-"••• • 77 1- ench

Algoma Uniarsity College

.t:1 Gender i i

Role Model

Page 2

Abstract

models provide examples of how to live and act_

This study sought to determine whet', 7- the ender or

the status of a role model is the. most important factor

in influencing the choice of a role model in young

children. The subjects were 138 ight- to nine-year

old boys and girls. They listened to a short story

describing a space shuttle mission and then were askod

two questions, each giving them the choice of two jo

One qu on manipulated the status and g-le of the

characters performing the jobs in the st-y, The other

Question manipulated only the gender of the characters.

The results supported previous findings that both boys

and girls choose a role model based on gender. However

girls were not significantly less likely than the boys

choose a role m,-1:-1R*1, based on g as

predicted. It was found that status and gender are not

independent of each other, and both play a role in

influencing a childs selection of a role model.

Role Model

3

Role model Acouisition:

Status versus Gender

Today it is increasingly being emphasised that

children must have positive r del- 4- -u. emulate in

order to be successful in our society. How do young

children acquire role models? Past studies have shown

that gender the main factor in influencing the

choice of role models. This study will seek to

determine wh ther it is the gender or the status of the

role model that plays a more important -role in

influencing young children.

A rolP, model will be defined as a -real or

theoretical person who is perceived as being an Ideal

standard for emulation in one or a selected number of

roles aditionally, parents serve as the main role

models for their child (P,riduT-a, 1977). Some of

the important behaviors in which imitation plays a key

role are moral development, 'f-control, and in the

development of behaviors viewed as appropriate for

males and females (Hetherington, 1986). Diddle (1979)

tate modeling occurs when the charismatic leader

has certain personal thaT in

behaviors of his/her followers.

Role

Bandu -oa's studies (1977) on imitation and learning

emphasize that much of our behavior is adopted through

imitation and positive reinforcement_ Children learn

sex-appropriate behaviors by lao,ling their same-e e.

parent_ The child must first form an identification

with his/her sa,e-sex parent Identification is part

of learniru he individual's role in society_ It is

argued that once the child has formed an identification

with an adult, he./she will find it easier n the

role exhibited by that person. They will imitate that

role in his/her own behavior and will learn

expectations by taking the role of the other with whom

identification has taken place (Biddle, 1979).

Research has found that

1 conform less

strictly than boys to what are traditionally considered

-appropriate behaviors (O'Brien, 1932; as cited by

Hetherine'ton, 1986). Girls are more likely to play

with a truck than 7

are to play with a doll. An

explanation for this may be the part that fathers play

in the se-role typing of the children. Many fathers

discourage "giri-like" behaviors in their eons

Another r this is that. our culture

A

basically a male-oriented culture, with greater eet

Role

Page

priviedges, and status accorded to the masculine role

.; as cited by Hetherington, 1988)_

Fathers Eriy not discourage "boy-like" behavior in girls

as this bchior may lead to highl- :,tatils for tile

girls -

An imortant question is at what age do children

develop rigid stereotypes for what is appropriate

gender-related behavior? Katz (1991) tested the

willingne 8- and 11-year old males and females to

perform tasks usually associated with the opposite sex.

The results showed that girls exhibited more flexible

gender and role preferences than boys, and that ol

dren had more stereotyped preferences than younger

child

Past research, by Eandura and others, has shown

that gender was the main factor in adopting role

models. Status may also affect the acquisition of role

models. A child who adopts a role model with hi

status may imitate the the behaviors of the role model

that led to his/her having high status. The child may

acquire the strong work ethic, high need for

achent, and suc:2ess orientation of the role

Smith (1989) found that adolescents who adopted eitzs

Role

parent as a role, model and emulated their achievement-

oriented bhavior could be expected to have higher

blational aspirations if the parental model had an

extensive education compared to an uneducated parent

(Smith, 1969). The findings suggest that students'

educational goals and academic performance are

influenced by parental reinforcement of achievement

behavior, provision of economic resources for

educational attainment, and role modeling of

achievnt behavior_ In this study high status

high rank in the

The perception of status and sex-role behaviors

are an important part of this study Several studies

looked at the part that sex-role plays in the

assumption of leadership (Megargee, 1969; Carbonell,

1984)_ These studies sought to determine how women ar -

when they had to perform "masculine" and "feminine'

that require the assumption of leadership_

the task waH. masculine in nature high-dominance women

failed to their leadership role when paired with

a low-dominance male _ Women asserted their dominanco.

only in isondition where it as a femirino tas,

the . ,i,.oLo paired with a low-dominance male_ It waa--

Rol.: Model

found that high-dominance women, as measured by the

California onality Inventory, MT\ lected the

follor role fen- themselves, a phE1T att-r-lbuted

to a conflict 1--- etn traditional -rr-g rc.l. aad

dominance (Carbonell, 1984)_

The gilder of the role model is important_ As

stated earlier, children learn their appropriate

fromroles theirtheir same-sex parent_ Today the fathe r

oft..n is not pse).1t. Studies have shown the

importance of male role models for boy (7andun ,=1, 1977;

ouliers)_ In one study (Maig'ady, 1990) 9n Puerto

Rican males with behavioral problems and no father

present were provided, with hero interventions 1.LgJ nn

1.rto Rican role models to i

thnic

self-concept, arid adaptive behavior_ These

at ions were short stories de -hailing the lives

and of Puerto Rican heroes I . past_

the interventions significantly

ado ethnic identity, and self-conct

and red.gced their arg.iety.

behaviors when behaviors are

197 For a study by

r 1 85) childr and

koi

altruistic. holping bPhavior. His study found

1 are to ,''re altruistic

l -;:enior when tI . Le . 1 -a_vc,-, high role-taking abilities,

other words, if tiley can imagine t:hemL_:.:.les

and can see that adults value altruistic behavior,

they will then act altruistically in e.•.e•

the adults.

Children also may adopt several anti-social

behaviors from their role models _ Fauber (1990)

measured the effect of marital conflict on adolesce'nt

adjustment and found that high levels of interpareal

conflict are related to zncre aces in b,-:.evioral

problems of adolescent. Adolescents often P .xtenr, 1 4 7:e

their emetieal problems_ Children oze .r- . •

behaviors in their parents and adopt those behaviors as

their own (Fauber 1 "°'

Past research has shown that young males need male

role models, regardless of status, in to

t7.-! -3 male role in society (7l. ,cmdura, 1977; Hetherin.gi ...on,

eialgady, 1990). girls do not

is so infle.xible. Today, are being encourag__7,•

.y• fields such as laN.,

me and StudLs

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Method

2-11.1Jz.'e,

j — .c.orR 041 r1 74 girls

Sault Ste_ ...;:tarie public schuuls. The C;L6

R- tn cld. This group was

4- they likely

E . • r. . . . . • _

OD the. 1991 Katz tudy_

behaviors and

A,...,artus: A 4- TD(' -recorded story (Appendix A) was

' d to illustrate the main

cbaract..•2 Th,:re were. four main adult

rat une story_ ThE

a high-status male and curie, Jim the crew chief and

Jane the pilot, and a low-status male and female, Dill

the radio -2peaor cut. Call the cabin pressure

operator. A questionni- i, (Appendix b) wee completed

by the subjects at the conclui: -,1 of the story.

there were five questions on the questionnaire, only

two 0 quest ions, '..•) and

gatb.r the apprcp 'ate i±-.metion for 171:: sludy

Al7 to tIe ruin story

a...pace shut LL: rAission. is

rvect as a

visual aid, detailing, the main charac-H.,

Role Model

the story, ThiEl story was presented to the subjects in

a familiar classroo!li

Once the st. -::ry Was completed the subjects were

brief -L -,.estionnaire, which. may be found in

appendix B. The subjects were -First asked which

chara would most like to emulate: the hi11-

status opposite-sex character or the high-status same-

sex character. That is the boys were given the choice

between Jane the pilot or Jim the crew chief_ This

on would ,-.,,trate the subjects f

laode , ndu- .0 _7 4 ,E _Linuings_

the subjects were given the choice between the low-

status same-sex character or the high-status oppositR-

sex oharact : For the boys this would be betc ,.ed Jane

the pilot and Bill the radio operator, and for the

girls this would be between Jim the crew chief and Gail

the cabin pressure operator_ The 1 oenina

was that this choice would determine whether

the selection was based on gender alone, or whether

status is a factor

The subjects received the

appyopriate qr . stonnare for £n -.:

T CAL. and

any possible Questions that arose. Also,

Role. Model

Page 12

storyboard was left 172 to helP thsf 77 , b.-1Pots answer

their questions. th. Fcrid

bp ' ikely than

the s to ss the ...haracter ie. be less

affected by

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haracter, and Bill, the low-status character, werF , not

signIflcant, T(in) = 0.25

Dise-ussion

Th- • - 1t3 of this 5,en.dura's

studies_ ',Thee, status is eoual boys and gills

their choices csi role 1 based on,

si_••aus se•_t...1, th_xx 7.-eth boys and e.J.ris

1;lsireIeCtiOflE. e• •• • -actors. P,tatus

X.mt of each other, and 'sot-oh play a

xf7eueneireg a child's selection of role models.

As yoa dezr .:re the status of thE_ se ,TO U

• the l'dellhood of that models be in

While the re:x..11ts from 2irst question se_ ,port the

Hs that children will adopt role yxedels

en thc •r.sults do not support the

girls are liii. likely to adopt roll

Lased on gender than boys are. The results were not

are sari sections for i

oday ,lls

is not x daily and

Jciother is the main role • ,:sd• boys and

the girle_ In this study 52% of the subjsee

singlx -. This could SJ ctL

1-character over the. se_

P 16

status male character. Also wrlmen are assum -ins, more

tent in what were traditionall .::.

- f.: . e 4..ons. The rvmmmm of female doctors,

politioiwms, etc.,

with closine2, with their male ,-,-..:.nterparts.

Mor mu are being perce -ivs:' as high in

our society.

sere are several avenues future ;-. ,,im,h.rca on this

topic may X. J Lateivy.

lee cbmice of role model may be influenced 77.7 . 7 simie

sic is. . .. . Also, would even young:es-

s, like e olds, have different

cii 4-

older subjects Tvf this stucly?

There is a practical s..;:lication for the findings

why.. Groups like bi. s and Dig

Sisters may want to

their children if these voluntsems are good role models

for the particular children. A female lawyer may be a

better companion and role model for a boy who e ,mires

for a career in law than a male bus t2. -211f, , for

„,- „C7*U„.L.

, L)

and status both play a so Is In influencing younLJ,

hildren_

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717'gure Captif:

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a petwell LSn

70 (jim) chaa.

HSS (Jim) and HSC (Jane) charaLL,

(Bill) and Hsn (Jane) characters.

="a Mission

Mike

Algoma University Collpgp

It was 3ui 3rd, 1992. Tth sz ,aoe shuttle Columbia

was -.ring for take on it latest mission.

Takeoff was timed for twelve hundred hours_ Cape

Canaveral was bu=ing with excitemt. It was a

beautiful day, and takeoff would not be del d_

large crowd had gathered to -:;:atch the shuttle leave.

a carnival-like atmosphere, cl weather had

pos'.;?oned the launch for three

but would not on

this day_ T i, e shuttle's mission was to the new

Comsat, or Communications Satellite, into orbit high

above the Earth_ This satellite would allow countries

from all over the world to communicate with each other

more efficiently. it was a very important mission for

the Columbia.

The pilot of the Columbia was Jane. Jane had

flown severaJ_ space snuuu_Le missions and was a famous

pilot. , ,he had flown in the Air Force for twenty years

and had many medals_ ne was responsible for flying

the sh -, ti- s proper position 7 -4_.L,aruh in

order to the satellit e .

were several scientists on beard the.

ColumbiL— Jim was the crew chief, in charge of

LjinA Li Jim was responsible for preparing and

releasing the satellitg nnce the shuttip was in the

position above the Earth. Jim hc.d the people

who were his c -} -=- 7%d running tests constantly

during the mission_ job was very izeisant to

bhe mission just 71, u ane

Gail was one of the scientigta on the

HPr only joL to ..-lare that the cabin 7::.ressure

in the shuttle remained constant Gail had to report

the pressure levels to Jim every hour_ Gails job was

not as important to mission as Jim or Jane's_

Dill was the radio operator in Cane Canaver

-L-L s to keep in radio contact with Jane_

Jane would tell Dill whgre the sh

le was, how

it

was, and when the shuttle 7::as expected to arrive at

its final destination_ Dill's only job was to record

the in -Formation that Jane gave her Bills job was not

as important as Jane's or Jim's.

94

It was now time for Pail counted

rue u2LmeJane: 10 - 3 - (7-; - 4 - engines

are on - - We have lift

The

on its way_ The large crowd roared as the flame

burs from I Columbia's large rockets. The shuttle

shot stra

into the sky at a very as The

crowd was al-le -1- o- "'- ye—en the shuttle ,

minutes soon it was too high to be seer. The

shuttle was 0 - Sc. of the Earths atmosphere soon_

the shuttle was in orbit around. the Earth,

Jane rad i oed Bill to tell him the shuttle's position_

Pill, this ic-1. Jane_ We are currently at 15

) . 1yr.a.-ometr ve the Earth and are moving at 200

kilometres per hour. We will arrive at the satellite

op-off point in 15 minutes." Bill responded by

saying " Roger, Jane You are right on schedule."

Inside the shuttle, Jim was busy making

preparations in order to release the satellite. Jim

walked over to Gail and asked her" Row is the cabin

pressure holding up? Is everythin,, normal?" Gail

Cabin pressure is steady, and holding at a

Role Model

normal rate." So far, the mission was going righL:

schedule

Fifteen minu later it was time to release the

satellite! Jane ain radioed Bill_ " We are now in7

'S 1 L. 0 11 to release the satellite We are right above

the Great Lakes, and are travelling at twenty-five

kilometres per hour," Jane said Dill answered back

Roger, Jane, the mission is right on target." He then

wrote down the information Jane had given her

In the shuttle, the cargo bay was being prepared

by Jim to release the satellite. Jim made sure th at

everyone under his command had performed their t17.3.

Jim walked over Gail and asked her "Is the Pressure

in the cargo bay down to zero? As you know, in order

to release the satellite, the pressure must be down

zero. Gail quickly reassured him by sayin,s, " Yes, Jim,

the pressure in the cargo bay is down to zero."

Jim then went forward to talk to Jane. Jane said

"Are you ready in the back? We are now in the proper

position to relese the shuttle. All systems are go

Jim• 1 " Yes, Jane. The satellite ha-,

Role Model

prepared and the cargo is set for ejecting the

satellite into o -r'bit. We are ready to go!"

The shuttle slowed down to five kilometres per

hour. The cargo bay door slowly °penned on the side of

the shuttle. A platform with the satellite on it s l id

out from inside the shuttle. ()rice th e platform was

fully extended, Jim pr-sL:e ,d a bright red button on the

control panel inside the shuttle. This ignited a tiny

j et on the satellite, lifting the satellite off the

platform and into space! The satellite was now on its

way to its permanent orbit over the Earth. Soon

countrie s from one side of the Earth would be able

communicate with those on the other side in a much

improved mann.Rr.

Inside the shuttle the crew was happy. Their

mission was accomplished! Jane radioed! Dill back at

Cape. Canaveral . The satellite is now in orbit Jane

"We will now start to head back to Earth We

will travel at five hundred kilometres per hour, and

will arrive back at 0800 hours." "Ro/ger," Dill

is going according plan."

Role

Lse27

Jane now bring the shuttle back dawn

to Earth_ She punched in several commands on the on-

board computer and checked her flight panel to make

sure that the shuttle was operating, properly. Once the

shuttle was in back in the Earths atmosphere. Jane was

able

fly it like

large jet_ She 1„.ut the shuttle

on autotic pilot te guide it b ack to Cape Canaveral,

Jim was also busy. He had to make sure that all

of the scientists had completed their duties and were

in their seats, prepared for landing_ As c::: chief,

he was responsible for all preparations being made on

time_

The shuttle was now one kilometre away from Cape

canaveral. Jane switched off the automatic pilot and

took control of the shuttle for landing_ The shuttle

was slowed to fifty kilometres per hour and started

cent towards the landing strip. Jane off ne

main engines and started

glide the shuttle down for

a landing. The lar:iding gear was lowered under the

shuttle. Soon the shuttle could be seen from the

control tower. Jane radioed the t , - - " his I.E.

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Annotated Bibliography

Mike French

Algoma University College

el

Bibliography

Page2

Bandura, Albert, (1977). Social learning theory_

Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Bandura performed many studies on the acquiring of

behaviors like aggression. The hobo doll experiment

are famous examples of these

These studies on

learning and imitation emphasize that much of our

behavior is adopted through imitation and positive

reinforcement. Children learn sex-appropriate

behaviors by modeling their same-sex parent. The child

must first form an identification with the same-sex

parent. Parents serve as the main role model for

children. Gender was the main factor in adopting role

models.

Bibble, Bruce J. (1979). Role Theory: Expectations,

Identities, and Behavior. New York, New York;

Academic Press.

Bruce J . Dibble performed several studies on

modeling and how it develops Biddle states that

B ibl iography

modeling occurs when the charasmatic leader has certain

personal mannerisms that appear in the behaviors of

his/her followers. Modeling may not be consciously

engendered, but it results in the taking on the

characteristics and behaviors of the person being

looked up to. Modeling

ften advanced as an

explanation for the appearance of roles. An example

children imitating aggressive behavior that they see on

terievision_

actions affects another person. Tne person wa.ts to

act in a certain way. Identification is part of

learning the individual's role in society. The child

will identify with a parent and try to act like the

parent. Once the child has formed an identification

with an adult, he e will find it easier to learn the

role in his/her own behavior and will learn

expectations by taking the role of the other with whom

identification has taken place.

Biddle defines sinfluence as occurring when one

Bibliography

ge4

Carbonell, J.L. x Roles and Leadership Revisited_

Journal of Applied Psychology 69, 44-49_

This study is a replication of an earlier study

Megargee, 1969) to reassess the part that sex roles

play in the assumption of leadership_ Megargee's study

found that women who had superior leadership abili y

failed to assert their roles in the presence of males

in both masculine and neutral tasks.. It was found that

high-dominance women, as measured by the California

Personality Inventory (CPI), selected the follower role

for themselves, a phenomenon attributed to a conflict

between traditional sex roles and domIrance.

In this study subjects were paired into 4

g -roups:Male-Male; Male-Female; Female-Female; and

Female-Male; with the first subject being high dominant

and the second low dominant, as determined by their

score on the CPI_ They were confronted with either a

masculine (nuts and bolts) or feminine n s - ing)

task, with one subject having to take charge_ As

expected, the high dominant males asserted their

Page5

position in all Las. However, the high dominant

women did become leaders by a slight majority when

paired with a low dominant male_ This did not occur

with the masculine ta sk.

It was found that overall, dominance does seem to

be a good predictor of leadership in same-sex pairs and

for men in mixed-a.•: However it appears

predictive for women in mixed-pairs only when the ir

sex-role conflict is reduced by changing the nature of

tlie task at hand_

Fauber, (1990). A Mediational Model of the impact

of Marital Confl ict on Adolescent Adjustment in

Intact and Divorced Families: The Role of

Disrupted Parenting_ Child Development, 69, 1112-

,o_

There is of proof for the existence of a

negative relationship between ongoing marital con -flint

and childhood development. High levels of

interpersonal conflictcots toddlers, -ag

miolluglapi4 .

Page@

children, and young adolescents_ This study seeks

answer the questions of what are the mechanisms by

wh ich conflict exerts its influence on childrens'

ad.lustments.

The relation of interparental conflictto the

tment problems of young adolescents was edlatP,d

through its impact on 3 aspecto of parenting behavior:

lax control; psychological control; and parental

rejection/withdrawal. This mediational model

hypothesized that each of these parental factors had a

primary effect on different areas of adolescent

adjustment.

Lax parenting behavior is associated

undercontrolled adolescent behavior, and parental use

of psychological control is associated with increases

in internalizing problems but not in externalizing

them. Perceived parental withdrawal from or rejection

of the adolescent has significant but non-specific

effects on child adjustment.

Forty-six adolescents from intact families and 51

adolescents from recently divorced families were

tilollograpny

Page7

subjects. The iz,od••1 was tested separately on all of

the subjects

Among the major findings he externalizing of

problems hypothesis recieved support One commonly

offered explanation of a direct effect of conflict on

overt behavior problems is a modeling hypothesis;

thatis, that children learn to imitate the

confrontational or aggressive interactional style of

their parents.

Froming,W., Allen, L., Jensen, R. (1985). Altruism,

Role-taking, and Self-Awareness: The Acquisition

Eo rms Governing Altruistic Behavior Child

Development, 56, 1123-

This study was designed to see how young children

a° and acquire altruistic behavior. Acquiring the

norm of altruism is conceived

3-step process:

presocialization, awareness that others value

altruistic behavior, and adoption of the altruistic

norm_ Thehe iires nt idy investigated

process

041-1 4 IT

Page8

through which childen attain the second step in the

proposed model.

t this model children in grade s 1

donated M&M's to the other children in 1 of 4

experimental conditions: in private, or in the presence

of an evaluative adult, a non-evaluative adult, or

mirror_ It was found that 2nd and 3rd grade children

increased their donations in the presence of an

evaluative adult_ This increase showed that they had

reached step in the sequence_

A separate study tested the hypothesis ,at the

impact of the evaluative adult was mediated by the

development

le-taking abilities_ Children donated

either in private in the presence of an evalua 7

adult_ Non-role-takers showed no difference in the two

situations_ Role-takers, however, showed a significant

increase in their donation rates in the presence of an

evaluative adult_ The sults confirm the

association between role-taking abilities and altruism_

High-role-takers showed a recognition of an adult's

po in of view on helping by altering their donation,

iiography

9

behavior in the presence of that adult_ Non-ro

did not change their behavior in the adult's

presence.

Hetherington, EJ4, Parke, R.D.(1986).Child

ho Contenrorarl-Viewpoint

Toronto:McGraw-Hill_

Hetherington is discussing the results of an

observational study carried out by O'Brien, Huston,

and Risley (1983). There was a common finding that

girls conform less strictly than boys to sex-

appropriate behaviors. Girls are more likely to play

with a truck than boys are to cuddle with a doll. The

reason given for this is that our culture is basically

a male-oriented culture, with greater esteem,

priviledges, and status accorded to the masculine role.

With the male role being clearly defined there is a.

greater pressure for boys than for girls to conform

narrower sex-appropriate standards. Therefore, Tomboys

are tolerated but sissies are not Mothers and fat7

Bibliography

Page10

react more negatively to opposite-sex behaviors by boys

than by girls and discourage such behaviors in boys.

Katz, P.A., Walsh, PV, (1991). Modification of

Children's Gender-Stereotyped Behavior_ Child

Development, 52 '51_

This study explored whether and how gender-role

.reotypes might be modified. Two questions were

ed: 1) Is childrens gender-typed behavior

modifiable? 2) and What conditions facilitate change?

The first study assessed children's gender-role

preferences, level of cognitive flexability with regard

to gender, and willingness to perform gender

atraditional behavior in variety of areas.

Questionnaires were administered to 120 subjects of two

age groups, seven to eight years old and ten to eleven

years old. There was an equal number of boys and girls

in each group. It was found that girls exhibited more

flexibl Ls:n.der-role preferences than boys. Older

Bibliography

Pagell

children had more -eotyped preferences, especial? y

the boys.

Study 2 assessed the effects viewing

counterstereotyped videotaped models on children's

subsequent willingness to engage in atraditional

behavior_ Models were either 2 years older than the

subj r were adult

The children were asked how

much they liked the model and how much would they enjoy

playing with them. Each scenario lasted 2 minutes It

was found that the younger models responded more to

peer models while the older children responded mor

the adult models

The most consistent result to come out in both

studies was that the male examiners elicited the most

atraditional behavior from the children_ An

explanation may be that these findings reflect higher

demand characteristics exerted by male examiners in the

traditionally feminine domain of the grade school

environment_

'M., 1 •

I-510110 Pr

e 12

Malgady, R.G., Rogler, L.H., Constantino, G_, (1990).

Hero/Heroine Modelling for Puerto Rican

Adolescents: A Preventative Hea Intervention.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychoioy56,

469-74.

rto Ricans are found to have a high-risk status

in terms of psychiatric syptoms due to their social and

demographic characterisucs. This study wanted to

determine whether if providing culturally-sensitive

treatments could alleviate this problem. Because of

the need for special mental health interventions with

Puerto Ricans, the authors investigated culturally

sensitive treatment modalities for high risk children

and adolescents. A new treatment modality hero/heroine

modelling, was developed_ This exposes Puerto Rican

adolescents to achievement-oriented adult role model s

fostering ethnic pride, identity, self-concept, and

adaptive behavior for coping with the stresses

poverty, discrimination,and urban life_

Bibliography

Page13

Ninety nonclinical Puerto Rican 3th and 9th

graders were screened for presenting behavior proble

in school and randomly assigned to an intervention or a

control group_ 1105 ;A re compiled ot 9 male and

9 female models in diverse areas of achievement. These

were then presented to the subjects, who were in groups

5 subjects, by a school teacher and graduate

psychology intern_ The teacher led the group in a

discussion on the models bshaviors and

feelings in order to 17-011s attention on these points.

There were 19 ninety minute "modelling" sessions.

The control groups met 8 tImesto discuss current

events, school activiti.es and topics of general

interest_ These sessions also 1 - ted 90 minutes with a

teacher and graduate psychology intern being present_

After these 19 sessions the intervention

significantly increased adolescents ethnic identity

and self-concept and reduced anxiety.

Smith, 'I.E., (1989). Mother-Father Differences in

Parental Influence on School Grades And

Bibliography

Page_1.4

Educational Goa Sociological Inquiry 59 88-

This research tests he effects of Parental formal

education and parental recognition of achievement on

school grades, realistic educational aspirations, and

ideal educational aspirations. In our society formal

education is one of the most important determinants of

of individual social status and of the individual's

ability to contribute to society Parents may promote

higher academic achievement and educational goals in

several ways. They may provide the economic resources

necessary to achieve higher goals,they may serve as

role models of achievement, they may explicitely

encourage or define specific goals for the child, and

they might reinforce achievement orientations and

behaviors through praise and recognition_

It was hypothesised that school grades and

educational aspirations and expectations would be

positively associated with both maternal and paternal

formal education. an adolescent who used either

Bibliography

Page 15

the mother or father as a role model could be expected

to hold higher aspirations and expectations and to make

better grades if the parental model had extensive

education than if the parent was uneducated_

The data was collected from questionnaires

answered by 6th, 8th and 10th grade students and their

mothers and fathers trom 185 white, intact, mainly

middle class famili

The findings suggest that students educational

IS and academic performance are influenced by

parental reinforcement of achievement behavior,

provision of economic resources for educational attain

ment, and role modelling of achievement behavior_