wrote in praise of Delhi, Lahore, Ajmer and Kashmir. Mun'im Hakkak Shirazi wrote a mathnawi in praise of Agra.175 Several ghazals of Murshid Burfijirdi praise India and denounce Iran. As we have seen, Kalim expressed his unhappiness on having to return to Iran temporarily. Muhammad Quli Salim both praised and blamed India. His verse is famous as stating that there is no chance of acquiring perfection in Iran; henna acquires colour only in India. He also wrote that old age brings no sorrow in India.176

On the other hand, quite a few Irani immigrant poets were disappointed in India and satirized it, to the chagrin of their Indian contemporaries. Some of them were not lucky enough to find adequate patronage; others suffered from cultural shock; but most suffered from the rigours of India's hot climate, and it is not surprising that many returned to Iran, either temporarily or permanently. HIaydari Tabrizi complains in the age of Akbar that there was no recognition of talent in India, where a man could be bought for a rupee.177 'Abd al-Nabi, whom we have noted as so enthusiastic about coming to India and so excited at his arrival, expressed a longing to return to Iran in his Sdqi-ndma.

But it was India's climate which these poets complained most about. S.'ib,

Naw'i Khabfishdni, Mashriqi, Rafi' Lahijani, and even India's panegyrist Muhammad Qull Salim, complain of Hind-i jigar-khwdr (liver-consuming India). Hence it is not surprising that a large number of Safawid poets visited Kashmir, and several of them settled down there.178

171 Sarv-i Azdd, pp. 223-4; Sham'-i anjuman, p. 38; Storey, 1/2, pp. 830-3. Ms. 1O. D.P. 423 (c).

172 Shaykh 'Ali Hazin, Ta'rikh-i ahwdl bi-tadhkira-i h.l, ed. F. B. Balfour, London, 1831; Riydd al-shu'ard', if. 149b-15ib; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 225; Ghuldm IHamddni Mushafi, 'Iqd-i Thurayyd, Delhi, I934, p. 22; Safqna-i

Khus.hg, III, pp.

291-2; Storey, 1/2, pp. 840-9. 173 Maykhdna, pp. 761, 931. 174 Nasrdbidi, pp. 129-30.

175 Browne, IV, p. 255; Kalimidt al-shu'ard', p. 176. 176 Sharif al-Nisa' Anari, op. cit. pp. 41-2; Sarv-i Azdd, p. 66;

Kalimdt al-shu'ard', p. 76. 177 Sham'-i anjuman, pp. 12I-2. 178 For the Safawid poets who visited Kashmir or made it their

home and wrote in its praise, see Aslab, op. cit., and its four- volume supplement, IHusam al-Din Rdshidi. Tadhkira-i shu'ard'i Kashmfr, Karachi, 1346 Shamsi, passim.



Ṣafawid poets and india

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