forAgriculture

Development

No. 27, Spring 2016

The 33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture: Changing needs and changing opportunities in international

natural resource development Technology transfer: shortcomings

Mechanisation: a vital input for smallholder farmersBut should we all pay more for our food?

Soil compaction versus sustainabilityMoringa oelifera in the Pacific

The International Year of Pulses: what are they and why are they important?

Conservation agriculture activities at COP21DFID’s Conceptual Framework on Agriculture

Guidelines for AuthorsAgriculture for DevelopmentThe editors welcome the submission of articles for publication that aredirectly related to the aims and objectives of the Association. These may beshort communications relating to recent developments and othernewsworthy items, letters to the editor, especially those relating to previouspublications in the journal, and longer papers. It is also our policy to publishpapers, or summaries, of the talks given at our meetings.

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Journal (article): Bajželj B, Allwood JM, Cullen JM, 2013. Designing climatechange mitigation plans that add up. Environmental Science &Technology, 47(14), 8062-9.

Journal (online): Osborne K, Dolman AM, Burgess S, Johns KA, 2011.Disturbance and the dynamics of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef(1995–2009). PLoS ONE http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0017516

Book: Brammer H, 2012. The physical geography of Bangladesh. Dhaka,Bangladesh: University Press Ltd.

Book (edited): Fuglie KO, Sun Ling Wang, Ball E, eds, 2012. Productivitygrowth in agriculture: an international perspective. Wallingford. UK: CABInternational.

Book (chapter): Warner K, 1997. Patterns of tree growing by farmers ineastern Africa. In: Arnold JEM, Dewees PA, eds. Farms, trees & farmers:responses to agricultural intensification. London: Earthscan Publications, 90-137.

Conference proceedings (published): McIntosh RA, 1992. Catalogues of genesymbols for wheat. In: Miller TE, Koebner RM, eds. Proceedings of the SeventhInternational Wheat Genetics Symposium, 1987. Cambridge, UK: IPSR,1225–1323.

Agency publication: Grace D, Jones B, eds, 2011. Zoonoses (Project 1)Wildlife/domestic livestock interactions. A final report to the Department forInternational Development, UK.

Dissertation or thesis: Lenné JM, 1978. Studies of the biology and taxonomyof Colletotrichum species. Melbourne, Australia: University of Melbourne,PhD thesis.

Online material: Lu HJ, Kottke R, Martin J, Bai G, Haley S, Rudd J, 2011.Identification and validation of molecular markers for marker assistedselection of Wsm2 in wheat. In: Plant and Animal Genomes XIX Conference,abstract W433. [http://www.intl-pag.org/19/abstracts/W68_PAGXIX_433.html]. Accessed 20 April 2012.

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Your paper should be submitted ready for editing and publication.Accepted text file types: Word (.DOC or .DOCX), Rich Text Format (.RTF)or Postscript (.PS) only.Accepted figure file types: .TIF, .EPS or .PDF.No lecture notes or PowerPoint presentations, please. If the paper is apresentation from a TAA meeting, please let us have this or as soon aspossible afterwards so that there is no last minute rush in trying to meetthe next publication deadline.

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Agriculture for Development holds the copyright of all publishedarticles, but the authors retain the right to publish all or part of an articleelsewhere, with due acknowledgements.

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High quality colour images, suitable for the cover of Agriculture forDevelopment, are welcomed and should be sent to the CoordinatingEditor (coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk)

Cover photograph: Hillside cultivation with animal traction in the Bolivian highlands (Photo: Brian Sims)

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The TAA is a professionalassociation of individuals andcorporate bodies concerned withthe role of agriculture fordevelopment throughout theworld. TAA brings togetherindividuals and organisationsfrom both developed and less-developed countries to enablethem to contribute to internationalpolicies and actions aimed atreducing poverty and improvinglivelihoods. It grew out of theImperial College of Tropical Agriculture (ICTA) Association,which was renamed the TAA in1979. Its mission is to encouragethe efficient and sustainable useof local resources and technologies,to arrest and reverse the degradationof the natural resources base onwhich agriculture depends and,by raising the productivity ofboth agriculture and related enterprises, to increase family incomes and commercial investment in the rural sector.Particular emphasis is given torural areas in the tropics andsubtropics and to countries withless-developed economies intemperate areas. TAA recognisesthe interrelated roles of farmersand other stakeholders living inrural areas, scientists (agriculturists,economists, sociologists etc),government and the privatesector in achieving a convergentapproach to rural development.This includes recognition of theimportance of the role of women,the effect of AIDS and othersocial and cultural issues on therural economy and livelihoods.

Publications and Communications Committee

Paul Harding (Chair and Coordinating Editor Ag4Dev)Elizabeth Warham(Technical Editor)Brian Sims (Technical Editor)Michael Fitzpatrick (Proofreader)Charles Howie (Proofreader)Amir KassamGeoff HawtinHugh BrammerAlastair StewartJames MalinsKeith Virgo (Webmaster)contact:coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.ukeditor_ag4dev@taa.org.ukTel: 01298 27957

ISSN 1759-0604 (Print)ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)

ContentsIFC Guidelines for Authors2 Editorial Last Chance Saloon: the UN Paris climate talks | Paul Harding and Brian Sims 4 Article 14 33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture: Changing needs and changing opportunities in international

natural resource development | Antony Ellman et al7 News from the Field 1 7 Golden apple snails continue to spread in Northern Spain | Ravindra C Joshi 9 Article 29 Technology transfer: shortcomings | Alan Yates 13 Newsflash 113 DFID’s Conceptual Framework on Agriculture | Chris Garforth15 Article 315 Mechanisation: a vital input for smallholder farmers | Brian Sims and Josef Kienzle20 News from the Field 220 Turning literature into reality - tales from a Bangor University MSc Tropical Forestry summer school

in Ghana | James Walmsley et al22 Newsflash 222 EFARD Annual Technical and Business meetings | David Radcliffe 24 Article 424 But should we all pay more for our food? | David Colman26 Bookstack26 Much ado about mutton | Bob Kennard (Bill Thorpe)

From Lab to Land: women in ‘push-pull’ agriculture | ICIPE (Chris Garforth) Status of the world's soil resources| FAO and Inter-governmental Technical Panel on Soils (Robert Brinkman)

29 Article 529 Soil compaction versus sustainability | Francis Shaxson33 News from the Field 333 The UK at the Milan Expo | Elizabeth Warham34 Article 634 Moringa oelifera in the Pacific Island Countries and Territories: uses and opportunities for food,

nutrition, income and bio-energy security | Ravindra C Joshi et al37 International Agricultural Research News37 The use of drones; and the on-going CGIAR reform | Geoff Hawtin38 Newsflash 338 The TAA joins the UK Plant Science Federation (UKPSF) | Ian Martin39 Opinions Page39 Farmer sovereignty | John Wibberley40 Article 740 The International Year of Pulses: what are they and why are they important? | Teodardo Calles43 News from the Field 443 Tea growers team up in Scotland | Nigel Melican44 Mailbox44 No-till farming and slugs | David Gollifer

GrowUp urban farms | Keith Virgo The APPG | Benny Dembitzer Sludge for agriculture | Richard Smith

46 Newsflash 446 Conservation tillage is not conservation agriculture | Brian Sims47 Article 847 Conservation Agriculture activities at COP21 | Don Reicosky et al50 TAA Forum50 2015 AGM:

Report on the TAA 2015 AGM | Elizabeth Warham Report from the Chairman and General Secretary | Keith Virgo and Elizabeth WarhamTreasurer’s 2015 Annual Report and TAA 2015 Accounts | Jim Ellis-JonesTAAF 2015 Annual Report | Antony EllmanTAA 2015 Honours | Paul HardingTAA 2015 Annual Membership Report | Lin BluntEnvironmental Conservation Group Update | Keith VirgoPublications and Communications Committee Update | Paul Harding

58 News from the Regions58 TAA SW Branch Workshop: Soils - where the answers lie

Overview of soil management issues | John WibberleySoil degradation and its impacts on ecosystem security | Jane RicksonTravels with an auger: tropical soil diversity in practice | Alan StapletonLondon/SE Branch Curry Club talksNot Just Wood: reflections on the diversity and importance of forests, trees and their management in developing countries | Mikael GrutArtemisia annua (Qinghao): a smallholder grown antimalarial treatment | Antony Ellman

68 Obituaries68 Brian Robinson, Benny Warren, David Friend, Dick Jenkin, Patrick Haynes and George Taylor-Hunt73 TAAF News73 TAAF News | Antony Ellman and Alastair Sinclair 77 Corporate Members’ Page77 The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF) | Gottlieb Basch78 Reminiscences and Reflections78 Monsanto, the Gold Coast, the Gambia and Bayer, 1952-64 | Basil Hoare81 Upcoming EventsIBC How to become a member of the TAABC Executive Committee members

Special Issue on Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture

Editorial

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EditorialLast Chance Saloon: the UN Parisclimate talks

A former Director of Lumle Agriculture Centre in Nepal, a senior research adviser at DFID and the EC, and Assistant Director General of Bioversity International (previously IPGRI) in Rome, Paul now divides his time between paid work as a consultant and unpaid work as the CoordinatingEditor of Ag4Dev.

Formerly leader of the International Development Group at Silsoe Research Institute, Brian Sims is now an FAO agricultural mechanisation consultant focusing on the needs of conservation agriculture. Brian is also one of two Technical Editors of Ag4Dev.

IntroductionThe Paris climate talks took place at theend of the hottest year on record. A yearin which, for the first time in recordedhistory, global levels of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere averaged more than 400parts per million (ppm) for an entiremonth (in March). A year that sawprofound shifts in the Arctic ecosystem;the deadliest heat wave ever recorded inPakistan; more than 1.2 million people inthe Philippines impacted by a mega-typhoon; more than a million peopleimpacted, and 40,000 displaced, in Yemenby a powerful and rare cyclone; the worstdrought in a generation in South Africa;and severe floods in Paraguay, Uruguay,Brazil and Argentina, displacing morethan 150,000 people.

What has been agreed?To the great relief of the organisers andthe participants, the Paris talks haveconcluded with an agreement oncurbing anthropogenic greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions in order to save ourplanet from the worst ravages of climatechange. From today both developedand developing countries are required to

limit their GHG emissions to safer levelsin order to limit global temperature risesto 2ºC above pre-industrial revolutionlevels. There is also an aspirationaltarget of 1.5ºC, especially to protectcountries susceptible to sea-level rises.There will be regular five-yearly reviewsto ensure that national commitmentsare being adhered to, and to increase thepace of change towards ever loweremissions. It was also agreed to extendthe flow of funds to help developingcountries adapt to climate change andswitch to clean energy.

In summary the agreement has resultedin the following:

• An aspiration to limit the increase inglobal temperature to below 1.5ºC.

• National pledges to curb emissions.• A promise to bring down globalemissions from peak levels “as soonas possible”. This means achievingzero net emissions as quickly as feasible after 2050.

• To take stock of the situation, and ramp up pledges, at five-yearly intervals. The aspirational 1.5ºC goal signals a shared understanding that targets will have to be tightened ateach review.

• To provide climate-impact loss and damage compensation for poorer countries.

• Funding will be provided to developing countries to adapt to climate change and switch to clean energy. Currently there are $100 billion a year available globally, due to increase before 2025.

Shortcomings“By comparison to what it could havebeen, it’s a miracle. By comparison towhat it should have been, it’s a disaster.The talks in Paris are the best there haveever been. And that is a terribleindictment.” (George Monbiot)

The agreement by the 196 delegates tothe Conference of Parties (COP) 21stmeeting is, of course, a compromise. Thecaps on emissions are too loose and evenwith the intended nationally determinedcontributions (INDCs) global warmingwill still reach 2.7-3ºC in the next century.This breaches the limit beyond whichdroughts, floods and sea-level rise arelikely to become catastrophic andirreversible. The five-yearly reviews aredesigned to increasingly constrainemissions further to pull us back fromthis scenario. On the other hand the

Editorial

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emissions controls are not legally binding(Barack Obama knew that he wouldn’tget that past Congress). However theagreement is a breakthrough for the UNand constitutes progress, however flawed.It is the culmination of 23 years ofinternational negotiations since the RioEarth Summit in 1992 when the UNFramework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCC) was adopted.

In order to produce an agreementacceptable to the 196 parties, there wasintense diplomatic effort to remove the‘square brackets’ – areas of disagreement– in a series of ever-tighter drafts. TheFrench government is to be congratulatedon providing the high level of organisationrequired to bring the agreement to asuccessful outcome. To achieve agreement,two major compromises had to be made:the EU backed down on having emissionscuts made legally binding; and the USaccepted the language used on ‘loss anddamage compensation’. Unanimity isimportant as all 196 parties have an equalsay at the UNFCCC. The result is that thepoorest countries, who have done least tocreate climate change, but will suffer themost from its impacts, have voices equalto those of the most serious polluters.Only at the UN are they heard.

The Paris agreement is lopsided - it isfocussed entirely on consumption offossil fuels, while ignoring theirproduction. The delegates agreed to cutdemand, but at home they seek tomaximise supply. The UK government,for example, has imposed a legalobligation on itself to maximise economicrecovery of the UK’s oil and gas reserves.We must understand that fossil fuels willnow have to be left in the ground, nomore drilling (especially in the Arctic), nomore fracking with its associated toxicmethane emissions, and no moresubsidies for fossil fuels. It is vital (in thesense that if we don’t then we aredoomed) that we have immediateevidence that plans for these (and manyother) measures are being formulated andimplemented.

What the Paris agreementmeans for food andfarming

Food security and agriculture have notbeen overlooked, and there are many

opportunities for action on food andfarming.

The preamble makes specific mention of“the fundamental priority of safeguardingfood security and ending hunger, andthe particular vulnerabilities of food production systems to the adverse impacts of climate change”. The preamble also refers to human rights, gender, ecosystems and biodiversity. Article 2.1 aims to “strengthen the globalresponse to the threat of climate change,in the context of sustainable developmentand efforts to eradicate poverty”.

The debate between a 1.5˚C target anda 2˚C target means different futurescenarios for agriculture, particularly forfarmers in the tropics since they are onthe frontline of heatwaves, droughts,floods and cyclones. Mitigatingemissions from agriculture will beessential if either target is to be met.Adapting to climate change is essentialif food security it to be achieved.

Some 80 percent of the INDCs discussagriculture, but the necessary adaptationand mitigation by Least DevelopedCountries (LDCs) will require at least $5billion annually (via the Green ClimateFund (GCF), the Global EnvironmentFacility (GEF) and the Adaptation Fund)– much higher than current expendituresof climate funds on agricultural projects.Developed countries are committed to acollective funding goal of at least $100billion per year, but there are no bindingagreements by individual countries. Theneed for all countries to support scienceand research is also emphasised.

Adaptation and mitigationOf 160 INDCs, 103 include agriculturalmitigation, and 102 include agriculturaladaptation. Sub-sectors specified includelivestock (70), fisheries (71), agriculturalwater management (83) and forestry (153).

Adaptation measures include livestockand crop management; water andirrigation management; soil and landmanagement; agricultural diversification;climate smart agriculture; early warningsystems; agroforestry; indigenousknowledge; knowledge transfer; cropinsurance and other financial mechanisms.

Mitigation measures include increasingthe efficiency of livestock production toreduce methane emissions; reduction of

tillage and conservation agriculture;improving grasslands and pasturemanagement (eg less burning);restoration of degraded land, soil or forest;restoration of organic soils; better ricemanagement; and manure management.Forest-related mitigation measures arefrequently mentioned, and includeimproved forest management, reforestation,avoiding deforestation, and afforestation.

Agricultural issues are being discussedin a slow-moving parallel process underthe Subsidiary Body for Scientific andTechnical Advice (SBSTA). Countriesmust prepare their submissions, onagricultural adaptation measures andassessments of agricultural practicesand technologies to enhance productivityin a sustainable manner, to SBSTA by 9March 2016. SBSTA will report inNovember 2016, providing the basis for adecision on agriculture, hopefully leadingto an agriculture work programme.

What next?The Paris talks have given the world newhope in the possibilities of pragmaticdiplomacy. However, it is very importantto realise that simply reaching anagreement on what has to be done is thestarting point – the very hard work requiredto achieve the goals still lies ahead. To havegot this far has been due in no smallmeasure to the fact that Barack Obama hasno future election to win. But there areother very hopeful indicators that this timewe may be successful. The destructivestand-off between developed anddeveloping countries that doomedCopenhagen six years ago has beentranscended; Beijing is already in theprocess of replacing high-emissions coal-fired power stations; and there seems to bea rusting of the cast-iron link betweenemissions and economic growth.

The global community must insist thatthe five yearly reviews of INDCs aremeaningful and effective - that they doindeed result in cumulativeimprovements in programmes andactions, and strengthening of targets andgoals. The first crucial steps have beentaken, but there are many miles still to gobefore we have sustainable systems ofeconomic growth and food production.There is still no planet B.

Paul Harding and Brian Sims

Smallholder coffee farmers worldwide face low andunpredictable prices and increasingly marginal andunpredictable growing conditions. Both yields and quality ofthe coffee produced in most regions are in decline, due to acomplex set of intrinsic and extrinsic factors: long supplychains, collapse of International Coffee Agreements, pressuresof climate change. Considerable effort has been put into aidingsmallholder farmers to address these issues, a notable andsuccessful example being Fairtrade’s price premium. Suchapproaches have had a substantial positive impact on farmerlivelihoods, but they suffer from a number of shortcomings.

Our theses focused on developing a decision support system(DSS) that would address three key shortcomings. The firstshortcoming is that decisions are made at farm level withoutaccess to relevant local-level data. The second is that there isa significant knowledge gap as to how a farm’s climaticconditions impact yield and how adaptation techniques canimpact these conditions. The third is that for manyorganisations and solutions the fundamental unit is regional,national or even global. We believe that it is vital thatadaptations are tailored to each farmer’s individual socio-economic status, farm characteristics and farm conditions.

The funding provided by TAA was crucial in enabling us to takethe vital first step towards developing and testing the DSS.James looked primarily at the practical aspects of obtaining thelocal-level environmental data driving the DSS. In particular,he evaluated which climatic factors are important for reducingthe knowledge gap between climate and yield, and assessed themost practical and cost-effective methodology for collectingthese data. The results from James’ thesis showed significantdifferences between farms for each of the climatic factorsmeasured. This is a positive indication that our approach isnot only appropriate, but also needed. These results willinfluence the design of an automated data collection toolkit asdepicted here. This bespoke kit will be designed by ourselvesand we hope will start a new trend in local-level data collectionto aid in useful farmer-centric decision support.

Paul’s thesis had a broader focus. He looked at how, once theenvironmental data have been collected, they can be combinedwith socio-economic data and farm characteristics to providethe tailored advice required. Three main conclusions fromPaul’s thesis directed the future development of the DSS.Firstly, through the creation of a preliminary simulator it wasdemonstrated that it is possible to combine environmentaldata with socio-economic data and farm characteristics toprovide tailored information which is useful for farmers.

Changing needs and changing opportunities ininternational natural resource development

33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture, delivered 17 November 2015 atthe Royal Overseas League

Article 1 - 33rd Raplh Melville Memorial Lecture

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Antony Ellman, James Alden, Paul Baranowski, Daniella Hawkins, James Lomax

IntroductionA different approach from normal was adopted for the 33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture: rather than one presentationgiven by an eminent development specialist, four young professionals, who were supported at the start of their careers bya TAAF award, were invited to present their experiences as illustrations of the theme of the lecture. The objective was todemonstrate how TAAF has helped people to embark on development careers in the past, and to stimulate discussion onhow TAA and TAAF can adapt to changing needs and opportunities in the future.

The four ex-awardees who presented case studies are:

James Alden and Paul Baranowski, Research Assistants, Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College. James andPaul received TAAF awards in April 2015, which enabled them to undertake a joint two-month overseas research project fortheir MSc dissertations in Environmental Technology, Economics and Policy at Imperial College.

Daniella Hawkins, Performance Manager, Microloan Foundation. Daniella received a TAAF award in 2005 for work withthe Luansobe Beekeepers’ Co-operative in Zambia.

James Lomax, Head of Food Systems and Agriculture, United Nations Environment Programme. James received a TAAFaward in 2001 for work with the International Livestock Research Institute in Nairobi.

Developing a Decision Support System (DSS) for smallholder coffee farmersin Central America

James Alden and Paul Baranowski

Figure 1. James and Paul with their Honduran collaborator

Article 1 - 33rd Raplh Melville Memorial Lecture

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Secondly, the literature review indicated that there is a majorknowledge gap in contemporary research in this area. For theDSS to be developed further this gap needs to be addressed.Finally, Paul showed that the future success of the DSSdepends on the development of an automated methodology.Collecting data manually as we did in Honduras is extremelycostly, both in monetary terms and manpower.

After completing our Masters degrees we have decided tocontinue in pursuit of the DSS. We have set up a limitedcompany with Peter Baker (Climate Edge Limited) and hopethat by moving out of an academic sphere into a businessconstruct we can ensure the sustainability of our DSS withoutreliance on external sources of funding. We have to ensurethat our output is practically useful on a day-to-day basis. Tosupport ourselves while the business is scaling up we are bothnow working as research assistants for Imperial College. Ourfirst project as a business is with the Fairtrade LabellingOrganisation, scaling up the approach we used in Honduras.We are collecting data in El Salvador using automated dataloggers (Figure 2). Through this process we will furtherdevelop our methodology and test the use of the DSS.

We would both like to emphasise the importance of the TAAFin getting us to the point where we can move forward with ourideas. The field trip to Honduras would not have been possiblewithout the award. In addition to the funding, the expertiseand encouragement provided by Antony Ellman and JonathanStern allowed us to keep momentum through the period ofour MSc course and hopefully for some time to come. Wewould like to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation toeveryone at TAA for the opportunity that we have been given.

My journey from setting up a beekeeping cooperative in Zambia to sociallyfocused microfinance in Zambia and Malawi

Daniella Hawkins

In 2005 I was delighted to be awarded a TAAF grant whichenabled me to spend just under one year working for theKaloko Trust in Zambia, setting up a beekeeping cooperativein the Copperbelt. Kaloko has been training Zambian peoplein beekeeping since 2000. By 2005 there was growing demandfrom the trained beekeepers to set up a co-operative to markettheir honey more effectively. My project was to turn this wishinto reality, and to build the capacity of the LuansobeBeekeepers’ Co-operative Society (LBCS) to manage its affairslong term.

My first job was to set up an organising committee. Togetherwe undertook a variety of learning visits to other co-operativesand marketing organisations, and trained the wider beekeepingcommunity in co-operative start up and responsibilities. Theco-operative was registered in April 2006. Next we workedtogether to draft a business plan, and set about putting it intopractice. This included training the executive committee inthe business management skills they would need to lead theirco-operative going forward.

Happily, the LBCS is still going strong. Kaloko Trust has nowtrained and equipped around 500 beekeepers, and the co-operative has 300 members. Last year it bought and processedover three tonnes of honey. Kaloko is now assisting in theformation of a second co-operative in a new area: already it has100 members and purchases, processes and sells local honey.

After returning from Zambia I wanted to build on the qualitative,field-based research experiences I had gained to date. I secured aposition working on the European Social Survey (ESS). The ESSis a survey conducted every two years across Europe, measuringthe attitudes, beliefs and behaviour patterns of diversepopulations. Having gained valuable experience there, I wantedto return to where my heart was: international development. Iwent to work for a private charitable foundation, the VitolFoundation, where I was responsible for charities focusing onmicrofinance and enterprise development, water and sanitation,and de-institutionalisation and foster care. This gave me valuableinsights into a wide range of sectors, and provided me with myfirst formal exposure to microfinance.

Figure 2. Automated Decision Support Tool

I had already seen from my work with the Zambian beekeepersthe difficulties they face arising from financial exclusion: I hadspent several disheartening days trying to set up a bankaccount on their behalf with no success. I therefore wantedto be part of microfinance, with its objective of “banking theunbanked” for the purpose of poverty alleviation. My nextcareer step was to work for the microfinance charityMicroLoan Foundation, based in Malawi initially for one year.

Now, six years on, I am still with MicroLoan Foundationworking as their Social Performance Manager, and thoroughlyenjoying it! My job is aimed at enabling poor women and theirfamilies to move out of poverty. The work is extremely varied:it includes ensuring that our staff are effectively trained,designing products and services that meet clients’ needs, andmeasuring the impact.

Looking ahead, I plan to build on the experience I have gainedto date: staying within microfinance but working more closelywith smallholder farmers, and getting more insight into themobile and branchless banking sectors. The field experienceswhich TAAF allowed me to gain have given me a whole host ofskills including insights into rural development, communityrelations and project management skills (to name a few!).Thank you TAAF for providing me with this invaluable initialsupport, which allowed me to follow my dream career ininternational development!

After completing an MSc in Tropical Agricultural Developmentat Reading University in 2000 I started work with theInternational Livestock Research (ILRI) Institute on asmallholder dairy development programme in Kenya. This wasa continuation of my thesis on smallholder dairying in EastAfrica. I was supported in this endeavour by a TAAF award,which was instrumental in helping me to launch my career ininternational development.

After six months experience with ILRI, I became Field Managerof a fresh produce company in Kenya, which worked withapproximately 1,600 farmers producing vegetables for exportto European markets. Three years later I set up my owncompany under the name Ukulima, as a vegetable productionand marketing company headquartered in Holland and Kenyaworking exclusively with smallholder farmers. After threechallenging years with this company I became Director of twolarge commercial horticultural companies in Portugal andSpain. Throughout my time in agricultural production, naturalresource management and the role of the environment andclimate emerged as key interests. So from this private sectorbackground I made a jump in a new direction, to establish anddevelop a Food Systems and Agriculture Department of theUnited Nations Environment Programme based in Paris, whereI am responsible for a wide range of sustainable agriculture andfood system programmes worldwide.

From these varied experiences I have learned a number ofcritical lessons. First and foremost, the world’s naturalresources are finite. However, with rising population andevolving consumption trends, 60 percent of ecosystems arenow damaged or being used unsustainably. The expected rise

in global temperatures (predicted to be at least 3°C by 2050despite agreements reached at COP21 in Paris) will put evengreater pressure on fragile ecosystems.

Moderate UN scenarios suggest that, if current population andconsumption trends continue, by 2030 we will need theequivalent of two Earths. But we have only one.

A UNEP food systems approach to food security is the holisticanalysis, policy support, partnership and tool development forall stakeholders to sustainably manage agricultural landscapes,production, supply chains, transformation, marketing andutilisation of food, taking into account in equal partsecosystem health, resource use (through the chain), nutritionand health, as well as ensuring just economic reward throughthe supply chain. It recognises that environmental stabilityplays a key role in the ‘stability’ element of food security andthat this underpins and contributes to the other three – foodaccess, availability and utilisation. The paradigm ofdevelopment is shifting. Production and poverty alleviationare not enough on their own: resource consumption rate mustnow drive the food security agenda. We need systems thinkingwith multi-stakeholder participation to transform our foodsystems. Private as well as public sector actors are essentialplayers in this transformation.

A new generation of professionals is key to this changing worldof sustainable development. TAAF provides a key incentive forenabling young professionals to gain serious ‘coal face’experience of development, with failures as well as successesto draw on.

Article 1 - 33rd Raplh Melville Memorial Lecture

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From dairy programmes in Kenya, through smallholder horticulture in Africaand Europe, to sustainable agriculture and food systems worldwide

James Lomax

Article 1 - 33rd Raplh Melville Memorial Lecture / News from the Field 1

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People with practical training and experience who are preparedto challenge the status quo can definitely find important andfulfilling careers in development if they choose to look forthem.

ConclusionsA brief discussion following the three TAAF presentationsbrought up the following important conclusions andrecommendations:

• The TAAF awards have clearly been effective in helping many young professionals to embark on careers in international development: the scheme should be supported and enabled to grow.

• The professional guidance provided by TAAF mentors is seen as being almost as important to awardees as the financial support offered.

• The amount of money offered per award should be increased as far as possible in line with rising costs, but not at the expense of the number of awardees supported.

• Two awardees working together on related projects (for example James Alden’s and Paul Baranowski’s projects in Central America, and two students from Southampton University who worked together on charcoal utilisation in Malawi in 2013-14) is seen as particularly beneficial.

• Entrepreneurial proposals which link production opportunities to credit sources (such as Lend with Care) and to market outlets (such as Fairtrade) are seen as highly desirable. These characteristics could be used as an additional criterion in assessing proposals.

• Proposals which focus on sustainable use and conservation of natural resources, in the context of adaptation to climate change, could be a priority area in project selection.

• The difficulty of reconciling the demands of an international career with obligations to families is recognised as a common constraint, particularly for parents of young children. Daniella Hawkins’ experience of sharing child-rearing duties with her husband is seen as a positive example of how this constraint can be addressed.

• Many of the past awardees who attended this event see great value in maintaining contact for exchange of experience and ongoing skills development. Alex Tasker (awardee 2012) and James Brockington (awardee 2010-11) are currently investigating the viability of establishing such an ‘early career network’ between recent awardees.

News from the Field

Golden apple snails continue to spread inNorthern SpainIntroduction

The golden apple snail (Pomacea spp), also known as the riceapple snail, is a freshwater mollusc that originated in SouthAmerica. It is a voracious nocturnal herbivore that lives fromtwo to six years and feeds on newly transplanted or direct-seeded rice - often resulting in significant yield losses.Considered as one of the world’s worst invasive species, itreproduces rapidly laying from 1,000-1,200 eggs per month,and is resistant to adverse conditions (Figure 1). Golden applesnails can survive in and out of water, and they can alsowithstand drought for several months, making them difficultto eradicate once widespread.

From the 1980s, Asian countries suffered two decades ofgolden apple snail infestation, resulting in millions of dollarsof losses for the rice farming industry. Other parts of the world,including the United States and some countries in SouthAmerica, also experienced the destruction brought about bythis species during the 1990s. Various means of controllingits spread were employed until an integrated managementapproach was proven to be effective.

Invading northern Spanish deltasMore recently, the rice fields in the northern Spanish provinceof Tarragona have seen the proliferation of the golden applesnail. First confirmed in 2009 in the Ebro delta, it spread to

Figure 1. Golden apple snail egg masses on posts in irrigation water (Photo: JordiMarsal Lleberia)

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over 9,500 hectares within a five-month period, populating theriver bed and infesting the rice irrigation networks (Figure 2).

This alarming rate of spread prompted the Catalan governmentto launch immediate measures to contain the snail outbreak.Since 2010, it has invested euros 350 million in efforts to curbwhat they consider a plague, and to prevent further damage.

These efforts included a survey in 2010 in the affected regionby a crop protection specialist (the author) who has beenstudying the apple snail and its effects on rice crops since 1980.At that time I observed that “No country has successfullyeradicated this plague. Some four years pass betweendetection of the species and the beginning of crop damage,and from then, it may well be a catastrophe”. With themagnitude of the infestation, I advised that attention shouldbe focused on managing the snail numbers in the rice fieldsrather than in the rivers.

Infested rice fields were drained and dried to prevent furthermobility of the snails, and physical barriers such as nets andtraps were installed. Snails and eggs were manually removedand chemical treatments - including pesticides, lime andseawater - were applied. In addition, prior to rice planting,fields were well levelled to maintain a shallow depth of waterduring the early growth stage of the rice plants. Thesemethods resulted in about 80 percent snail mortality.

Revisiting EbroIn July 2015, five years since my first visit, I returned toevaluate the situation in the Ebro delta, and to assess theefficacy of the methods employed in 2010.

Farmers on the right side of the delta had successfullymanaged to control the spread of golden apple snails byadopting and diligently observing the strategies recommendedin 2010. Consequently, damage to the rice plants wasinsignificant. I visited one of the farmers on the right side ofthe delta who practised dry ploughing, which exposes thesnails hiding in the soil to the sun. I could not find any livesnails, even after digging through the soil.

In contrast, on the left side of the delta, unusually highdensities of egg masses and live snails of various age structures(sizes) were found in the rice fields, irrigation ditches, drainage

canals, and rivers (Figure 3). Missing rice plants, as a result ofgolden apple snail feeding, were apparent over many hectaresof land.

I advised that complete eradication is now out of the question,since the cost will be enormous and not practically feasiblewithout affecting the environment. This situation posesserious threats to the right side of the delta, and to other deltasin the Mediterranean.

To address this growing threat, the focus should be on anintegrated rice crop management approach for direct-seededrice, the main seeding method used in the Ebro delta. Goodwater management and reduction of snail numbers before riceplanting are effective control methods for farmers, withoutinvolving additional costs. Communication tools, such asposters with information on proper snail management, wouldhelp to educate the community and to encourage concertedefforts in managing the problem of golden apple snails. Finally,more field research is needed to better understand populationdynamics in this particular context.

Ravindra C JoshiTechnical Advisor on golden apple snail to DELTAMED(Asociación de Deltas del Mediterráneo); TAA PacificCoordinator; Visiting Professor of Agriculture withPampanga State Agricultural University, Philippines; andAdjunct Professor at the University of the South Pacific,Fiji.

Figure 2. Golden apple snails in the rice crop. (Photo: J Ignasi Valldepérez)

Figure 3. Golden apple snail infestation in irrigation ditches. (Photo: Xavier VélezParera)

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Technology transfer: shortcomingsAlan Yates

Alan Yates went to Guyana in 1952 as an agronomist after obtaining his MSc; his DSc was awardedin 1970 for published papers. His career lasted for 42 years, during which time he worked in thefield in more than 30 tropical/sub-tropical countries around the world, including 16 countries inAfrica; he virtually never worked in academia or established research stations. His greatest expertise was sugarcane, but he has handled many other crops (including being a rice breeder);and he has been responsible for technology implementation on both large and small farms duringthe whole of his career. Amongst other posts, he has been Technical/Consultancies Director ofBooker Agriculture International, and Senior Agriculturalist with the World Bank

IntroductionTo quote Hazell’s succinct summary (Hazell, 2014): “Theprimary driver of productivity growth is new technologies andbetter ways of doing things, so understanding the sources anddiffusion of new technologies and knowledge is fundamental.”He continues: “There are multiple sources of new technologiesand knowledge. Indigenous knowledge and farmerexperimentation have historically been an important sourceof technological change, and accounted for slow but steadyincreases in productivity over generations. However, the moredramatic breakthroughs that were needed to keep pace withrapidly growing and urbanising populations have come fromthe application of modern science by agricultural researchorganisations.” Unfortunately, he fails to mention oneespecially valuable method for introducing technologies: thetransfer of technologies that have been proven elsewhere intoa similar environment in a different country. This noteprovides some examples.

Control of erosion and water runoffAndrews (2015) describes the Tiyeni method for the control oferosion and water run-off, and improving rooting depth, inMalawi. The various components of the Tiyeni system havebeen practised for many decades in Rwanda and Burundi,where extensive tracts of cultivated land protected by thesetechniques dominated the landscapes in many regions duringthe late 1980s (Figure 1). The interiors of many fields werealso very impressive (Figure 2). Adoption is widespread inmany, but not all, regions of Rwanda and Burundi; someexplanations for the variable adoption are discussed later.

Some of the erosion control work could be attributed to the‘fosses aveugles’ (infiltration ditches) system, which seemsindistinguishable from the ditches illustrated in Colin Andrews’paper. The system, described by Gaie & Flemal (1988) (Figure3), was well established in Burundi by 1988. However thiswriter can only speculate about how much the ‘fossesaveugles’ were voluntarily adopted by farmers: he was shownmany impressive examples, but his guide was not unbiased -he was one of the authors of the reference.

Figure 1. Landscape, Butare District, Rwanda, c. 1988

Figure 2. Interior of a conventional farmer’s field, Kayanza Region, Burundi, c. 1988

Figure 3. Layout for ‘fosses aveugles’ (from Gaie & Flemal, 1988)

The use of vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) to stabiliseerosion control bunds has been standard practice in parts of Sand SE Asia and Fiji for many decades - even centuries. Thetechniques are described by Grimshaw (1988) and Borlaug etal (1993). The technique was also well-established in Burundiand Rwanda in the 1980s, though notably, many of the oldvetiver ‘hedges’ were no longer well maintained, probablybecause the (typically female) farmer had other priorities:feeding her family this year, rather than protecting the securityof future generations. Frequently, Vetiveria zizanioides wasbeing replaced by Panicum maximum or elephant grass(Pennisetum purpureum) - these were less effective for erosioncontrol, but more valuable as livestock feed. The (recentlyestablished) protective hedge in Figure 2 is elephant grass, notvetiver.

Crop establishment - use of residualmoisture and other techniques

Agricultural activities in monomodal rainfall distributionregions (such as, in Africa, Malawi, Zambia, and much ofCameroon and Nigeria; and in the sub-tropics of Asia andCentral America) are strongly influenced by the need to matchthe date of sowing to the onset of the rainy season: many localresearch organisations install, every year, a trial to demonstrateyet again the already accepted benefit of early sowing. Tofacilitate rapid sowing, African farmers are encouraged tocomplete all cultivation, including forming planting ‘hills’ andopening the seed holes, during the dry season (Figure 4). Thisinevitably means that any residual soil moisture is dissipatedso that sowing has to be delayed until after the first rains. Thepossibility of retaining just sufficient soil moisture (typicallyat a depth of about 5 cm) under a dust mulch seems never tohave been appreciated in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Thistechnique has been used routinely for many years by farmersin other parts of the world: in the writer’s experience inAustralia in the 1960s, and in the S Malang and Kediri regions

of Java in the 1970s; and the writer has successfully tested thesystem in countries as far apart as Nigeria and Sulawesi. Suchresidual moisture is sufficient to cause germination: rootsgrow to explore for moisture, but the leaves remain tiny untilthe soil is sufficiently moistened, when the plant developsrapidly. The technique demands virtually instantaneousopening and closing of the planting hole to prevent loss of thevery limited moisture. Minimum-tillage equipment that canachieve this is frequently described in Agriculture forDevelopment (eg issues 6, 14 and15). Today, one would preferto use surface litter (crop residues, etc) rather than a dust-mulch.

The use of residual moisture was once common in the floodplains of Cameroon and Nigeria: sorghum seedlings (ratherthan seeds) were planted as floodwaters receded. Thetechnique would appear to be suitable for modernisation usingminimum cultivation tools such as jab-planters.

Cultural methods and rooting depthMost subsistence food-crop production in SSA (at least in non-Muslim areas) relies on one tool for cultivation: the hoe. Indensely populated countries such as Malawi, where shiftingcultivation is not possible, annual cultivation with a hoe willinevitably produce a hard-pan (the equivalent of a plough-pan)which will restrict root growth. Evidence of this is not difficultto find. For example, 1992 was a disastrous drought year inMalawi and a journey from Lilongwe through Dedza, Liwonde,Zomba and Blantyre to Bvumbwe Research Station passedthrough dead, brown maize crops (except for some slight reliefin the micro-climatic zone of Zomba). That is, until Bvumbwewhere (but only within the station boundary) the maize wasmiraculously green. The only different feature was thatBvumbwe had mechanised field cultivation, which would havebroken the ‘hoe-pan’. Examination of root profiles is ofimmense value for diagnostic purposes, especially in SSA but,unfortunately, the researchers had not noticed, and had notcompared root profiles. The Tiyeni method (Andrews, 2015)also encourages deeper rooting and his illustration of thelinkage between good root development and high yields shouldencourage others to emulate those techniques.

Very considerable increases in yields are obtained by some‘emergent’ farmers in Africa, notably, in the experience of thewriter, throughout those parts of Zambia that are within easyreach of good transport routes, and in the Bambui region ofCameroon. The men there have discovered that maize can bea more lucrative cash crop than any alternative, so they haveintroduced bull-ploughing, and they invest in fertiliser andimproved seeds (Figure 5). Some agricultural graduates inKenya have also concluded that growing maize can be moresatisfying than sitting in a government office, so startedfarming for themselves. Many authors, most recently Woomeret al (2014) have reported the linkage between the level ofeducation and the adoption of improved agriculturaltechniques. ‘New’ farmers such as these graduates would bemore amenable to adopting non-traditional ConservationAgriculture (CA) techniques. CA techniques have beenreported frequently in recent years (see, for example, Shaxson& Kassam, 2015), though there appears to be slow progress inits adoption by subsistence farmers in Africa.

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Figure 4. Field prepared for sowingwith maize, Malawi

Legumes and fruit cropsThe progress achieved by N2Africa (Woomer et al, 2014) leadsto optimism about greater integration of legumes into farmingin SSA. Much of the work reported seems to be a continuationof the valuable work being carried out with the assistance ofthe International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in the1980s at the Rwanda Agricultural Research Institute (ISAR)station at Rubona in Rwanda. Hopefully, other simple butpractical technologies which were in use in Rwanda at thattime have not been lost during the period of ethnic violence:in particular, near Ruhengeri, the interplanting of climbingbeans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in maize approaching maturity, sothat the dry maize stalks would provide climbing poles for thebeans. Similarly, in Malawi between Zomba and Blantyre, itwas common to see pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan - tall bushforms) planted in established maize to grow to maturity onresidual moisture after the maize had been harvested. Asimilar technique was well established in many parts of Java,where soybeans were sown immediately after the harvest ofrice, to grow on residual moisture; this system was successfulonly on medium textured soils (sufficiently moisture retentivewhilst remaining friable).

Other uses for legumes seem not to have been popularised: forexample, the use of Mucuna pruriens which in trials at theInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) (Ibadan),and elsewhere in central Nigeria, seemed to be very effectivein smothering serious weed species such as razor grass(Paspalum virgatum).

One of the greatest contrasts between smallholder gardencropping in SSA on the one hand and CentralAmerica/Caribbean and, more pronounced, SE Asia, on theother is the use of fruit trees. SSA is dominated by industrialscale plantation crops including tree/bush crops: sugar, sisal,coffee, tea, cocoa, oil-palm, rubber; but the planters seem notto have established the gardens so characteristic of plantationsin other parts of the world. With the exception of bananas(immensely important in the ‘spinal’ Region des Grands Lacscountries - Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi), SSA tends to becharacterised by extremely limited seasonal excesses: forexample mangoes in Zambia, and avocados around Kisumu inKenya. The contrast with, say, Java, where one could buy freshfruit in all seasons, is striking. SSA village gardens are not

characterised (as they are in the Americas and Java/Malaysia)by each having a wide range of vegetables plus tree crops suchas a banana, a papaya, a lime - and usually many more.

SSA does not benefit from exceptional botanic gardens suchas those at Bandung (Java) and Kandy (Sri Lanka).Nevertheless, the technology of fruit-tree cultivation is veryeasily transferred, and some fruit tree collections exist. Forexample, there is a large collection of mangoes at a researchstation near Solwezi in Zambia, which, according to theresearchers, had fruiting seasons that spanned much of theyear; but the staff at the station had no concept of distributingplants to farmers or gardeners. Bvumbwe (Malawi) also had agood collection, and did distribute grafted plants to a limitedextent. Rwanda had two valuable collections of avocados, oneat high elevation at Bakuta (Gisovu), the other at the researchstation at Rubona (Butare); but, in spite of their exceptionalnutritional value for people relying heavily on maize orsorghum ‘porridge’, they were not widely distributed. Bread-fruit might be expected to be a basic reserve for times whenother staples (maize, sorghum) are short: occasionalestablished trees can be seen in town gardens, but very fewelsewhere. Jack-fruit (and, perhaps understandably, durian) areabsent. There seem to be no Anonas (soursop and sweetsop),guava, rambutan, etc. Even melons and watermelons arerarities. All this in a continent where most of the populationrelies on an excessively restricted diet.

The role of research and extensionThere is no doubt that the reasons for the failure - andsuccesses - of the uptake of improved technologies need to bebetter understood, and that more effective means for theirdiffusion and popularisation need to be found. However, toquote Hazell (2014) once again: “Participatory researchmethods and farmer field schools have been developed asways of (1) engaging small farmers more directly in the designand testing of new technologies to better meet their needs;and (2) providing information and training on an interactivebasis. Such approaches seem especially promising formeeting the needs of many women and poor farmers.However, questions remain about their costs and whethertheir impacts can be scaled up beyond the relatively smallnumbers of farmers directly involved. New developments indecentralising the management of public extension systemsand engaging with new partners from the private and NGOsectors also look promising, but there is still a weak evidencebase about their effectiveness, especially in reaching womenand poor farmers.” The present writer has encountered manysuch R & D initiatives (for a partial list see Yates, 1995). In hisopinion, the didactic approach typified by the Training andVisit (T & V) system promoted by the World Bank in the 1980-90s seemed inappropriate for African smallholders. TheBelgian based ‘Etude du Milieu et Systemes de Production’(Study of the environment and production systems) of Rwandaseemed well designed to identify and resolve smallholderproblems, but would have been immensely expensive on alarge scale: one expatriate (often working for a post-graduatedegree), examining the whole farm problem (‘de rugo aumarais’- from top to bottom) could only cover a very fewvillages. There were, and still are, many similar initiatives.

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Figure 5. Ploughing with bulls in Kenya

Too many of these initiatives rely on the inputs of expatriates.Yet every country has its own Ministry of Agriculture (orequivalent), each operating some form(s) of Research andExtension Services. Each has a pool of trained agriculturalistswho are often under-utilised; yet they are the ones withunderstanding of local conditions and languages. Theirservices could, and should, be rewarded in proportion to theireffectiveness: commensurate with the degree to which theysuccessfully introduce improved technologies. However, theywill not, necessarily, have personal experience of technologiesused in other countries, so inputs from widely experiencedinternational experts would still be needed - but to a muchsmaller extent than in the past. Such widely experiencedagronomists would not only be able to suggest technologiesthat could be transferred from one country to another; theyshould have little difficulty in identifying many of the reasonsfor adoption or non-adoption of technologies. This requiressome facility with languages. However, the expatriate wouldstill need to have local interpreters/guides, persons who areaware of local ethnic complexities. Fortunately, many aspiringyoung extension officers are proud of their ability to speakEnglish (or some other major international language).

The detailed reasons for the variable adoption of new and/orproven technologies require special investigation; butresearchers/advisers need to appreciate that most subsistencefood-crop production in SSA (at least in non-Muslim areas) isthe responsibility of the women who, for ingrained culturalreasons, carry most of the responsibilities for maintaining theirfamilies; yet have insufficient money to purchase inputs suchas fertilisers and improved seeds, and whose sole cultivationtool is a hoe. As previously mentioned, these women haveother, very understandable priorities. Such factors are veryobvious in some cases such as the poor maintenance of vetiverhedges in Burundi and Rwanda in the late 1980s. Vetiverhedges are of benefit to future generations; forage grasses feedtheir livestock today. Excellent illustrations of non-technicalproblems are evident in Malawi: in this densely cultivatedcountry, one can easily compare different plots. Figure 6shows four adjacent plots owned by different farmers. Twoplots are good, but the plot in the foreground was obviouslyplanted too late; the plot in the background was worse -planted late and currently overrun with weeds. Cultivatingthese plots by hand-hoe is no light task; wasting much of thateffort would not be caused by ignorance or laziness. The mostlikely explanation is that the farmer became unwell, or one ofher children fell ill at a critical time.

Examples of the rapid take-up of technology can also be cited,for example, Yates (1995). Perhaps the most amusing was the‘adaptive researcher’ at Ngaoundere (Cameroon) who wasinfuriated that one of his sweet potato varieties had been stolenfrom his demonstration plots; other sweet potato and cassavavarieties were left untouched. He later pointed out these stolentubers on sale in the local market (Figure 7). In the writer’sopinion, this was effective, low cost extension of one successfulresult of plant breeding. Similarly (as noted above) some malefarmers have responded to a market signal and have adoptedreadily available technology to greatly improve yields of maize.These drivers must be recognised and taken into account by R& E workers.

References

Andrews C, 2015. Promoting sustainable farming methods in Malawi: theTiyeni method. Agriculture. for Development 24, 10-12.

Borlaug NE, Lal R, Pimental D, Popenoe H, 1993. Vetiver grass - a thin greenline against erosion. National Research Council, Washington DC.

Gaie W, Flemal J, 1988. La culture de caffier au Burundi. Publication duService Agricole No 4, Administration Generale de la Cooperation auDeveloppment.

Grimshaw RG, 1988. A method of vegetative soil and moisture conservation.2nd Edition. World Bank, New Delhi.

Hazell P, 2014. Topic Guide: Agricultural Productivity. DFID, UK

Shaxson F, Kassam A, 2015: Soil erosion and conservation. Agriculture forDevelopment 24, 21-25.

Woomer, PL, Huising J, Giller KE et al, 2014: Final report of the first phase2009-2013. www.N2Africa.org, 138 pp.

Yates RA, 1995. Methods for technology transfer for agricultural developmentin SSA. TAA Newsletter 15 (3), 9-21.

Figure 6. Comparison of maize plots, Malawi

Figure 7. Sale of demonstration-plot sweet potato, Cameroon

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Newsflash 1

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NewsflashDFID’s Conceptual Framework on Agriculture, November 2015

The last time DFID published a summary of the thinkingunderlying its support to agriculture in developing countrieswas in 2005. In the intervening ten years, DFID’s funding ofboth research and intervention has moved from a focus ontechnical change, to the broader understanding of agri-foodsystems and value chains, and the policy environment thatinfluences investment in the agricultural sector by farmers,other businesses in the sector, and governments. DFID’sinvestment in agriculture increased by 140 percent between2007/08 and 2011/12, with 60 percent of this channelledthrough multilateral organisations, since when it hasplateaued.

In this new publication, DFID sets out its understanding ofhow support to the ‘agri-food system’ can contribute to threegoals: (i) inclusive economic growth and poverty reduction,(ii) food security and improved nutrition, and (iii) sustainablefood systems.

Two basic assumptions underpin this conceptual framework:(i) agriculture still has a part to play in ‘broad-based povertyreduction and growth’ in most DFID focus countries; but (ii)its ability to play this part will depend in the long run on

growth in non-agriculture sectors which can provide betterpaid employment opportunities for those currently working onsmallholder farms.

This 30-page booklet is in three main sections: first, an outlineof the key opportunities, challenges and risks facing theagricultural sector, drawing on research funded by DFID andother agencies over the past ten years; second an explanationof DFID’s long term perspective on agriculture; and third anoutline of DFID’s future approach to the promotion ofagricultural transformation and supporting rural transition tobenefit the poor.

The first part includes a familiar litany: population growth, aslowdown in the rate of increase in yields of major staples, thecontribution that agriculture makes to global warming whichin turn threatens continued growth in global output, andconcerns about food safety and zoonotic diseases.Liberalisation of global food markets has created space andincentives for the private sector to invest in agri-food systems,through which the rising demand for food from growing urbanpopulations can be transmitted to those producers able torespond.

DFID’s long term perspective on agriculture is summarised inthree propositions:

• Sustained wealth creation and a self-financed exit from poverty depend, in the long term, on economic transformation and the majority of the rural poor finding productive and better paid employment outside of primary agricultural production.

• Despite the need for this transition away from a reliance on primary agricultural production, agricultural growth and downstream processing and productivity growth will remain an important source, if not a driver, of growth.

• In many DFID focus countries, agriculture sector growth is likely to have a bigger impact on poverty reduction than growth in other sectors. This is because agricultural sector growth, where it can be achieved cost-effectively, offers the most direct route of raising returns to poor people’s main assets, land and labour.

This perspective identifies three different scenarios which havebecome widely used in recent literature on the situation ofsmallholder farmers in developing countries. In thispublication, they are translated into a categorisation ofstrategies for supporting agriculture:

• ‘hanging in’ where smallholder families can be helped to a more sustainable and food secure future until sufficient jobs

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are created in non-farm sectors to absorb significant of their number;

• ‘stepping up’ where a relatively small proportion of smallholders can become more integrated into markets and value chains and expand their businesses, responding to rising demand and able to meet the regulatory demands of national, regional and global consumers; and

• ‘stepping out’ where the transition is made to high productivity, high income non-farm jobs.

DFID will support differentiated strategies, tailored to nationaland sub-national realities and based on these scenarios.Stepping up to more intensive, market driven agri-foodsystems will require a particular focus on institutions andgovernance of value chains to ensure that smallholders are ableto benefit from available opportunities, as well as public goodinvestments including transport infrastructure. Hanging inwill require investment in advisory services and research intomore productive, nutritious and drought tolerant cropvarieties, and possibly asset transfers. Stepping out of farminginto higher income opportunities requires sustained supportfor job creation in manufacturing and services, and in capacitybuilding to enable the rural poor to move into these sectors.DFID retains its overriding commitment to the povertyreduction/elimination goal of the international communityand so will continue to make major hanging in investments.

Three cross-cutting issues are put into the mix which DFIDwill insist are taken into account in its decision making onfuture investments in the sector: (i) nutrition and food safety;(ii) inclusiveness (particularly gender equity); and (iii)environmental sustainability in the face of climate change andassociated increase in extreme weather events.

The recognition that a one-size-fits-all approach is notappropriate makes a lot of sense. However, the underlyingeconomists’ view that markets are inherently benevolent andgovernments’ role is to oil the wheels of markets to enablethem to do their job does not necessarily address thechallenges that most smallholder farmers face.

In this conceptual framework, there is no discussion of thepolitical dimension of the various challenges to inclusiveagricultural transformation. History suggests that suchtransformations are hugely disruptive, with large numbers ofsmallholder farmers disadvantaged in the short to mediumterm. Urbanisation has brought major public health,infrastructure and security challenges, along with the non-farm employment anticipated in this publication. Global,regional and national markets tend, for various reasons, todirect benefits to the few and it is not clear from this paper howDFID intends the programmes to which it contributes willcounter this trend.

While the paper acknowledges, for example, that poorgovernance of land rights represents an ‘investment risk’,citing a recent World Bank report on case studies of foreigninvestment in commercial agriculture in developing countries;it implicitly assumes that national governments have anincentive to ensure that transformation to a smaller numberof larger, more commercial farms does not take place at theexpense of poorer farmers with weak formal land rights andmarginal voices in the national political arena. Governments’

willingness to assign ‘vacant’ land to agribusiness suggests thisis not always the case.

Similarly, while acknowledging the need for strongerregulation around pesticide use and other food safety hazardsconsequent on intensification, it does not mention thechallenges facing underfunded government agencies,including local governments in devolved administrations,charged with implementing regulatory regimes and addressingthe widespread adulteration and false labelling of farm inputs.

While the overall conceptual framework may make senseintellectually, it perhaps underplays the social and politicalchallenges of supporting inclusive economic growth, includingthe distribution of power within value chains and tradingrelationships which threatens to marginalise large numbers ofsmallholder farmers.

It will be interesting to see, in future publications and in itsfunding portfolio, how DFID sees the role of a bilateraldevelopment partner in supporting the three strategies set outin this paper. Perhaps future publications will also undergo afinal edit to eliminate typos and grammatical errors, such asreferences to a ‘principle growth driver’.

Chris Garforth

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Mechanisation: a vital input for smallholder farmers

Brian Sims is an agricultural engineer specialising in conservation agriculture and smallholder farmmechanisation issues.

Josef Kienzle is an agricultural engineer in the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome,Italy, specialising in smallholder mechanisation issues.

Brian Sims and Josef Kienzle

Summary

This paper summarises the deliberations at a meetingconvened by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and heldin Beijing in October 2015. Farm power and mechanisationare essential inputs to raising the labour and land productivityrequired to increase agricultural productivity, if the SustainableDevelopment Goals 1 and 2 (ending poverty and hunger) areto be achieved.

The smallholder farm sector demand for mechanisation needsto be increased to stimulate the product value chain andactivate the input supply chain. The sustainability ofmechanisation from a natural resource conservation point ofview is discussed with reference to the principles ofconservation agriculture. The key is to engage all thestakeholders in the supply chain and offer a range of suitableoptions from which the user can select. The public sector rolein providing access to mechanisation should be restricted topromulgating enabling policies, building technical andbusiness management skills for users, and stimulating demandfor the use of mechanisation. The lessons to be learnt fromChinese experience in making mechanisation available tosmallholder farmers include subsidies, strong extensionservices, infrastructure development, and a solidmanufacturing sector that prioritises the smallholder sector.The implications for sub-Saharan Africa appear to be thatgroup ownership and custom service provision are the modelsto follow. Finally the relevance of an African Centre forSustainable Agricultural Mechanisation (CSAM-A), on themodel of CSAM in Beijing, is considered and recommended.

BackgroundIn October 2015, an international gathering of people involvedin smallholder mechanisation issues was convened by the Billand Melinda Gates Foundation in Beijing, China. The GrandChallenges programme of the Foundation engages innovatorsfrom around the world to solve the most pressing challenges

in global health and development. The Beijing meetingincluded, amongst many crucial health themes, a track onaccessible mechanisation for smallholder farmers.

The emphasis of the meeting was on development for Africaand, in particular, three focus countries: Nigeria, Tanzania andGhana. There was a strong representation from China todescribe their country’s strategy for smallholdermechanisation, and its relevance for development in Africa.There were also important international delegations from theprivate sector farm machinery industry, from R&Dorganisations, especially the Consultative Group forInternational Agricultural Research (CGIAR), UN institutionssuch as FAO and the Centre for Sustainable AgriculturalMechanisation (CSAM) of the UN-Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), and Africannational organisations, amongst many others. This papersummarises the main issues raised and points the way toconcrete actions that can make the essential farm power andmechanisation input needed to increase productivity morereadily accessible to smallholder farmers in the Africancontinent.

Mechanisation - an essential inputSustainable Development Goals

In September 2015 the UN adopted the 17 SustainableDevelopment Goals (SDGs) that will replace the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (UN, 2015). These new goals will framethe development agendas and political policies of memberstates over the next fifteen years. Of these, SDG1 (Endingpoverty), and SDG2 (Zero hunger) are the most compellinglyimportant for improving the livelihoods of smallholderfarmers. SDG12 (Ensuring sustainable consumption andproduction patterns) also fits in well with the pressing need forSustainable Crop Production Intensification (SCPI) which willprotect natural resources while producing food for the world’sgrowing population. Achieving SCPI will require a sharpimprovement in labour and land productivity in thesmallholder farming sector which produces 80 percent of the

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food in developing countries. This will mean improved accessto essential crop production inputs including quality seed,fertiliser and irrigation water, but will also necessitate increasedaccess to farm power and machinery.

Farm power and mechanisation

There is no doubt that agricultural mechanisation for themultitude of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA),has been a neglected issue for too long. Farm power appliedto appropriate tools, implements and machines - agriculturalmechanisation - is an essential agricultural input and has thepotential to transform rural families’ economies by facilitatingincreased output of higher value products whilst at the sametime eliminating the drudgery associated with human musclepowered agricultural production. Such an improved situationfor smallholder farmers can enable access to input supplychains and integration in downstream value chains; thusproviding for more income, renewed business opportunitiesand further value addition.

As the global population continues to increase, the ruralpopulation is also expected to decline with people, especiallythe young and fit, migrating to urban centres in search of alife of less drudgery than can be offered by agriculture. Thereis also a growing feminisation of smallholder agriculture,especially in SSA, as women are increasingly left in control ofthe farm. Opportunities that agricultural mechanisation canoffer are often underestimated for the elderly and women inrural areas, and the development of local economies. Currently50 percent of the population in developing countries live in therural sector and this is projected to fall to 30 percent by 2050.Given the current importance of human muscles insmallholder agriculture, the implications of limitations in farmpower are grave.

Increasing demand for mechanisation

Smallholder farmers tend to be resource-poor withcorrespondingly low incomes. This means that they tend toput pressure on natural resources and their levels of savingsare low. Low levels of disposable income mean that demandfor farm power and mechanisation inputs will be low, with landand labour productivity remaining at minimal levels. Thismeans a continuing cycle of poverty from which is difficult toescape (FAO, 2013). There is also a parallel cycle of pressureon natural resources (especially soil and water) which leads tothe same unfortunate end, increased poverty. If demand formechanisation inputs can be increased, then a more positivecycle of events will take place. The resulting improvedproductivity will raise levels of savings which in turn will leadto greater demand for technology and practices to enhanceproductivity, including mechanisation. These will lead togreater productivity and continue the self-reinforcing cycle.

Further advantages will accrue as higher demand formechanisation leads to an increase in supply, permitting lowerper-unit costs for services and increasing demand to establisha second self-reinforcing virtuous cycle. The challenge is tomake sustainable mechanisation available to farmers so thatthe poverty cycle can be broken and improved livelihoodsensue.

Mechanisation along the value chain

Mechanisation is an essential input not only for cropproduction, but also has a crucial role to play along the entirevalue chain. By mechanising the whole process of cropproduction, adding value from planting to marketing, highervalue and enhanced quality outputs can be produced, ruralemployment can be created and sustained, post-harvest lossescan be reduced, and smallholders can be integrated into themarket economy.

Spreading the risk

Ndiame (2015) takes up the need for a value chain approachand adds the context of riskiness along the line. As can be seenin Table 1, the value of produce increases along the chain,while the level of risk involved is variable, peaking during thecrop production mechanisation ‘eco-system’. This helps toexplain why financial services aimed at mechanisingsmallholder crop production are frequently difficult toencounter, or are too expensive for the intended clientele. Putsimply, the risk, due to biological and weather variability andstresses, is too high.

Sustainable agricultural productionIn Africa, the Green Revolution has not had the same impactas it has in Asia. Mechanisation and intensification levels,fertiliser use and use of other modern technologies haveremained low throughout most of the continent to date.

However, degraded lands are common across the continentand it is astonishing to see how soil erosion has progressed inmany regions considering the low level of mechanisation.There are many reasons for this. One is the continuous use ofthe plough (or hand hoe) that leads to soil degradation; thecreation of plough, or hoe, pans in the soil profile; and loss offertile top soil. Looking to the future, if Africa should intensifyand mechanise its agriculture on a large scale, it must be donewith care and in line with the principles of SCPI that FAO hassummarised in its ‘Save and Grow’ guidelines, and that hasenvironmentally friendly and natural resource conservingconservation agriculture (CA) mechanisation at its heart (FAO,2011). Farming systems for SCPI will offer a range ofproductivity, socio-economic and environmental benefits toproducers, and to other value chain actors and to society at

Table 1. Product value and risk levels along the agricultural produce value chain (after Ndiame, 2015)

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large. These will include greater and more stable production,food distribution and profitability; adaptation and reducedvulnerability to climate change; enhanced ecosystemfunctioning and services; along with reductions in agriculturalgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and ‘carbon footprint’. In anutshell, agricultural mechanisation in the twenty first centuryshould be simultaneously: environmentally compatible,economically viable, affordable, adapted to local conditionsand, in view of current developments in weather patterns, also‘climate-smart’.

Roles of the public and private sectorsMuch has been said of the demise of public sectormechanisation schemes widely promoted in many SSAcountries in the second half of the 20th Century. Ruralmechanisation services, or tractor hire schemes, were well-intentioned efforts to make tractor-powered agriculturalmechanisation available to smallholder farmers. However, theservices were effectively a government subsidy and thefinancial burden was all too easy to shed when governmentpriorities shifted. The schemes were typically overburdenedwith a bureaucratic hierarchy which found it difficult to adaptto the seasonal nature of agricultural operations, so thattimeliness, so essential for yield optimisation, suffered, leavingfarmer clients dissatisfied with the service. Other problemsincluded: long travelling distances between clients’ farms; poorrural road infrastructure; erratic supplies of clean fuel;availability of replacement parts; and effective maintenanceand repair facilities (Figure 1). Studies of the financialsustainability of public-sector run mechanisation services haveshown that their viability is generally questionable and theywere largely abandoned by the turn of the century.

The lesson to be learnt is that the public sector should facilitatemechanisation for smallholder farmers, not attempt to supplyit, however politically attractive that may seem in the shortterm. Conversely, the private sector should be empowered tosupply the mechanisation demanded by smallholders throughcommercial supply chains. This will ensure that the supply ofservices will be sustainable and not be subject to the vagariesof political and economic climates, as only viable businessmodels will survive.

Making mechanisation accessibleLessons from China

Smallholder development

China, with a third of the world’s population of smallholderfarmers (with, typically ⅛ ha of land per family) needs publicsector support to sustain and develop its agricultural sector.Public sector assistance is provided in the form of financialincentives and subsidies. In addition, there is a strong localmanufacturing capacity so solid technical backup is readilyavailable. The Chinese government offers a 30 percent subsidyfor the purchase of agricultural machinery. There are alsosubstantial subsidies for other inputs including seeds, fuel,agrochemicals and plastic mulch (Fang, 2015). In addition,the Government applies production subsidies to raisesmallholder farm family incomes; for example, the grainminimum support price costs $2.2 billion a year. Extensionservices are strong and include advice on cropping systemsadvances, in parallel with increased mechanisation. Plotconsolidation is encouraged to ease mechanisation. Freermovement in the rural-urban migration, and the ability to buyand sell land, has been made possible by a liberalisation ofmarkets and a trend away from communal forms of farming.Since the 1990s, this has empowered individual farmers tomake their own decisions, with larger scale propertiesemerging. Women, the elderly and children, who tend to beleft behind to care for the family farm, benefit frommechanisation. Information technology is increasingly usedto modernise farming systems and to facilitate an internet-based extension service (Li, 2015).

Infrastructure development (especially for transport but alsoof utilities) is also key to encouraging agriculturaldevelopment. As Fang (2015) says: “if you want to get rich [asa nation] build roads first”.

China’s agricultural machinery industry

China is one of the world’s largest manufacturers ofagricultural machinery, currently experiencing a 20 percentannual growth rate and an increasing export volume whichreached $10 billion in 2014 (Gao, 2015). Costs are kept to aminimum and currently tractors are being produced for a priceof $157/hp ($210/kW). Small capacity combines can bemanufactured for $15,000 and currently 150,000 units areproduced annually. Chinese manufacturers are aware of theneed to reform traditional production methods to improveproduct quality, and emphasis is being put on this aspect toimprove their international image.

The Chinese-Africa Machinery Corporation - YTO - has a focuson the transfer of technology in the interests of smallholderfarm development in Africa. Hao (2015) emphasises theproblem of finance acquisition in Africa and considers that lackof funding for the sector is the first obstacle to be overcome.There is a clear role for the public sector here. Furtherpriorities are training in machine operation and maintenance,while assuring a ready supply of spare parts.

Equipment

The two-wheel tractor (2WT) (6-12 hp) has been a widelyadopted technology, relieving drudgery and taking farm power

Figure 1. Public sector run machinery hire services face an insurmountable number of technical and administrative obstacles which make them financiallynon-viable (Photo: Brian Sims)

away from human muscle and animal-powered agriculture.Chinese manufacturers displayed examples of the wide rangeof attachments available for 2WTs at the meeting in Beijing (egFigures 2 and 3).

There is now a move to a preference for four-wheel tractors(4WTs) (12-18 hp) which provide greater versatility, safety andease of operation. They can also be equipped with a greatervariety of implements. In the same way that 4WTs areemerging as the predominant power source, so combineharvesters are replacing the reaper + thresher + cleanerassociated with the 2WT systems. Figure 4 is an example ofthe low-power 4WTs under discussion and Figure 5 shows acrawler-mounted crop sprayer for tree crops suitable forcontract work on smallholder farms.

Delivering mechanisation services to smallholder farmers

The private sector can become involved in the supply ofmechanisation services to smallholder farmers through avariety of ways, including:

• Group ownership whereby several neighbouring farmers can unite to form a group which can then invest in agricultural machinery for the use of all members. Groups (as opposed to individual farmers) will often gain easier access to credit on more favourable terms, but there are recurrent problems associated with this type of arrangement. Firstly, there is the problem of timeliness - all members will probably require the same machine at the same time. Secondly, there are also questions of who will operate the machine; and who is responsible for and who will fund maintenance and repairs? However, the model can work in situations where there is mutual respect and confidence.

• Service provision by an owner of agricultural machinery. This could be a farmer who attends to his own needs first and then supplies services to neighbours; or it could be a full-time service provider.

A Centre for Sustainable AgriculturalMechanisation for Africa?

Asia’s Centre for Sustainable Agricultural Mechanisation(CSAM) is a regional institution of the United Nations’Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(UNESCAP) based in Beijing. It started operations in 2004,building on the achievements of its forerunner, the RegionalNetwork for Agricultural Machinery - RNAM (www.un-csam.org).A CSAM for Africa (CSAM-A) could play an important role inlifting the continent’s smallholder farmers out of their cycle ofdrudgery and low productivity. Zhao (2015) gives an overviewof CSAM and its relevance to improving smallholder access tomechanisation services. CSAM is essentially a regional forumwith a vision to achieve productivity gains, improved rurallivelihoods, and poverty alleviation through sustainableagricultural mechanisation. The objective of CSAM is toenhance technical cooperation amongst UNESCAP membersand serves as a data and information hub to facilitateinformation exchange, knowledge sharing and R&D insustainable agricultural mechanisation. CSAM also serves asa reference point for standards and protocols; a centre forcapacity building; and a facilitator for intra-regional agri-business development and trade. CSAM’s strategy forpromoting smallholder farm mechanisation includesencouraging the development of custom hire services (Zhao,2015). This will include the development of information andcommunications technology (especially use of mobile phones)accompanied by services of market information, training andaccess to credit and other inputs. Developing riskmanagement strategies is also a priority for the sector.

One clear example of how a CSAM-A could operate to removeconstraints along the production chain was provided by Nweke(2015) from Nigeria. He explains that constraints (bottlenecks)can be identified and alleviated, through investment andinvestigation, but this gives rise to further challenges as yields

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Figure 2. Datang 2WTwith rotary cultivator(Photo: Brian Sims)

Figure 3. Huaxing cerealharvester mounted on a 4kW (5.4 hp) 2WT (Photo:Brian Sims)

Figure 4. SH 11 kW 4WT(Photo: Brian Sims)

Figure 5. Datang hand-operated, or remote-controlled, fan sprayer for tree crops (Photo:Brian Sims)

and production intensification increase. Traditional cassavaproduction in Nigeria was constrained by pests and diseaseswhich were overcome by the advent of resistant high-yieldingvarieties. Improved yields then met with the bottleneck oflabour for processing which was broken with the design andapplication of mechanical processing machines. Further yieldincreases created a harvesting bottleneck which was alleviatedby mechanised harvesting technologies. New constraints areexpected as yields and production methods continue toimprove and the yield potential for cassava has yet to berealised.

ConclusionsSmallholder farmers need farm power and mechanisation toraise the productivity of their land and labour forimprovements in farm family livelihoods. This essential inputis not only needed for agricultural production, but along thevalue chain for farm produce. Mechanisation is needed toalleviate drudgery and to reduce the load on women, childrenand the elderly, all of which equates to an increase in labourproductivity.

In order to feed the increasing world population with finite(and degrading) natural resources, it is vital that sustainablemechanisation options are employed. This means increasingfood production whilst conserving soil and water - sustainablecrop production intensification - and calls for the practices ofconservation agriculture to be vastly scaled up and out.

There is a wide range of appropriate mechanisation optionssuited to smallholder farming conditions. All power sources(manual, draught animal and motorised) can be appropriate.The important point is to make the options available byinvolving all stakeholders in the mechanisation input chain.This means including farmers, manufacturers, dealers,academia and policy makers. The private sector must be themain supplier of mechanisation inputs to ensure sustainabilityof supply and service into the future.

The public sector should only be involved in facilitating thesupply of mechanisation inputs from the private sector. Publicsector machinery hire services are likely to be unreliable anduneconomic; and public sector activities in supplying importedmachinery usually result in poor service support and thealienation of private sector suppliers.

Improving smallholders’ access to farm power and machineryinputs is crucial as machinery purchase is often beyond themeans of a large proportion of the sector. Group ownership isa possibility and can be supported by public sector incentives.Private sector custom mechanisation services are probably themost appropriate vehicle and should be supported by publicsector incentives and training.

Africa would benefit from at least one regional centre forsustainable agricultural mechanisation, based on UNESCAP’sCSAM model in Beijing, China.

References

Note: References marked * are presentations made at the Bill and MelindaGates Foundation, Grand Challenges Annual Meeting, Beijing, China, 18-21October, 2015.

Fang X, 2015*. The emphasis of farming mechanization in its initial stage.

FAO, 2011. Save and Grow. A Policymaker’s Guide to the SustainableIntensification of Smallholder Crop Production. Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy. 102 pp. Available at:http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2215e/i2215e.pdf

FAO, 2013. Agricultural mechanization in sub-Saharan Africa: Guidelines forpreparing a strategy. Houmy, K, Clarke LJ, Ashburner, JE, Kienzle, J. Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. Integrated cropmanagement 22. ISBN 978-92-5-107762-7.

Gao Y, 2015*. China Association of Agricultural Machinery Manufacturers.

Hao Z, 2015*. China-Africa Machinery Corporation – YTO.

Li M, 2015*. How to help smallholder famers with information technology.

Ndiame F, 2015*. Delivery of effective agricultural mechanization services tosmallholder farmers.

Nweke F, 2015*. Mechanization of production: a necessary condition forcassava revolution in Nigeria.

UN, 2015. Sustainable development knowledge platform: SustainableDevelopment Goals. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics.

Zhao B, 2015*. Overview of agricultural mechanization in Asia and the Pacificand custom hire strategies for smallholders.

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News from the Field 2

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News from the Field

Turning literature into reality - tales froma Bangor University MSc Tropical Forestrysummer school in GhanaIn the summer of 2015, 29 students (from 15 differentcountries) on the MSc Tropical Forestry (distance learning)programme at Bangor University embarked on a unique andshared learning experience, culminating in an intensive twoweek residential summer school in the forests of Ghana.Twenty-four of these students are from developingcommonwealth countries and are grateful recipients ofscholarships from the Commonwealth ScholarshipCommission.

Ghana was chosen as the focus for this tropical forestrysummer school for a number of reasons: English speaking;democratic and politically stable; with a relatively long historyof forest research; a wide range of tropical forest habitats; areputation for progressive forest management and communityparticipation; and a number of high quality education andresearch institutions.

Taking advantage of the latest distance learning expertise andtechnologies at Bangor University, students initially spent tenweeks learning about forestry in Ghana, whilst based in theirhome countries. Drawing on historical, biographical, social,ecological and the latest scientific studies, students were ableto discuss and develop a detailed understanding of the variousissues facing Ghanaian forestry and the livelihoods dependanton this resource from a variety of perspectives. Online testshelped students check their progress and understanding.Students also worked in groups to develop draft researchproposals, with the support of a staff mentor, which were then‘peer reviewed’ by students from other groups to help improvethe quality of the final proposals. These research proposalsformed the basis for conducting short research projects inGhana during the summer school.

What emerged from this process of ‘physically remoteorientation’ was fascinating. Many of the articles focussed onnegatives - insecure tenure, poverty, unsustainable levels ofdeforestation, illegal logging, disempowerment of forestryofficials, corruption, vested interests, biodiversity loss,disconnects between policy rhetoric and on-the-groundrealities.

The generally negative discourse of the literature led to aconsensus that it’s important to consider what type of researchis carried out, what type of research is not carried out and whatis, and is not, reported. Studies, by their very nature, tend topresent partial interpretations of reality and therefore can onlytell part of the truth. This is why we went to Ghana in July2015: to learn for ourselves about the current situation, tocarry out our own primary research, to develop our ownunderstanding of the forests of Ghana.

The first week of the summer school enabled students to getto know each other in person and was designed to also providean in-depth understanding of the forests of southern andcentral Ghana. Assisted by the University of Energy andNatural Resources (UENR), Sunyani, and Kwame NkrumahUniversity of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, wewere privileged to spend a week in the forests of the southern,western and central parts of Ghana. We visited various forestsites along an ecological gradient, starting in the lush, wetevergreen forests of Ankasa and heading north as far as theforest-savannah transition zone around Kintampo. We learnedfrom discussions with landowners, tenant farmers, forestcommunities, charcoal-makers, permaculture experts, forestmanagers, forest scientists and custodians of sacred groves andmonkey sanctuaries. This first week was clearly a success; onestudent later commented: “The overview of the forest typeswas essential…I feel I now have a much greater appreciationof tropical forestry across a range of different site types”(Figures 1-3).

Figure 1. Students conducting forestregeneration and ecological survey inBobiri Forest Reserve, Ghana, July 2015(Photo: © James Walmsley)

Figure 2. Visit to the Ghana Permaculture Institute, with the Tano Boase SacredGrove in the background, Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana, July 2015 (Photo: © Bangor University)

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The second week of the summer school gave students theopportunity to implement the research proposals they hadplanned previously. Working closely with researchers and fieldstaff from the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG),students conducted five different research projects, with topicsranging from forest regeneration and ecology, to herbicide usein agroforestry systems, the bamboo supply chain, silviculturalstandards in the Bobiri forest reserve, and forestinventory/growth modelling. Students had the opportunity tobase themselves either at the beautiful Bobiri forest reserve andbutterfly sanctuary, or within the FORIG compound in Kumasiwhere they could access facilities and other researchorganisations. The students presented the results of thesestudies on the final day of the summer school at the FORIGheadquarters in Kumasi, in the company of a number ofFORIG research staff (Figure 4).

Reflecting on the contrast between the literature and thereality, perhaps the greatest surprise related to bamboo. Someliterature suggested that there was a notable and growingbamboo bicycle industry in Ghana, generating employmentand providing an opportunity for more sustainable transportsolutions. The reality we found in and around Kumasi, wherethe bamboo bikes initiative is based, was a largely unmanagedbamboo resource with a very informal and vulnerable supplychain. Most landowners considered bamboo to be an invasiveweed which, although useful for various subsistence purposes(eg construction, fencing, agricultural stakes, etc), wasperceived to have little commercial value. Discussions with anumber of bamboo enterprise owners in Kumasi revealed that,

in fact, substantial value can be added to raw bamboo throughthe manufacture of furniture and other artisanal products(along with bicycles). However, such enterprises are presentlyconstrained by a number of supply- and demand-related issues.This clearly underscores the huge value in residential summerschools, which provide students with the opportunity toinvestigate current issues for themselves and gain confidencein their own abilities as effective researchers.

The summer school was a huge success, as evidenced by theoverwhelmingly positive feedback we have since received fromstudents, such as “It was such a privilege to meet my fellowstudents and teaching staff; and completely indulge myself inthe fascinating topic of tropical forestry for two weeks”; “Itwas great to have that immersion in the forest. Social andface-to-face networking with lecturers and fellow studentsbrought the course to life, literally.”

We very much believe that this educational experience has notonly enabled the formation of many new friendships andcontacts, but also enables our part-time students, who are allemployed in the forestry profession, to continue to implementthe principles of sustainable forest management in their owncountries. The next tropical forestry summer school will takeplace in 2017.

We would like to thank the Commonwealth ScholarshipCommission, the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana(FORIG), the University of Energy and Natural Resources(UENR), Kwame Nkrumah University of Science andTechnology (KNUST) and Professor Philip Nyeko of MakerereUniversity.

The MSc Tropical Forestry (distance learning) programme isfully accredited by the Institute of Chartered Foresters, as areall forestry degree programmes offered by Bangor University.

James Walmsley, Mark Rayment, GenevieveLamond and James BrockingtonSchool of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography,Bangor University LL57 2UW Wales, UKhttp://www.bangor.ac.uk/senrgy/ distance@bangor.ac.uk /j.walmsley@bangor.ac.uk

Figure 3. Students held focus group discussions with local farmers to learn abouttheir use of herbicides in agroforestry systems, Kubease village, Ashanti Region,Ghana, July 2015 (Photo: © Genevieve Lamond)

Figure 4. Students and staff on the final day of the 2015 Tropical Forestry SummerSchool, FORIG HQ, Ghana (Photo: © Mark Rayment)

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NewsflashEFARD Annual Technical and Business MeetingsStanding in for George Rothschild as the UK representative, Iattended the annual meeting of the European Forum forAgricultural Research for Development (EFARD) in Brusselson 23-24 November 2015. I had previously served as ExecutiveSecretary to EFARD from 2009 to 2013. The meetings, whichwere organised as technical and business meetings onsuccessive days, were attended by 20-30 delegates1,representing eight countries2 and the EC, including academics,field researchers, donors, NGOs and the private sector. HillsideGrowers from Kenya attended as a guest.

The theme of the technical meeting was Research, innovation,entrepreneurship and going to scale. Presentations were madeby a Kenyan small- and medium-sized enterprise (SME)specialised in the export of fruits and vegetables (HillsideGrowers), the EC Directorate Generals for Research andInnovation (RTD) and International Cooperation andDevelopment (DEVCO), a German University specialising inlinking students to industry through sandwich typearrangements and a potential convener of an ‘innovationpartnership’. Breakout groups discussed the relationshipbetween research, innovation and entrepreneurship and therole of the public and private sector; concepts of agriculturalresearch, agricultural research for development andagricultural innovation systems and how they differ from oneanother; how to scale up and scale out successful products ofresearch; and the selection of indicators to measure uptake andimpact.

Among the outcomes of the discussion were a greaterunderstanding of the roles and needs of the private sector inresearch and product development, notwithstandingrecognition that the public sector remains important,particularly in basic research and in creating an enablingenvironment for SME development. Also discussed was thepotential for linking indicators to the new SustainableDevelopment Goals, and the need to assure accountability ofresearch to users as well as funders.

The Business Meeting, which covered a half day, includedpresentations by the EFARD Chair and Executive Secretary.EFARD’s objectives for the current strategic plan (2014-17) arecentred around dialogue between European partners, supportto global initiatives, and support to inter-regional partnerships.It was noted that EFARD is dominated by Western Europe andis strongly Africa-oriented. Costs are the main constraint togreater participation by members from southern and easternEuropean countries. However the Czech Republic (Universityof Life Sciences, Prague) is taking a lead in offering to buildbridges to poorer countries from Eastern Europe. Prague alsohosts the Secretariat of the Agrinatura Association and hasoffered to host the annual meeting of EFARD in 2016.

DG DEVCO outlined support to agriculture, food security andrural development, which amounts to approximately EUR 1billion annually in thematic and country programmes. Supportto research accounts for a modest proportion of this budgetaryenvelope, and includes selected research programmes of theCGIAR, African regional and sub-regional organisations, whichare currently subject to a strategic review, and support to acapacity development programme, piloted in eight countries,with FAO and Agrinatura. There is increasing interest ininnovation (as opposed to research) and a new agriculturalfinance initiative is being developed, with launch scheduled for2016, intended to provide additionality to private sectorfunding through investment, advisory services on businessdevelopment and value chain analysis.

The Business meeting included updates from EIARD,Agrinatura, and GFAR (see Box 1).

EIARD does not currently have a formal status, and its 2015annual meeting considered new options for governance. Thefavoured option is to integrate EIARD into the StandingCommittee on Agricultural Research (SCAR), which is a formalcommittee of the EU dedicated to research in support of theCommon Agricultural Policy. Integration would formaliseEIARD’s status, while strengthening the international focus ofSCAR and encouraging EIARD to address a broader range ofagricultural research issues. A working group could beestablished under SCAR to deal with the CGIAR agenda. TheEIARD Executive Secretary reported that European donorsjointly contributed $317 million to the CGIAR in 2014. SevenEuropean countries, including UK, hold seats on the CGIARFund Council.

Agrinatura is currently engaged in the capacity developmentinitiative funded by DG-DEVCO, and has been involved inmonitoring and review of EC support to the CGIAR. SomeAgrinatura members are involved in a new Prointense AfricaInitiative - the proposal will go to the EC early in 2016.

GFAR is currently revising its Charter following a review ofgovernance and its first ‘Constituent Assembly’ in August2015. Jointly with the CGIAR, GFAR organises the GlobalConference on Agricultural Research for Development(GCARD). GCARD is a process, involving a set of national andregional consultations, and culminating in a global meeting.The next GCARD global meeting is scheduled to take place inJohannesburg in April 2016.

1 Noting that Brussels was on the highest state of security alert at the time, this was a good level of attendance.2 Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, UK

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In the run up to the Paris Conference of Parties to theUNFCCC, and opposition from some in the NGO communityto the concept of climate smart agriculture (CSA), I gave apresentation to the meeting exploring the issues around CSA.This included the situation of agriculture as both a victim anda cause of climate change, the lack of progress in gettingagriculture on the UNFCCC agenda, and the emergence of theGlobal Alliance on Climate Smart Agriculture, hosted by FAO.

Some in the NGOs community are concerned that loosedefinitions and an absence of standards leave CSA at risk ofcapture by vested interest groups, largely agri-business. Therewas some support for the concept of CSA among the EFARDgroup and the opportunity to raise and discuss some of theissues around it was welcomed.

David Radcliffe

Box 1: Guide to European (and Global) Agricultural Research for Development (see http://www.ard-europe.org/. This portal has weblinks to the European organisations below).

EFARD, the European Forum on Agricultural Research for Development, aims to strengthen the contribution of Europeanagricultural research for development to poverty alleviation, food security, and sustainable development in developing countriesby providing a platform for strategic dialogue among European stakeholder groups and to promote research partnershipsbetween European and Southern research communities. EFARD brings together diverse groups of stakeholders with an interestin research in development. It was originally conceived as a network of similar fora operating at national level, but with a fewnotable exceptions (including Switzerland and Denmark) national multi-stakeholder agricultural research fora are rarely active.EFARD is also the European regional constituency of the GFAR. The current Chair of EFARD is Patrick van Damme, from theUniversity of Ghent. The Secretariat is hosted by CTA (Technical Centre for Tropical Agriculture), based in Wageningen, andJudith Francis is the current Executive Secretary.

GFAR is the Global Forum for Agricultural Research (http://www.gfar.net/homepage ), the umbrella body not only for regionalfora such as EFARD but also for global organisations representing various agricultural research stakeholder groups such asfarmers’ organisations, civil society, private sector, advisory services, academia, etc. GFAR fosters collective actions betweenits partners with the aim of making agri-food innovation systems more effective in achieving sustainable developmentoutcomes. GFAR is hosted by FAO in Rome. The current Chair is Juan Lucas Restrepo Ibiza, who is also the President of theColombian Coffee Growers Association. The Executive Secretary is Mark Holderness.

EIARD, the European Initiative on Agricultural Research for Development, aims to promote and implement coherentEuropean policies at international, regional and sub-regional levels in order to increase impact on poverty reduction, foodsecurity and sustainable management of natural resources in developing countries. EIARD is a grouping of European donorsand is focused on coordinating donor support, largely, but not exclusively, to the CGIAR. Current Chair is Philip Chiverton(Sweden), the Executive Secretary is Jürgen Anthofer (European Commission).

Agrinatura is an association of more than 30 agricultural universities and research institutes in 17 European countries. Itseeks to nurture scientific excellence through joint research and education among its members and through broaderinternational collaboration. Its operational arm is Agrinatura-EEIG (European Economic Interest Group). Michael Hauser(Austria) is the President of both the Agrinatura Association and the EEIG grouping, and Guy Poulter (UK) is the Director ofAgrinatura EEIG.

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But should we all pay more for our food?David Colman

David is Emeritus Professor of Agricultural Economics at the University of Manchester, and from2006-2009 he was President of the International Association of Agricultural Economists. He has acted as expert advisor to the House of Commons Agriculture Committee, and has workedas a consultant for various international bodies, including the OECD, FAO, WHO, World Bank, ODA,and the Canadian, Malawian, and Saudi Arabian Governments, as well as many contracts for Defraand MAFF. He is the author of textbooks on the Principles of Agricultural Economics, and on Development Economics.

SummaryDavid Colman provides a reaction to the article by AndrewMacMillan and Peter Beeden, Perhaps we all should pay morefor our food, which appeared in Agriculture for Development23.

IntroductionFor their paper in the Winter 2014 issue of this journal, AndrewMacMillan and Peter Beeden adopt a somewhat enigmatic titlePerhaps we all should pay more for our food (Agriculture forDevelopment, 23, 10-14). Note that there is no question mark,nor is there a full stop which might have suggested that thetitle is an assertion rather than a question. In any event theauthors do not provide an explicit conclusion on whether foodprices should indeed be forced to rise by policy measures, orwhere. However, some of the many policy measures theybroadly advocate in tackling the many externalities associatedwith agricultural and food systems globally imply that they doadvocate policies to raise food and agricultural commodityprices. Selective taxes on foods “with high environmentalfootprints” would push up the prices of such things as sugarydrinks, red meat and palm oil; and agricultural input taxeswould raise prices right along the food supply chain from thefarm-gate to the supermarket or street stall.

Higher food prices?What might be meant by “pay more for our food”, and whoare “we”? “More” in relation to what, for all prices are relative?The only reasonable interpretation of the title, and the impliedviews of the authors, is that a higher proportion of the familybudget would have to be spent on food if all possible steps weretaken to halt the growth of the agriculture and food chains’harmful externalities, and a start were made in repairing someof the damage already done. For that to happen would requirethe cost of the food basket to rise more quickly than averagefamily disposable income in future, which in most countrieswould mean a reversal of the process of consumer enrichmentin recent years. Agreeing, as the authors cite, that for the UK“the proportion of disposable income of the average personspent on food having fallen from about 55 percent in the early1960s to 12 percent now” the following question arises: is itlikely that the policy measures to reduce externalities wouldcause that 12 percent to increase in the UK? Given modestexpected growth in UK average disposable income of, say, 2percent, the prices of foods in the average basket would have

to rise by over 16 percent a year. I think it can safely be saidthat the proportion of disposable income spent on food indeveloped countries is unlikely to rise, and that there is thecapacity for average citizens in more developed countries toabsorb the implications of the measures proposed. Thus it canonly be assumed that to “pay more for food” the authors mustmean that food prices might have to increase nominallyrelative to prices of some other goods and services; the sort ofchange which occurs all the time in goods markets.

Undoubtedly the concerns raised in the article are profoundlyimportant and perhaps it would have been helpful to prioritisethe most important and to assess which and where policies toaddress them have succeeded or have failed. Many of the policyinstruments proposed by the authors are being deployed inspecific countries to address specific policies, and have beentried in the past. Successful policy design is complex andseemingly commonsense proposals are often destined to fail.

Agriculture, the environment andsafety netsAs the paper argues, there is much to be done to establish along-term sustainable balance between the agriculture/foodcomplex and the environment, and much can be done withoutattempting to introduce input and consumption taxationpolicies which will explicitly raise certain nominal prices. Evenin developed countries, the issues of inequality and poverty arenon-negligible, and are growing given present macro-economic policies to reduce public expenditure on welfaresafety nets. Nevertheless, such safety nets do exist and thevoluntary sector is plugging many of the gaps which areopening up in those which do exist relating to food poverty.For the less-developed countries, policies which would increasefood prices will undoubtedly cause problems and in theauthors’ view “In the short-term, the main focus must be onestablishing or expanding social protection programmes,targeted on the poorest families”. Even in the absence of newpolicies which might raise the cost of the basic food basket, itwould be desirable if public finances permitted more foodpoverty relief, but public finances in most poor countries areseriously constrained, as is international funding for the vastscale of humanitarian food and general relief currently needed.

TaxationTaxing goods and inputs to reduce undesirable externalitiessuch as obesity and pollution seems at first glance an obvious

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tool to use. However, both experience and analysis indicatethat frequently even high rates of taxation are relativelyineffective. For example, in relation to the debate about taxeson foods with high health risks such as drinks with a highsugar content, recent research for the UK does agree thatraising their price by taxation at the retail level does reduce percapita consumption, but because of food substitution effects“The overall impact of a soft drink tax on calorie consumptionis likely to be small” (Tiffin et al, 2015). Similarly, taxinginputs such as fertiliser in advanced agriculture would havesome impact in reducing usage, but not by great percentages.Indeed, in a contrary direction, fertiliser subsidies are stillavailable in various countries (eg India, Nigeria, Brazil) at thesame time as those arguing that reducing the environmentalexternalities of agriculture requires higher taxes on energy andoil-based inputs. Of course that underlines that the policiesthat may be most desirable differ between North America/WestEurope and Africa/India say.

Food wasteThe paper highlights the figure of 30 percent of waste in theagriculture/food system. If this could be reduced significantly,the pressure on land resources could be reduced and it shouldalso reduce prices for both food products and agriculturalcommodities. Again, the measures differ between poorcountries, particularly African, and Europe and North America.In Africa, the major sources of loss are in pre- and post-harvest,and this calls for investment in crop protection and storage.In developed countries, the major offenders, the waste isprincipally in the forms of food disposed of unsold at the retaillevel and by households. These reflect poor management byboth firms and households, and are stubbornly resistant tochanges in management and practice. There is great potentialhere to set in train food price reducing processes, and to avoidthe need for price increasing policies of the types suggested byMacMillan and Beeden.

The need for improved infrastructureOne key issue, not mentioned in the paper, is the contributionthat improved infrastructure would make to improving thereturns to farmers in poorer areas. This is particularly so inAfrica which, along with South Asia, is where progress inreducing hunger has been slowest. According to IFPRI’s GlobalHunger Index analysis (IFPRI, 2015), in 2015 the index scorefor Africa stood at 35.2 percent, down from 47.3 percent in

1990, while in South Asia the index declined from 47.7 to 29.4percent over the same period. One of the factors, in additionto conflicts and weak policies, is the poor road and railstructures which result in very costly transport between manyfarming areas and urban demand centres. That means thatthe fraction of urban wholesale prices feeding back to farmersis frequently low; a bigger factor in low prices and quality ofproduct than any others. Investment in physical infrastructurehas the potential to greatly alleviate the lot of poor farmers,expand rural economies and stem some of the flow of peopleto overcrowded urban areas.

ConclusionsIt is highly likely (Colman, 2010), given future resourceconstraints, that agriculture’s terms-of-trade (ie agriculturalcommodity prices) will rise against some relative comparators,with the situation varying by country and commodity.However the big questions for agriculture in the future are notabout prices, but are about (1) how technological developmentwill mitigate many of the harmful externalities of current landuse (abuse) systems, (2) how many people will adapt toestablish successful livelihoods in farming, (3) how institutionsand policy will adapt to reduce the pressures to marginalisemany of those living off the land (Von Braun, 2003), (4)whether satisfactory progress can be made on trade reform toreduce obstacles to agricultural development in poorercountries, (5) how in advanced countries consumers can beeducated and led to adopt healthier lifestyles and howcommercial practice, particularly by supermarket chains, canadapt to reduce food chain waste, (6) how to increaseinvestment in rural infrastructure in poor countries, and (7)biggest of all, how to combat major displacement effects inagriculture due to climate change.

References

Colman D, 2010. Agriculture’s terms of trade: issues and implications,Agricultural Economics, 41 (Supplement s1), 1-15.

IFPRI, 2015. Global Hunger Index, International Food Policy ResearchInstitute, http://www.ifpri.org/topic/global-hunger-index.

Tiffin R, Kehlbacher A, Salois M, 2015. The effects of a soft drink tax in theUK, Health Economics, 24, 583-600.

Von Braun J, 2003. Agricultural economics and distribution effects. In:Colman D, Vink N, Malden MA, eds Reshaping agriculture’s contributions tosociety, Proceeding of the Twenty-Fifth International Conference ofAgricultural Economists, 16-22 August, Durban, South Africa. BlackwellPublishing.

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Bookstack

Much Ado About Mutton

Bob Kennard, 2014

Merlin Unwin Books, Shropshire

Hardback, 224 pages, £20

ISBN 978-1-906122-61-4

Published by Merlin Unwin Books (MUB),Much ado about Mutton is acomprehensive history of mutton (the meatfrom mature sheep), its production,marketing and use in Britain. It is ahandsome book, extensively illustrated withexcellent photographs (many taken by theauthor), useful charts and maps, andsprinkled liberally with apposite quotationsdrawn from Pepys’s diary, Shakespeare andtheir ilk.

The text is encyclopaedic, supported bysome references given in footnotes and alist of reference sources at the back. Yet itis written in a style that flows well, drawingthe reader from one fact-packed section tothe next. At the same time the Contentsand Index pages guide the reader to samplehere and there to satisfy particular interestsand to answer specific queries.

The author, Bob Kennard, is a TAA memberwho, MUB’s website tells us, “was a leadingfigure in the campaign to maintain the UK’snetwork of small and medium-sizedabattoirs and cutting plants. He has beeninvolved in the development of the organicsector in the UK, in the Mutton Renaissancegroup, and as an advisor to various bodiesincluding the Welsh Government”. Bob’srole in the Renaissance campaign explainswhy the book’s Foreword was written byHRH Prince of Wales.

As a young man Bob “spent over a decadein Nigeria, Swaziland and Malawi, workinghands-on with livestock and small-scalefarmers and then as an advisory consultantwith bodies including the World Bank, theAfrican Development Bank and the EU”.Then, “back in the UK, from 1988 to 2008,he and his wife Carolyn set up and ranGraig Farm Organics, a pioneering andmulti-award-winning organic meatcompany, which worked with local farmersselling their mutton and other meatthroughout the UK. They also established alarge organic livestock farmers’ marketinggroup selling lamb and beef nationwide”.That breadth and depth of experience,matched by a passion for sheep, theirrearing and their products, shine brightlythroughout this entertaining andinformative book.

As well as explaining the various aspects ofsheep husbandry in the UK, the bookexplores the origins of phrases such as“Mutton dressed as lamb” and “Bellwether”.And it provides insights into thegeographical clues of the golden age ofsheep farming and wool production. Theseinclude the names of old pubs, places androads, clumps of Scotch pines (on thedrovers’ routes) and, of course, thearchitectural heritage of the wool churches:“The vastness of the wealth which woolprovided can be judged from the more than1,500 medieval churches in East Angliaalone, the great majority of which wererebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries onthe revenues created from woollen cloth”.

Complementing this account of physicalhistory is the section on Shepherding, whichexplains the year-round demands ofhusbandry and the importance of theknowledge (by man, dogs and sheep) learntfrom the long experience of often ruggedlandscapes and the handing-down ofproven best practices. The continuinginterest in shepherding as a livelihood (avocation more than a job) and country life,is reflected in the success of the recentbook The Shepherd’s Life: A Tale of the LakeDistrict by James Rebanks.

Useful aids for the reader at the back of thebook are a Glossary of Sheep Terms, anannex with a detailed list of Sheep Breeds

(native, introduced and derived), and aDirectory of Suppliers (sourced in 2014) ofmutton, the latter complemented by recipesdrawn mainly from UK traditional cooking.

Notwithstanding that the book has onlyminor mentions of tropical muttonproduction and a limited description of linksto Australia, New Zealand and South Africa,it is likely to interest TAA members and like-minded ‘agriculturalists’ given that it is suchan entertaining and informative read.

Complementing the book is the websitewww.muchadoaboutmutton.com

Bill Thorpe

From Lab to Land: women in ‘push-pull’agriculture

International Centre for Insect Physiologyand Ecology (icipe), 2015

ISBN 978-9966-063-08-3

Available at http://www.push-pull.net/women_in_push-pull.pdf

This engaging 40-page booklet is not ascientific enquiry into ‘push-pull’ nor anacademic discussion of the genderdimensions of agricultural research andinnovation. Rather it uses the well-documented success of ‘push-pull’technologies in tackling the twin menacesof stem borer and Striga to showcase thevaried roles that women play in thedevelopment of farm-level innovations, theirpromotion and their adaptation. It is basedon interviews with over 75 women,including international and nationalscientists, farmers, extension staff andfarmer-trainers. Their stories give uspersonal insights into the particular

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struggles that women have to engage in tosucceed in a professional and farming worldin which so often men’s voices are morereadily heard.

The booklet begins by reminding us of thescience and practice of ‘push-pull’.Desmodium planted in rows betweenmaize or sorghum gives off chemicals whichrepel the stem borer moth while alsoinhibiting the growth of Striga; and Napieror, more recently, Brachiaria grasses plantedaround the plot attract the moth which laysits eggs on them instead of on the graincrop. The grass also provides fodder, whilethe Desmodium fixes nitrogen in the soil.The system brings particular benefits towomen farmers, reducing labour neededfor weeding and increasing production ofstaple foods for the family.

We are then taken through three stages:from the experimental research that led tothe identification of the key elements of‘push-pull’, through the process ofdissemination and promotion, to applicationof the technology in the field. Thisconventional trichotomy does not, however,reflect a traditional linear, top-down ‘transferof technology’ mind-set: it is rather aconvenient device to explore the differentroles that women have played in differentaspects of the innovation process. Theinteraction between farm and laboratory isclear in many of the women’s stories, withsuccessive phases of work in the laboratoryand research plots informed by theexperiences and experiments of farmers,including work to tackle emerging pestproblems in the ‘push and pull’ plants.

The scientists speak of the barriers to entryfacing women, but also of the opportunitiesprovided by international scholarship andcollaborative programmes to enableaspiring women scientists to follow theirchosen education and career pathways.Even with financial and mentor support,however, women continue to face thechallenge of balancing family responsibilitieswith the demands of academic study andresearch. Those who have reached seniorand influential positions speak movingly ofthe strains put on family relationships andthe different ways in which these have beenresolved.

Promotion and dissemination of ‘push-pull’is still predominantly a male activity: amongboth extensionists and farmer-trainersthere are far more men than women, incontrast to the majority of women amongfarmers who have taken up and applied

‘push-pull’ in their own farms. It isinteresting that most of the women farmersfeatured who have become farmer-trainersare widows: although not a theme pickedup in the text, perhaps that status providesopportunities to play non-traditional rolesthat are less easy for married women inrural communities.

It is among the farmers that the ingenuity,innovativeness and sheer persistence ofwomen comes through particularly strongly.Familiar themes of lack of access to land,efforts to persuade male decision makersin the family to embrace the technology,adaptation of the technology to fit withavailable resources - and determination tosucceed with an innovation that they seebringing real benefits to their family inimproved nutrition and income - shinethrough their stories. Efforts to take thetechnology to Ethiopia also show howdifferences in family structure, in genderrelations, in land tenure and in the historyof farmer groups make it necessary todevelop new approaches to promotion anddissemination.

The personal stories show a world in whichgender roles and relations are in flux.Attitudes are shifting, at different rates indifferent places, and in different ways withinthe same community. For every tale of anunsupportive husband who initially refusesaccess to land or a woman whose ‘push-pull’ plot is taken from her by her husband’sextended family there are women whospeak of cooperation within the family, ofmen and women working together to reapthe benefits of this new technology. ‘Push-pull’ has become a catalyst for change insome communities; several of the womeninvolved in promotion and disseminationnote their careers and success arechallenging entrenched attitudes. Womenfarmers are becoming more proactive inseeking advice.

The upbeat tone is set by the Forewordfrom Dr Segenet Kelemu, ICIPE’s DirectorGeneral and Chief Executive Officer, whorefers to her early years growing up in anEthiopian village and experiencing first handthe ‘unequal burden’ borne by women inAfrica. But the final word goes to Kenyanfarmer Paskalia Shikuku: “This programmemade us change as women. Women arenow at the front in this area. At ‘barazas’,women are standing and teaching. We haveto fight, not just wait to be given things.”

Chris Garforth

Status of the world’s soil resources - mainreport and technical summary

FAO and ITPS, 2015

FAO and Intergovernmental TechnicalPanel on Soils, Rome

xxxix + 608 pages

ISBN 978-92-109004-6

Available to download at:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286455438_Status_of_the_World’s_Soil_Resources_-_Main_Report

Status of the World’s Soil Resources - TechnicalSummary at:

http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5126e.pdf

This book, prepared by a team includingmore than 150 contributing authors, is thefirst systematic comprehensive descriptionof global soil resources; their role inecosystem processes; the effects of humanactivities on the historic and currentchanges in their qualities; the impacts ofthose - mainly negative - soil changes onecosystem services; and governance andpolicy responses to soil change.

The first 240 pages of global relevancecontain much technical detail, particularlythe core chapters 6-8 (soil status, processesand trends; multiple impacts of soil changeon ecosystem services and responses tothem; governance and policy responses).These are followed by assessments of soilchange in eight regions, from sub-SaharanAfrica to Antarctica, summarising ninespecific soil threats such as erosion, soilnutrient depletion, loss of organic matter,contamination and pollution; and selectedcase studies from individual countries (280pages). The 70-page Annex describes thecharacteristics and distribution of ninemajor soil groups, their main agriculturaluses and their ecological services.

The main message of the book is that mostof the world’s soil resources are in only fair,poor or very poor condition, but that

further loss of soil resources and functionscan be avoided. Sustainable soilmanagement based on scientific and localknowledge and evidence-based, provenapproaches and technologies can increasefood supply, improve climate regulation andhelp safeguard ecosystem services.

The book provides evidence and a wealthof detail on the wide range of issuesdiscussed in the chapters and sections, butthe authors emphasise two overarchingconcerns. Firstly, while the book discussestechnical, ecologic, economic and policyaspects mostly at global, regional andnational levels, effective responses in mostplaces have a basis in local action byindividual land managers because of thelocal variation in soils, landscapes, climate,and social and economic conditions.Secondly, an understanding of theinterconnectedness and consequences ofactions at different levels, from national tolocal, is central to effective governance andpolicies.

The systematic structure of the book, theclarity of the text and the many pertinentfigures and tables make both the largeissues and the often detailed technicalsections accessible to a diverse readership,including scientists, interested laypersonsand policymakers. A vast number ofreferences (eg 22 pages after the 46-pageChapter 6) gives access to the literaturebehind the report. The separate ‘Technical’Summary volume clearly summarises themain issues in non-technical language for awider readership.

The Preface of the main report gives a clearoverview of the chapters, quoted below:

“In Chapter 1, the principles of the WorldSoil Charter are discussed, includingguidelines for stakeholders to ensure thatsoils are managed sustainably and thatdegraded soils are rehabilitated or restored.

For a long time, soil was considered almostexclusively in the context of foodproduction. However, with the increasingimpact of humans on the environment, theconnections between soil and broaderenvironmental concerns have been madeso new and innovative ways of relating soilsto people have begun to emerge in the pasttwo decades. Societal issues such as foodsecurity, sustainability, climate change, carbonsequestration, greenhouse gas emissions,and degradation through erosion and lossof organic matter and nutrients are allclosely related to the soil resource. Theseecosystem services provided by the soil andthe soil functions that support theseservices are central to the discussion in thereport.

In Chapter 2, synergies and trade-offs arereviewed, together with the role of soils insupporting ecosystem services, and theirrole in underpinning natural capital. Thediscussion then covers knowledge - andknowledge gaps - on the role of soils in thecarbon, nitrogen and water cycles, and onthe role of soils as a habitat for organismsand as a genetic pool.

This is followed in Chapter 3, by anoverview of the diversity of global soilresources and of the way they have beenassessed in the past.

Chapter 4 reviews the variousanthropogenic and natural pressures - inparticular, land use and soil management -which cause chemical, physical andbiological variations in soils and theconsequent changes in environmentalservices assured by those soils. Land useand soil management are in turn largelydetermined by socio-economic conditions.

These conditions are the subject of Chapter5, which discusses in particular the role ofpopulation dynamics, market access,education and cultural values, as well as the

wealth or poverty of the land users.Climate change and its anticipated effectson soils are also discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 6 discusses the current globalstatus and trends of the major soilprocesses threatening ecosystem services.These include soil erosion, soil organiccarbon loss, soil contamination, soilacidification, soil salinisation, soil biodiversityloss, soil surface effects, soil nutrient status,soil compaction and soil moistureconditions.

Chapter 7 undertakes an assessment of theways in which soil change is likely to impacton soil functions and the likelyconsequences for ecosystem servicedelivery. Each subsection in this chapteroutlines key soil processes involved with thedelivery of goods and services and howthese are changing. The subsections thenreview how these changes affect soilfunction and the soil’s contribution toecosystem service delivery. The discussionis organised according to the reportingcategories of the Millennium EcosystemAssessment, including provisioning,supporting, regulating and cultural services.

Chapter 8 of the report explores policy,institutional and land use managementoptions and responses to soil changes thatare available to governments and land users.

The regional assessments in Chapters 9 to16 follow a standard outline: after a briefdescription of the main biophysical featuresof each region, the status and trends of eachmajor soil threat are discussed. Eachchapter ends with one or more nationalcase studies of soil change and a tablesummarising the results, including the statusand trends of soil changes in the region andrelated uncertainties.”

Robert Brinkman

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Summary

Soil compaction destroys soil porosity, which is an essentialcomponent of sustainable soil management. This articleconsiders the causes of soil compaction, how porosity works,and how to rehabilitate and then prevent compacted soils.

IntroductionAs human populations grow, and climate change createsgreater variations in weather conditions which makeagriculture less certain of desired benefits, the capacity ofmany soils to sustain and raise output per unit area areincreasingly under threat. This article brings to notice soilcompaction as an often-unremarked but avoidable adverseaspect of inadequate or improper soil management.

Introduction“The prevalent shallow cultivation of the land tends to causethe formation of a compacted layer below the level ofploughing, impeding root penetration and absorption ofmoisture, and allowing removal of surface soil by rainwash ”(Trapnell & Clothier, 1936; Trapnell, 1942 - with reference toNE Rhodesia, now Zambia).

This was written before the days of using agricultural tractors,indicating that the compaction already noted was probably aresult of mainly hand-powered farm implements and/orpressures of animal-drawn implements, together with theeffects of repeated pressures of human feet on bare soil.

The ease with which water (and air) can enter and/or movethrough, or be retained, within a given volume of soil - whenconsidered as both a rooting-zone and as a storage-volume -is mediated by the proportions of different sizes of soil poreswhich are present both at the surface, and beneath.

Compaction by feet and hand-hoe

In hand-tilled agriculture, where ridge-and-furrow landpreparation is the norm - and particularly during the rainyseason - the furrows are physically compacted by the repeatedpassage of feet, for planting, weeding, inspection for pests, etc.The results become more-obvious when crop-residues havebeen removed, and ridges are re-formed before the rains return(Figure1).

Compaction by machine

On mechanised farms the same effect can be caused by egdisc-tillage equipment (Figure 2).

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Soil compaction versus sustainabilityT Francis Shaxson

Francis Shaxson worked in land husbandry and tea research in Malawi 1958-1976; in village agriculture in India 1976-1980; on land husbandry in Brazil 1980-1988; and in Lesotho 1988-90; asa consultant to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and developmentagencies for Governments of several countries until 2002. He was awarded the Hugh HammondBennett Award by the Soil Conservation Society of the USA in 1995. He is now retired, but still writing.

Figure 1. Planting-ridges scratched-up by ‘khasu’/hand-hoe from a surface alreadycompacted by several years of annual pre-crop tillage, Lilongwe, Malawi, 1975(Photo: TF Shaxson)

Figure 2. Repeated annual tillage with disc-harrows on a commercial farm (to‘fluff-up’ the topsoil before seeding soyabeans) has, simultaneously produced acompacted subsurface layer (from which the uppermost layer of the proposedrooting-zone has subsequently been eroded away), and induced runoff of water(which otherwise would have soaked into the soil profile). A common problem inmany areas of Brazil, and elsewhere, Taguatinga, Brazil (Photo: TF Shaxson)

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A second effect of this sub-surface compaction is restriction tothe growth of crop roots (Figure 3).

Features of soil porositySoil pores are spaces between both individual soil particles andbetween aggregates of linked soil particles. Such attributes areshown in Table 1 and Figure 4. In undisturbed conditions of,say, a natural grassland or forest, where climatic and biologicalprocesses have enabled the build-up of carbon-rich organicmatter, this is both processed, stirred and burrowed-throughby the actions of soil-inhabiting fauna and flora of many types.The ‘porosity’ of the soil is indicated by the frequencies and 3-D distribution of spaces of different sizes between theparticles. The spaces are weakly/strongly capable of retainingwater against the ‘pull’ of gravity. The strength of retention ofwater held between soil particles is governed by the curvatureof the meniscus at the air/water interfaces between the solidparticles and the water. The smaller the angle, the ‘tighter’ thewater is held.

In a dynamic and productive soil, inter-particleligands/bindings between particles are provided by carbon-rich‘organic’ materials, in addition to any physical/chemicalbinding. The strength of such bindings determines the easewith which individual soil particles can be dislodged.

One of the particular advantages of organic-matter bindings isthat they contribute to the dynamic life-processes of soil-inhabiting organisms, both by their carbon content and thechemical nutrients which they contain. The breakdown of C-rich materials such as mulches, composts, and otherorganic/carbon-rich materials by soil-inhabiting biota producesboth living and non-living linkages, eg roots, fungal hyphae,complex polysaccharide bonds, between particles whichcontribute to stability, formation and re-formation of soilaggregates, contributing dynamic processes which favourecosystem-sustainability.

A ‘bulk-density’ value quoted for a single sample of soil doesnot take account of the relative degrees of porosity whichwould be indicated by the ‘pore-size distribution’ in a particularsample. Neither will it automatically be indicative of the entiresoil profile to its full depth, nor provide specific indication ofrelative volumes of different sizes of pores to the full depth,and hence the capacity to retain and/or transmit waterdownwards in response to gravity, and/or permit two-way flowof roots’ respiration gases.

Figure 3. A soya-bean seedling’s roots distorted by encountering subsurface compaction, (as shown to the NW of the soil auger at top of Figure 2) Mato GrossoSul, Brazil (Photo: TF Shaxson)

Description of pores

Pore-size (mean diameter), mm

Attributes of pores

Ants’ nests and channels

25-50 Allow water to drain out and air and roots to enter.

Worm holes 0.5-3 Allow water to drain out and air and roots to enter. Rooting pores >0.1-0.3 Root sizes: seminal roots of cereals 0.1mm; tap-roots of non-cereals

>0.3mm; root-hairs 0.005-0.01mm Inter-aggregate fissures. Transmission pores

>0.05 Allow water to drain out and air to enter; air-filled unless soil is water-saturated.

Storage pores 0.0002-0.05 Retain water against gravity that plants can use. May be water-filled or air-filled.

Residual pores

Usually water-filled. Retain water against gravity and against suctions exerted via plant roots (‘Wilting Point`: ca1400cm water /15bar, representing the water-retaining force exerted by the menisci at the water/air interfaces between adjacent solids).

Table 1. Soil pores and their attributes (after Schwab et al, 1966a; Russell, 1988; and Hamblin, 1989)

Figure 4. In a compacted soil profile, the spaces through which air, water androots could move have been squashed or eliminated, inhibiting root-development;rates of exchange of root-respiration gases with the above-ground atmosphere arediminished; the strength with which water is retained by surface-tension is increased, thereby decreasing the ease of downward movement of infiltratingwater. Retention and through-flow of water, beyond the needs of plants, also becomes restricted so that runoff across the surface, under the influence of gravity,becomes greater in both volume and velocity (Source: Shaxson,1999; after Schwabet al, 1966)

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Soil in good condition has a mix of pore-sizes, capable of‘buffering’ productive potential over time, in accord with thedynamics of air + water flow down through the 3-dimensionalsoil matrix, until it meets a less-porous horizon which limitsfurther vertical downward flow under gravity.

Water drainage in response to gravity is from largest pores first,then progressively from smaller pores until movement of wateris halted by retentive forces of strongly-curved menisci at inter-particle interfaces. At the same time, and thereafter, water-lossfrom the soil-body continues by evaporation directly throughthe network of spaces, as well as by evapotranspiration throughthe roots and stems of plants against limiting capillary menisci,until liberated to the atmosphere through the above-groundplant parts, especially leaves.

The architecture of a building cannot be worked-out from achemical analysis of the rubble; nor can its former usefulness.The loss of voids within a soil’s architectural units results in adecline of its stability, productivity and usefulness for thechosen purpose, as illustrated by Figure 5.

A comparable effect can be produced by large raindropsimpacting on bare soil surfaces. These can break-up unstableaggregates exposed at the surface, splashing dislodged particlesupwards and outwards from each drop’s impact-site, which(when returning to the surface) can create a thin but relatively-impermeable crust of filtered-out particles across the soilsurface which hinders water infiltration, thereby provokingrunoff (Figure 6).

The overall effects of these processes, which lead to runoff andsoil erosion, diminish a soil’s productivity and usefulness andalso decrease the capacity of soils for self-repair. Thisdiminishes the active processes involved in self-sustainabilityand self-repair across time, occurring at rates that equal orexceed the effects of damaging counter-forces eg wind, rain,runoff, inimical temperatures, man’s mismanagement of theavailable resources, and other impediments to landscapestability and self-regeneration.

Favouring sustainabilityProcesses contributing to sustainability

“Of particular importance for sustainable agriculture is theenhancement of soil water-holding capacity and drainage.This is very dependent on the kinds of soil biological activitythat lead to better particle aggregation, creating soil that canbe both better aerated and infused with water at the sametime. The ability of soil systems to absorb rain runoff - tocapture what Savenje (1998) has characterized as “greenwater”, ie water that can be stored and used in situ - willbecome more and more essential in this century as variabilityin the timing and amount of precipitation is likely to becomemore extreme, which has dreadful effects on mostagriculture.” (Uphoff et al, 2006).

Implied in this description is the assumption that the biologicalactivity in soils must be enabled to continue to ‘enliven’ soilsand maintain their productive and other purposes - creatingand re-creating porous aggregates and cycling plant-nutrientsliberated by the decomposition of carbon-rich organic matter.

A soil in ‘good’ condition is one which has an adequateabundance of aggregates physically stabilised by soil pores andparticles across a range of sizes, variously capable - to differentdegrees - of receiving, and retaining water and nutrients whichcan be readily decomposed, and recycling carbon-rich organicmatter accessed by plants, across a range of non-limiting watertensions. These same interconnecting ‘passageways’ allowexcess water to percolate downwards towards groundwater.When empty, they also permit the exchange of root-respirationgases - oxygen and carbon dioxide - between the soil body andthe above-ground atmosphere.

These attributes are sought in the development, promotionand applied use of Conservation Agriculture, as indicated byKassam et al (2015) (Figure 7):

• Lesser slope chosen for an annual crop;

• Straw of previous crop provides:

� permeable cover to protect soil against raindrop impacts, sun/temperature extremes;

� source of organic matter as substrate for soil microbes leading to greater ongoing soil aggregation;

• Rows aligned along the contour of the land-surface to encourage water infiltration rather than run-off.

Figure 5. Time-lapse series of the demolition of two apartment-blocks over thecourse of a few minutes. The physical materials remain, but the useful spaces,and thereby the integral usefulness of the structures, have been lost (Source: TheIndependent Saturday Review (UK), 23 July 1998)

Figure 6: Left: a recently-tilled soil, well-structured, porous. Right: its exposedsurface has been ‘crusted’ by intense rain-fall (Photo: TF Shaxson)

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In smallholder-farming situations, the de-compaction ofdamaged soil can have spectacular effects, by enablingrainwater to penetrate the soil to greater depths thanpreviously. This results in the reduction of soil-drought, theincreased spread of crop-root systems, increases in biologicalactivity beneath the soil surface, and more-profuse growth andyield of above-ground plant parts (Figure 8).

Interacting components of systems needed to sustain theland in good condition

• No mechanical tillage;

• Carbon-rich mulch-cover as buffer against raindrop impact and temperature extremes;

• Rotation/associations of crops;

• N-fixing legumes in crop mix;

• Cover of organic (= carbon-rich) materials permeable to water and gas exchange;

• Varied quality organic matter for:

� Microbes’ energy and nutrition;

� Immediate and greater long-term transformation;

� Formation and stability of soil aggregates;

• Once soil is brought to good condition, minimise further soil disturbance from tillage and compaction.

This is called: ‘Conservation Agriculture’.

ConclusionsSoil compaction can be caused by rainfall, hand tillage andmechanical tillage. Sustainable management of soil requiresthe avoidance of compaction in order to retain its porosity.Compacted soils can be rehabilitated, and managedsustainably, by Conservation Agriculture approaches.

References

Hamblin WK, 1989. Earth’s dynamic systems: a textbook in physical geology.New York. Macmillan Publishing. ISBN 0-02-348381-X. 576 pp.

Kassam A, Friedrich T, Derpsch R, Kienzle J, 2015. Overview of the worldwidespread of conservation agriculture. Field Action Science Reports 8, 1-11.Available at: http://factsreports.revues.org/3966.

Russell EW, 1988, Russell’s soil conditions and plant growth (11th edition. AWild, ed) Chapters 10-18.

Savenje HHG, 1998. The role of green water in food production in sub-Saharan Africa. Paper prepared for FAO programme on Water Conservationand Use in Agriculture (WCA). Available at: http://www.wca-infonet.org.

Schwab GO, Frevert RK, Edminster TW, Barnes KK, 1966. Soil and waterconservation engineering. (2nd edition). New York, Wiley. Lib Congress CCNo 66-14131, p 130.

Shaxson TF, 1999. New concepts and approaches to land management in thetropics with emphasis on steeplands. FAO Soils Bulletin 75, Rome. FAO: ISBN92-5-104319-1. 125pp.

Trapnell CG, Clothier JN, 1936. The soils, vegetation and traditionalagriculture of Zambia [formerly N Rhodesia]. Vol I Central and WesternZambia (Agro-ecological survey 1932-1936). Bristol, UK: Radcliffe Press, forDepartment of Agriculture, Lusaka, Zambia. ISBN: 1 900178 30 3, 96pp.

Trapnell CG, 1942. The soils, vegetation and traditional agriculture of Zambia[formerly N Rhodesia]. Vol II North Eastern Zambia (Ecological survey 1937-42). Bristol, UK: Radcliffe Press, for Department of Agriculture, Lusaka,Zambia. ISBN: 1 900178 35 4, 146pp.

Uphoff N, Ball AS, Fernandes ECM, Herren H, Husson O, Palm C, Pretty J,Sanginga N, Thies JE, 2006. Biological approaches to sustainable soil systems.Boca Raton, CRC Press. ISBN 13: 978-1-57444-583-1. 716pp.

Figure 7. Components of an ideal situation - an example from Paraná, Brazil(Photo: TF Shaxson)

Figure 8. At Kadambo, N Malawi, decompaction of the soil (at back), as comparedwith the effects of long-continued conventional tillage by hand-hoe on unimproved soil in the foreground, resulted in marked improvement in cropgrowth, due primarily to improved penetration of rainfall into the soil, facilitatingbetter expression of the plants’ and soil’s potentials (Photo: J Crossley)

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The World Expo 2015, in Milan from 1 May to 31 October withthe core theme of Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life, aimedto highlight one of the most pressing challenges of our time -how to feed and sustain an expected rise in the world’spopulation to 9 billion by 2050.

Built on a 110 hectare (272 acre) site on the outskirts of Milan,145 nations built pavillions providing a promenade of undulatingtents, bizarre buildings and innovative architecture, and creatinga world fair to celebrate food, agriculture and healthy eating.More than 20 million people visited, with some queuing for upto seven hours to enter the most popular pavilions such as Japan,Italy and the United Arab Emirates.

Grown in Britain

Milan Expo 2015 provided a global platform to promote UKinternational agendas and showcase British innovation,creativity and global leadership. The UK’s participation themewas Grown in Britain and Northern Ireland, led by UK Tradeand Investment (UKTI) with support from seven GovernmentDepartments.

The UK created a stand-out Pavilion(Figures 1 and 2) inspiredby the role of the bee in the global ecosystem, and offeringvisitors a unique experiential journey. It also formed theplatform for a six- month global programme of UK businessevents and cultural activities, linked to the challenge of feedingthe planet.

Some 21,000 companies have been supported at events globallythrough this campaign. Over 800 UK companies participated inthe GREAT weeks in Milan (a series of trade missions coincidingwith the World Expo), showcasing the best of UK science andinnovation, food and drink, agri-technology, healthcare, lifesciences, and creative industries. Companies from across the UKhave benefitted from business contacts and deals facilitated inMilan through the business programme, which was designed tohelp UK companies use Milan Expo to access internationalmarkets for their business. This has helped generate more than£180 million for the UK economy to date.

The UK Pavillion

Of the 100 crops that provide 90 percent of food worldwide, 70are pollinated by bees. The UK Pavilion at Milan Expo 2015 wasinspired by the journey of the honey bee and highlighted thevital role of pollination in the global food chain. It was ametaphor for how the UK is a hive of innovation and creativityhelping to feed the planet. The UK Pavilion took you on animmersive, multi-sensory journey, by leading you through aBritish orchard and wildflower meadow, before entering a 14

metre high hive. A series of landscapes told the story of howBritain contributes world leading solutions to some of today’sgreatest challenges for food security as follows:

• The British Orchard - Pollinators work together to benefit the whole environment. A rapidly changing world is making the task of ending global food shortage ever harder. The UK is committed to working with its partners across the globe to spread prosperity, improve lives and deliver a sustainable future for all. The UK benefits the wider ecosystem by helping to tackle complex, worldwide challenges such as poverty, hunger, humanitarian crises and climate change. Great solutions are grown in Britain.

• The Wildflower Meadow - A field of opportunities. The UK is home to world leaders in science, business and civil society, committed to building a more sustainable global economy. The UK offers a welcoming and fertile environment that enables ideas to flourish and acts as an international magnet for talent. The UK was recently rated as the easiest of the major European economies in which to do business and as the most innovative major world economy. Great entrepreneurs are grown in Britain.

• The Hive - A hive of innovation and creativity. The UK is a hive of innovation and creativity helping to feed the planet. As a centre for world-class research and creative talent, the UK is a base from which to explore new frontiers and address global challenges. Less than one per cent of the world’s population lives in the UK - yet our innovators have helped shape the modern world. Great ideas and innovations are grown in Britain.

• The UK Pavillion - Where creativity, business and science combine. To feed a growing global population, we need more creative thinking, smarter technology and increased international collaboration. Bees are a goodexample of social insects which rely on each other for survival. Grown in Britain demonstrated how British

News from the Field

The UK at the Milan Expo - Feeding thePlanet, Energy for Life

Figure 1. The UK Pavillion

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science, technology, creativity and flair for international partnership are contributing to world leading solutions.

Award Winning Pavilion

The UK Pavilion was designed by Nottingham artist WolfgangButtress and built by Stage One, York-based constructionspecialists, Manchester-based architects BDP and structuralengineer Tristan Simmonds.

Inspired by Nottingham Trent University research into thehealth of the beehive, The Hive was built from many pieces ofaluminium, and illuminated by nearly 1,000 lights, withorchestral sounds, constantly changing as they responded toactivity within a real beehive.

The UK’s Pavilion was awarded the World Expo organisingcommittee’s highest design accolade, the Bureau Internationaldes Expositions (BIE) gold award for architecture andlandscape.

During the six-month run of the World Expo, the UK Pavilionattracted more than 3.3 million visitors. This made it a popularBritish attraction, second only in visitor numbers to the BritishMuseum over a comparable timeframe.

The UK Pavilion has won a host of other design awards,including Blueprint’s award for Best Public Use Project withPublic Funding, and an international jury prize from the ItalianNational Association of Architects.

It is the second time in a row that the UK has won a gold medalat a World Expo. In 2010, in Shanghai, it was won by the UKPavilion Seed Cathedral designed by Thomas Heatherwick.

New home for The Hive

The Hive will now be a captivating addition to Kew’s alreadyimpressive range of iconic buildings, and is expected to be opento the public by early June 2016, with the exact date to beannounced in due course. Entry to The Hive will be includedin a day admission ticket to Kew.

What next for Milan Expo?

Previous Expos, such as Hanover 2000 and Seville 1992, leftdisappointing legacies, with many of their pavilions left todecay for lack of funds and a vision. The public authoritywhich owns the Milan Expo area has suggested creating aUniversity campus, retaining the Zero and Italy pavilions, andis working with the Government on possible options.

Elizabeth Warham FRSBUKTI Agri-Tech Organisation

Figure 2. The UK Pavillion seen from inside

Moringa oelifera in the Pacific Island Countriesand Territories: uses and opportunities for food,nutrition, income and bio-energy securityRavindra C Joshi1, Vinesh Prasad2, Manuel C Palada3, Honorio M Soriano Jr1, Emelita C Kempis1, Geraldine C Sanchez1,and Mary Grace B Gatan1

1Pampanga State Agricultural University, Philippines.2Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji.3Central Philippine University, Iloilo City, Philippines.

Ravindra C Joshi is currently Visiting Professor at the Pampanga State Agricultural University, the Philippines, and Adjunct Professor of Agriculture at the University of the South Pacific, Fiji. He is also the TAA Coordinator for the Pacificregion. E-mail: rcjoshi4@gmail.com.

Summary

The cultivation, uses and benefits of the Moringa tree areconsidered in the context of the Pacific Island Countries and

Territories. This multi-purpose tree could provide the basis ofagroforestry systems that provide food, health andentrepreneurial opportunities for local conditions.

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IntroductionGeographic Spread

A fast-growing tree, Moringa oleifera Lam. is native to the sub-Himalayan tracts of Northern India, and was first describedaround 2,000 BC as an Ayurvedic medical herb. From India,it has spread eastwards to lower parts of China, Southeast Asiaand the Philippines; and spread westwards to West Asia, theArabian Peninsula, East and West Africa and finally to the WestIndies, Mesoamerica and South America.

Local names

In the twenty Small Islands Developing States (SIDS) of thePacific, fourteen have either introduced or cultivated it (Prasad &Joshi, 2015). M. oleifera is the most widely cultivated species ofa monogeneric family, the Moringaceae, and it is known in over82 countries across Asia, Africa, and parts of the Middle East,although thirteen species are known to occur. Known by over200 different names in different regions - natives call it miracletree, life-saving tree, multipurpose wonder tree, mother’s bestfriend, clarifier tree, etc because of its myriad benefits. In Englishit is commonly referred to as drumstick tree, horseradish tree,nutritional dynamite, benzolive. In the SIDS of the Pacific,vernacular names are: saijan in Fiji, and katdes in Guam, etc.

UsesVirtually every part of the plant is used for human and animalfoods, health and nutrition, biomass production, biogas, fencing,foliar fertiliser, green manure, water and sugarcane juice clarifier,etc (Table 1). It is therefore quickly becoming popular, and indemand, particularly due to its high nutritional value, medicinalproperties, and income-earning potential. Countries in the PacificIsland Countries and Territories (PICTs) grow M. oleifera whichwas either brought in by locals who saw its benefit, or byexpatriates who came to work in these countries. Fiji is the firstcountry in the region to export both Moringa leaves and fruit toAustralia and New Zealand, as fresh food for fellow Fijians whohave settled in those countries. A total of 358kg of leaves andaround 150kg of drumsticks were exported in 2014 from Fiji(Ministry of Agriculture statistics).

Moringa contains essential vitamins and minerals, amino acids,and antioxidants, and is used to treat malnutrition in children inmany developing countries. It is also prescribed to pregnant andlactating women due to its high calcium and iron content. In

many indigenous cultures, its healing properties have long beenrecognised. Numerous studies conducted on the plant haveconfirmed these claims (eg Fahey, 2005; Farooq, 2012).

Different parts of the Moringa tree are eaten as a vegetable. Theleaves, pods, seeds and flowers have been part of the local diets formany years. It can be consumed either fresh, dried or in powderedform; on its own, as part of dishes and sauces, or simply boiledand enjoyed as tea.

Moringa seeds were also found to be an excellent source of an oilcalled ‘ben oil’, with a quality comparable to olive oil. Extractioncan even be done in the home where seeds from mature pods areroasted, mashed and boiled in water, and the oil allowed toseparate overnight. The oil can be used in making soap,cosmetics, and as a lubricant for watches. Other parts, such as thebark, are used for its fibers, which are made into ropes and mats.

The wood from the tree can be used as firewood for cooking, whilethe tree itself can serve as a fence to mark boundaries, providemoderate shade for other crops, and help reduce soil erosion.Leaves and branches are also used as animal feed. Among itsmany interesting properties is the ability to cleanse and purifydrinking water. The powdered form of Moringa seeds functionsas a coagulant binding impurities present in the water (Jahn,1981, 1988).

To add to its array of impressive properties, the Moringa plant iseasy to grow and thrives in areas with low water levels, making ittolerant of long dry spells. It can tolerate high alkalinity and can

Figure 1. Moringa tree, Va’vau,Tonga (Photo: Vinesh Prasad)

Figure 2. Farm whereMoringa is fed to livestock, Labasa, Fiji(Photo: Vinesh Prasad)

Figure 3. Women preparing the Moringa leaves, Kabara, Fiji (Photo: VineshPrasad)

even grow in sandy soil. These characteristics make it appropriatein areas such as the Pacific, where the type of soil makes it difficultto grow most types of vegetation.

ConclusionsGiven its multi-dimensional benefits, Moringa could be an idealmulti-purpose tree in the Pacific region for promotion inagroforestry models. Agroforestry farming systems were thetraditional way of farming in the region, but the quest foragricultural trade resulted in farmers abandoning this approachin favour of mono-cropping. However, with recent increasingimpact of climate change, soil degradation and non-communicable diseases (NCDs), it is important to help thecommunities to build resilience against such chronic problems.One such approach is to establish agroforestry farms with multi-purpose trees that not only provide food security, but also help inaddressing nutrition gaps, contribute to improved health and well-being, provide entrepreneurial opportunities in which the localpeople can engage, and contribute to adapting to climate change.With little soil preparation and some help from composting, localcommunities could greatly benefit from the wonders of Moringa.

References

Fahey JW, 2005. Moringa oleifera: A review of the medical evidence for itsnutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties, Part 1. Trees Life Journal,1,5.

Farooq F, Rai M, Tiwari A, Khan AA, Farooq S, 2012. Medicinal properties ofMoringa oleifera: An overview of a promising healer. Journal of MedicinalPlant Research, 6(27), 4368-4374.

Jahn SAA, 1981. Traditional water purification in tropical developingcountries - existing methods and potential application (manual). PublicationNo 117, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ),Eschborn, 276 pp.

Jahn SAA, 1988. Using Moringa seeds as coagulants in developing countries.Journal of the American Water Works Association, 80(6), 43-50.

Palada MC, 1996. Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.): a versatile tree crop withhorticultural potential in the subtropical United States. Horticulture Science,31(5), 794-797.

Prasad V, Joshi RC, 2015. Utilization and distribution of Moringa oleifera inthe Small Islands Developing States. In: Palada MC, Ebert A, eds. Book ofAbstracts, Poster presented at the First International Symposium on Moringa,15-18 November, 2015, Crowne Plaza, Manila, Philippines.

Table 1. Distribution and use of Moringa in the Small Island Developing States*

Country Local Name Presence and introduction Use Fiji Saijan Present, introduced by Indians Food, medicine and

income Tonga Moringa Present, introduced by Mr

Benabe, Filipino expert working for Tonga Water Board.

Tea and soup

Cook Island Moringa Present, introduced by a local who returned from New Zealand

Fence post, food (soup) and medicinal

Samoa Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates

Medicinal and Food

Republic of the Marshall Islands

Drumstick Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food (soup) and greens in meats, medicinal

Guam Katdes Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food (soup) and greens in meats, medicinal

Federated States of Micronesia

Miracle Tree Present, brought in by NGO Food, medicine and ornamental

Kiribati Moringa Present, introduced by FAO experts

Food, medicine and live fence post

Tuvalu Moringa Present, introduced by Dr Iqbal of FAO a few years back under Food Security Project

Very new to the community but few use it as Moringa tea

Solomon Islands Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food and medicine

Vanuatu Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food and medicine

Papua New Guinea Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food and medicine

Nauru Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food and medicine

American Samoa Moringa Present, introduced by expatriates from Philippines

Food and medicine

*Information obtained by either visiting the countries or communication with Heads of Agriculture and Forestry Departments.

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The use ofdrones; andthe on-goingCGIAR reformDroning On

Recent years have seen a dramatic rise inthe use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)- or drones as they are commonly known -and they are rapidly becomingcommonplace on farms around the world.In the USA, for example, a primary use ofdrones is for mid-season crop healthmonitoring. Through the use of Near-Infrared (NIR) and Normalized DifferenceVegetative Index (NDVI) sensors, a crop canbe inspected far more quickly than throughthe traditional method of walking the fields.Drones are also being widely used on farmsfor tasks as diverse as inspecting irrigationequipment, identifying and mapping weedinfestations, monitoring cattle herds andmapping soil fertility to guide variable ratefertiliser application.

Drones are also increasingly being used asa tool in agricultural research and a fewexamples are given in the following sectionsof their growing use by the InternationalAgricultural Research Centres.

Working together on UAVs

In late 2014, a workshop was held on theInternational Livestock Research Centre(ILRI) Campus in Nairobi to discuss thepotential use of drones for remote sensing.The workshop, financed by the Bill andMelinda Gates Foundation, was attendedby 32 participants from five InternationalAgricultural Research Centres as well asscientists from national and regionalinstitutions in Kenya, Tanzania, Ugandaand Nigeria.

A large agenda was identified for the use ofdrones in agricultural research, from cropyield forecasting to monitoring soil,animal, plant and ecosystem health. Thenew technology is expected to substantiallyimprove the accuracy and timeliness ofdata collected on a wide range of subject

matters and that this, in turn, will helpguide decision-making and improve theeffectiveness of interventions in ruralareas. However, a key obstacle to thefuture use of drones that was discussed atthe workshop is the difficulty of obtainingflight permits in many African countries.This is proving to be a significant hurdlethat still has to be overcome before dronescan be fully established as a routine tool foragricultural research in the continent.

Surveying sweet-potato in East Africa

One of first activities following on from theWorkshop was the assembly of anoctocopter (a drone with 8 rotors) on theWorld Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)Campus in Nairobi. This was followed byintensive testing by ICRAF scientistsworking together with their counterpartsfrom the International Potato Centre (CIP),ILRI and the University of Nairobi. A teamof CIP scientists from South America andAfrica, together with scientists fromnational institutions in Kenya andTanzania, then took the octocopter to theLake Zone of Tanzania to test it as a low-cost tool for gathering field data onsweet-potato.

The drone was fitted with a multispectralcamera to capture and measure light in thevisible and near-infrared wavelengths. Eachplant species has a small but measurabledifference in the wavelengths of sunlight itreflects, and measuring this spectralsignature can help researchers identify fromthe air whether a crop is sweet-potato orsomething else. It can sometimes even helpthem identify the actual variety of sweet-potato being grown. Furthermore, thisspectral signature may also reveal whethera crop is thriving and likely to produce alarge yield or whether it is stressed bydrought, has a nutrient deficiency or isunder pest or disease attack. Multispectralimages can often detect such conditionsbefore they can be seen by eye.

The trial was considered a resoundingsuccess and plans are underway to use theoctocopter in other areas. The work wascarried out as part of a larger project on theuse of drones to get more detailedinformation on crops than is possible fromsatellites. The researchers plan to eventuallysuperimpose images obtained by drones

over larger-scale images from satellites toprovide more accurate data on nationwidecrop production than is currently possibleor affordable.

Speeding the breeding at CIAT

On a plot of land at its headquarters nearCali, Colombia, scientists from theInternational Centre for TropicalAgriculture (CIAT) and the University ofTokyo are working together to develop aresearch facility to be used for evaluating alarge number of genetically different plantlines, a process known as phenotyping. Awide range of different growingenvironments can be created in the plot,for example it can be sheltered to reducethe amount of rainfall received, or extrawater can be supplied through irrigation;additional fertiliser can be added to, orwithheld from the soil. In order to speedup the collection of data, a quadcopter (yes– a drone with 4 rotors) equipped with amultispectral camera is flown in a grid overthe plot, guided by GPS. It is able tocapture data on the response of hundredsof different breeding lines to variousapplied stresses. The use of the drone isenabling highly accurate data to becollected far more quickly, at much morefrequent intervals and with less damage tothe plants and soil than is possible throughmeasurements made by scientiststramping around the plots.

“Our high-throughput phenotypingplatform opens the way for innovativeapproaches to developing new varieties ofrice and cassava that can thrive under stressenvironments”, says Joe Tohme, Director ofAgrobiodiversity Research at CIAT.

IRRI Aerial Security

At the International Rice Research Institute(IRRI) in the Philippines, drones are usednot only to collect scientific data from riceplots but also to help protect the researchfarm itself. Aerial patrols are flown sixtimes a day in support of ground securityteams. Mr Glenn Enriquez, IRRI’s head ofsecurity says: “If one of our ‘pilots’operating the drones spots any unusualactivity, they call the ground team to checkon the situation. In the past, cows havebeen spotted grazing on the rice fields atnight, which could affect the scientists’experiments, and may not have been

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International Agricultural Research News

detected without the use of dronesequipped with thermal imaging cameras.”Research Impact monitoring

Frédéric Kosmowski, a research associateof the CGIAR’s Standing Panel on ImpactAssessment (SPIA), has recently pointedout the potential use of drones formeasuring the impact of agriculturalresearch. In many situations, collectinggeo-referenced baseline data is essential formonitoring the impact of researchinterventions over a wide area. Dronesfrequently offer the cheapest solution tocollecting such data and for measuringchanges over time. As the CGIAR Centresincreasingly see the need to accuratelymeasure the impact of their work, so cost-effective tools such as drones are likely tobecome ever more popular.

The Ongoing CGIAR Reform

The CGIAR reformation continues apacewith major changes expected in 2016. TheFund Council and Fund Office, as well asthe Consortium and its Board will all bedisbanded during the year. The system will

adopt a new, simplified governance modeland organisational structure, through thecreation of a single CGIAR System Council,comprising representatives of all keystakeholders, and supported by a SystemOffice located in Montpelier, France.

Following the approval of the Plan for theTransition to the Establishment of theCGIAR System Organization lastSeptember, another key document, thePartnership Framework, is now beingprepared that will lay out the generalprinciples and objectives of the new systemand the roles and responsibilities of thevarious entities within it. These areexpected to include, in addition to theSystem Council and System Office, theCentre’s Standing Committee (CSC), theIndependent Science and PartnershipCouncil (ISPC), the IndependentEvaluation Arrangement (IEA) and theInternal Audit Unit (IAU). A search isunderway for an Executive Director toprovide overall leadership for the newSystem Organization.

In parallel with the restructuring, the CGIARis currently developing its next portfolio ofresearch programmes (CRPs). As thingsstand now, there will be eight commodity-based Agri-Food Systems programmes, andfour Global Integrating Programmes,focusing on nutrition, climate change,policies and institutions, and land, waterand ecosystems. Crosscutting work ongender and capacity building will beenhanced and international platforms willbe created to coordinate and promote thework on genetic resources and Big Data. Inaddition it is planned that the activities ofthe various CRPs will be better coordinatedat the country level through thedevelopment and execution of specific ‘siteintegration plans’.

The new portfolio will be developed andapproved before the end of 2016 to enableimplementation to begin in early 2017.More details will be given in future editionsof Agriculture for Development. Watchthis space!

Geoff Hawtin

NewsflashThe TAA joins the UK Plant Science Federation(UKPSF)

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Last year, the TAA was invited to become a member of theUKPSF (http://www.plantsci.org.uk/) and I had the goodfortune to be accepted as the TAA representative. As the nameimplies, this interest group focusses on plant science and itsconcerns in science education and policy, particularly withinUK institutions, but increasingly with world-wide links andglobal issues. For those with primary interests in livestock, itshould be pointed out that, whether through forage,concentrates or pasture and rangelands, there are still links tothe world of plants!

The UKPSF is an offshoot of the Royal Society of Biology, butalso with representation to the Global Plant Council. Currentlyexperiencing the challenge of securing additional funding andan executive officer to replace Dr Mimi Tanimoto, who left atthe end of October, much of the AGM on 30 November wastaken up with how to attract new donors and the legalstructure during this interim. Meeting the 20 or so otherattendees was appreciated, along with the opportunity to makesuggestions on future annual plant science conferences onsubjects that just happen to chime with those of TAA members,

so watch this space. Unfortunately, the pressures of keepingto the agenda meant that there was no time to chat with otherrepresentatives; the one exception being a conversation withthe KTN (Knowledge Transfer Network) representative whoexpressed interest in projects in Africa, by combining forceswith TAA members who have good practical knowledge of theregion. This opportunity will be closely monitored. Finally,there will be a UKPSF conference on 11-12 April, to be held atthe John Innes Centre, Norwich (http://www.plantsci.org.uk/events/uk-plantsci-2016).

There is a major contrast between the TAA and otherorganisations represented at the UKPSF: the fact that theseother institutions both direct and record their scientificresearch and output. TAA is a society of like-mindedindividuals who are free to pursue whatever career or interestcomes their way, but there is no central repository beyond theAg4Dev journal and its predecessor (which I believe onlycapture a small fraction of our work).

To those who worry that much of our work is not done under

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the restrictions of randomised plots and other statistically rigidconstraints, we nonetheless constitute a valuable link in theinterface between science and the ‘real world’. To this end Ihave begun compiling a database of TAA members, past andpresent, with the wish to build a database with all publishedinformation in specialist magazines, newspapers, meetings etc.So as not to display unfair biases, this will be for all subjectmatter, not just plant-related. Could you please help bysending the output of yourself or of a former colleague (withnecessary approval from whoever can give this)? I believe thiswill eventually be a splendid store of knowledge that otherwiseis in danger of disappearing forever.

I am after titles, unless you feel moved to include the articlesthemselves, with no cut-off on previous years. Please includefull name and membership number. The category ofspecialisation is not always helpful - for example consultant vagronomist v agriculturist, and one of the delights of workingabroad is that you often cross boundaries that would befrowned upon in the UK. Please send either by email:Ianineden@aol.com (or to coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk ifyou prefer), or by snail-mail to Ian Martin (TAA SW), 64Ranelagh Road, St Austell, Cornwall, PL25 4NT. Thank you!

Ian Martin

Farmer sovereignty and cooperation in globalagriculture

Opinions Page (The views expressed here by individualmembers do not necessarily reflect those of the editors or the Tropical Agriculture Association)

Are things getting better or worse in terms of farmersovereignty and farmers cooperating to improve that during thepast four years? – you decide! Terry Hehir NSch (NuffieldScholar), organic dairy farmer and chairman of AustralianNuffield Farming Scholars, addressed the Oxford FarmingConference (OFC) in January 2012 saying that farmers mustwork together to drive the industry in a more sustainabledirection. The OFC-commissioned report, Power inAgriculture (www.ofc.org.uk) showed the current water-intensive (70 percent of the world’s freshwater withdrawals arefor farming), fertiliser-intensive and energy-intensiveagricultural practices of European (and North American)countries are unsustainable in the near future.

Hehir warned that power in global agriculture is being lost fromthe hands of farmers. Dismantling of the Australian WheatBoard, under pressure from the World Trade Organisation, hasled to volatile prices and wheat growers becoming beholden toa few large corporations. He also said tomato farmers whosupply the processed tomato market have suffered the samefate. One leading grower had commented that he is now littlemore than a “specialist irrigator who strictly observes theplanting and growing regime prescribed by the trans-nationalcorporation (TNC).” Hehir warned that “the only beneficiariesof TNCs are the shareholders themselves.” Seventy percent ofthe global seed market is now in the hands of three companies,and 80 percent of the land planted with major field crops in theUSA is owned or licensed by the agribusiness Monsanto. MrHehir said this situation is incompatible with sustainablepractices such as saving and replanting seed. He also said thatthe interplays of power between TNCs and retailers, betweenwhom farmers feel the squeeze, unable to pass on costs downthe food chain, have affected agriculture’s ability to competewith other sectors. In Australia, agriculture cannot competewith the mining sector, which requires a similar skill set butcan offer much higher pay.

Voices within UK farming have already warned thatsupermarket pressures and rising input costs are puttingunsustainable pressures onto farmers. Many farmers are unableto afford to take on or support apprentices. Mr Hehir suggestedthat the only way to effectively combat corporate muscle is byorganising into cooperatives. He used the example of severalsuccessful dairy cooperatives from Europe, the USA andAustralasia. He said that by organising to promote commonaims and interests, farmers could withstand the pressures of theTNCs and retailers.

However, successful cooperatives can become targets for take-over by TNCs and producers’ greed should not affect theirsense; surrendering control for short-term financial gainirreversibly affects the balance of power. Hehir stated that acooperative must be equipped with constitutional checks toensure that successful co-ops cannot easily surrender theirpower, which would inhibit any opportunistic member preparedto “cash the co-op family silver without respect for theeconomic power of future farming generations.” He concludedthat, “farmer cooperatives are the only logical structure toaddress the power imbalance as agriculture journeys furtherdown the path of TNC domination.”

John Wibberley

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SummaryThe aims of the UN’s International Year of Pulses areintroduced. Pulses are defined and listed, and theircontributions to health, nutrition, and agriculturalsustainability (including adapting to climate change) areexplained.

IntroductionPulses have a special place this year because the United Nations(UN) General Assembly, at its 68th session, declared 2016 asthe International Year of Pulses (IYP) (UN, 2013). However,despite the importance given to pulses by the UN GeneralAssembly, I repeatedly hear the same question: “what arepulses?”. According to FAO (1994), pulses, a subgroup oflegumes, are crop plant members of the Leguminosae family(commonly known as the pea family) that produce edibleseeds, which are used for human and animal consumption.

Only legumes harvested for dry grain are classified as pulses.Legume species used for oil extraction, (eg soybean (Glycinemax (L) Merr) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L)), andsowing purposes (eg clover (different species belonging to thegenus Trifolium L) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L)) are notconsidered pulses. Likewise, legume species are notconsidered as pulses when they are used as vegetables (eggreen peas (Pisum sativum L) and green beans (Phaseolusvulgaris L)). Thus, when common bean (Phaseolus vulgarisL) is harvested for dry grain, it is considered a pulse; but whenthe same species is harvested unripe (known as green beans),it is not treated as a pulse. A list of crops that are consideredto be pulses (FAO, 1994) are presented in Table 1.

Pulses are important food crops that can play a major role inaddressing future global food security and environmentalchallenges, as well as contributing to healthy diets. Inrecognition of the contributions that pulses can make tohuman well-being and to the environment, the UN General

Assembly declared 2016 as the IYP. Pulses are inextricablylinked to:

• Food security, since they are a critical and inexpensive source of plant-based protein, vitamins and minerals for people around the world, especially for subsistence smallholder farmers.

• Human health, since their consumption can prevent, and help to manage, obesity, diabetes, coronary conditions, etc.

• Sustainable agriculture, since they are able to biologically fix nitrogen and free soil-bound phosphorous.

• Climate change adaptation, since they have a broad genetic diversity from which climate-resilient varieties can be selected and/or bred.

Despite these benefits, the per capita consumption of pulseshas steadily declined in both developed and developingcountries. This trend reflects changes in dietary patterns andconsumer preferences; but the most important reason is thefailure of domestic production to keep pace with populationgrowth in many countries. Additionally, despite the economic,social and environmental importance of pulses, theirproduction has not increased at the same rate as othercommodities such as cereals (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012).

To overcome these challenges, relevant stakeholders mustpromote and implement appropriate policies, and increaseinvestment in research and development, and extensionservices, focusing on pulses-based cropping systems. Themain objectives of the IYP are therefore to: (i) raise awarenessof the contribution of pulses to food security and nutrition, (ii)encourage stakeholders to increase production and improveproductivity of pulses, and (iii) highlight the need for enhancedinvestment in research and development, as well as extensionservices, in order to achieve the previous objectives.

The International Year of Pulses: what are theyand why are they important?

Teodardo Calles

Dr Teodardo Calles is an Agricultural Officer in the Plant Production and Protection Division (AGP)of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). He is an agronomist whohas worked on research projects to improve low-input agricultural systems, including grasslands,through the inclusion of leguminous species; he has expertise in legume plant genetic resourcesand taxonomy. He is currently in the ‘Ecosystem Management and Agroecology’ team, workingon legume-based cropping systems. He is also a member of the International Year of Pulses Secretariat and Steering Committee.

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Linking pulses to nutrition and healthLike all legume species, pulses have high protein content,which is particularly important for human nutrition. Theycontain 20-25 percent of protein - two to three times moreprotein than cereals. When pulses are eaten together withcereals, the protein quality in the diet is significantly improved(Singh & Singh, 1992).

Pulses are part of a healthy diet. They have low fat contentand, like other plant based foods, they do not containcholesterol. The Glycaemic Index, an indicator of blood sugar,is low in pulses; and they are also significant sources of dietaryfibre. Since they do not contain gluten, they are also suitablefor celiac patients. Additionally, pulses are rich in minerals(iron, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, zinc) and B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, B6, and folate), all ofwhich play a vital role in human nutrition and health.

According to Campos-Vega et al (2010), consumption of pulsesmay reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease; pulses may havea role in preventing diabetes and reducing breast cancer risk;and increased consumption of pulses may protect againstobesity. Additionally, pulses are important crops forsubsistence farming around the world (see Figure 1), and one

of the major staples of poor smallholder farmers (Martiin,2013). Pulses are therefore considered an inexpensive sourceof protein that can improve the diets of people worldwide.

Pulses and sustainable agricultureAn important attribute of pulses is their ability to biologically fixnitrogen. In symbiosis with certain types of bacteria (ie

Table 1. Plants that are considered to be pulses according to the FAO (1994) classification Vernacular namea Scientific nameb

Common bean Phaseolus vulgaris L Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus L Scarlet runner bean Phaseolus coccineus L Tepary bean Phaseolus acutifolius A Gray Adzuki bean Vigna angularis (Willd) Ohwi & H. Ohashi Mung bean Vigna radiata (L) R Wilczek Mungo bean Vigna mungo (L) Hepper Rice bean Vigna umbellata (Thunb) Ohwi & H Ohashi Moth bean Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq) Maréchal Bambara bean Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc Broad bean Vicia faba L Common vetchc Vicia sativa L Pea Pisum sativum L Chickpea Cicer arietinum L Cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L) Walp Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan (L) Huth Lentil Lens culinaris Medik Lupinesc lareveS Lupinus L species Hyacinth beand Lablab purpureus (L) Sweet Jack beand Canavalia ensiformis (L) DC Winged beand Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L) DC Guar beand Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub Velvet beand Mucuna pruriens (L) DC African yam beand Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex A Rich) Harms aAll species listed here are considered to be pulses, but some of them are regarded as vegetables when harvested unripe. bScientific names are sourced from the updated taxonomic database Tropicos (www.tropicos.org). cUsed primarily for animal feed. dSpecies of minor relevance at the international level.

Figure 1. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) planted for own consumption inRio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Photo: Teodardo Calles)

(www.tropicos.org).

Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium), these plants are able to convertatmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen compounds that can be usedby plants, while also improving soil fertility (Nulik et al, 2013).Some varieties of pulses are also able to free soil-boundphosphorous, and this nutrient plays an important role in thenutrition of plants (Rose et al, 2010). The presence of pulses inagro-ecosystems helps to maintain and/or increase vital microbialbiomass and activity in the soil, thereby nourishing thoseorganisms that are responsible for promoting soil structure andnutrient availability (Blanchart et al, 2005). A high level of soilbiodiversity not only provides ecosystems with greater resistanceand resilience against disturbance and stress, but also improvesthe ability of ecosystems to suppress diseases (Brussaard et al,2007). These features are particularly important for low-inputagricultural production systems.

Pulses cannot improve on-farm diversity per se, so if a farmerchanged from cultivating a single cereal species to cultivating asingle pulse species, there would not be any change in the on-farm diversity. However, pulses are a critical component ofmultiple cropping systems eg intercropping, crop rotation,agroforestry (see Figure 2), and these cropping systems obviouslyhave greater species diversity than monocrop systems. Increasingspecies diversity of cropping systems not only results in moreefficient use of resources, namely light, water and nutrients (Giller& Wilson, 1991), but also increases yields and lowers the risk ofoverall crop failure. Furthermore, intercropping systems not onlypermit greater underground utilisation efficiency due to their rootstructures (Li et al, 2006), but also deep rooting pulses like pigeonpeas can provide groundwater to intercropped companion species(Sekiya & Yano, 2004). The use of indigenous pulses such asbambara beans can contribute to improved food security becausethey are adapted to local production and consumption systems.

How are pulses related to climatechange?Pulse species have a broad genetic diversity from which improvedvarieties can be selected and/or bred - an attribute that isparticularly important for adapting to climate change becausemore climate-resilient varieties can be developed from this broaddiversity. According to Russel (2015), scientists at the InternationalCenter for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) are currently developingpulses that can grow at temperatures above the crops’ normal

‘comfort zone’. Since climate experts suggest that heat stress willbe the biggest threat to bean production in the coming decades,these improved pulse varieties will be of critical importance,especially for low-input agricultural production systems.

Pulses also help mitigate climate change by reducing dependencyon synthetic fertilisers. The manufacture of these fertilisers isenergy intensive and emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere,thus their overuse is detrimental to the environment. Finally,many pulses also promote higher rates of accumulation of soilcarbon than cereals or grasses (Jensen et al, 2012).

References

Alexandratos N, Bruinsma J, 2012. World agriculture towards 2030/2050: The2012 revision. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations.

Blanchart E, Villenave C, Viallatoux A, Barthès B, Girardin C, Azontonde A,Feller C, 2005. Long-term effect of a legume cover crop (Mucuna pruriens varutilis) on the communities of soil macrofauna and nematofauna under maizecultivation, in southern Benin. European Journal of Soil Biology, 42(S1),136-144.

Brussaard L, Ruiter PC de, Brown GG, 2007. Soil biodiversity for agriculturesustainability. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 121(3), 233-244.

Campos-Vega R, Loarca-Piña G, Oomah BD, 2010. Minor components ofpulses and their potential impact on human health. Food ResearchInternational, 43(2), 461-482.

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 1994.Definition and classification commodities, 4. Pulses and derived products.(http://www.fao.org/es/faodef/ fdef04e.htm). Accessed 29 February 2016.

Giller KE, Wilson KJ, 1991. Nitrogen fixation in tropical cropping systems.Wallingford, United Kingdom: CAB International.

Jensen ES, Peoples MB, Boddey RM, Gresshoff PM, Hauggaard-Nielsen H,Alves BJR, Morrison MJ, 2012. Legumes for mitigation of climate change andthe provision of feedstock for biofuels and biorefineries. A review. Agronomyfor Sustainable Development, 32(2), 329-364.

Li L, Sun J, Zhang F, Guo T, Bao X, Smith FA, Smith SE, 2006. Rootdistribution and interactions between intercropped species. EcosystemEcology, 147(2), 280-290.

Martiin C, 2013. The world of agricultural economics: An introduction.Abingdon, United Kingdom: Routledge.

Nulik J, Dalgliesh N, Cox K, Gabb S, 2013. Integrating herbaceous legumesinto crop and livestock systems in eastern Indonesia. Canberra, Australia:Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

Rose TJ, Hardiputra B, Rengel Z, 2010. Wheat, canola and grain legume accessto soil phosphorus fractions differs in soils with contrasting phosphorusdynamics. Plant and Soil, 326(1), 159-170.

Russel N. 2015. Beans that can beat the heat. (http://www.ciatnews.cgiar.org/2015/03/24/beans-that-can-beat-the-heat/). Accessed 29 February 2016.

Sekiya N, Yano K, 2004. Do pigeon pea and sesbania supply groundwater tointercropped maize through hydraulic lift? – Hydrogen stable isotopeinvestigation of xylem waters. Field Crop Research, 86(2-3), 167-173.

Singh U, Singh B, 1992. Tropical grain legumes as important human foods.Economic Botany, 46(3), 310-321.

UN (United Nations), 2013. Resolution 68/231. International Year of Pulses,2016. (http://www.un.org/en/ga/). Accessed 29 February 2016.

Figure 2. Cultivation of orange tress (CitrusL species), cassava (Manihot esculentaCrantz) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) in an agroforestry system inRio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Photo: Teodardo Calles)

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Who would have thought it - tropical tea as a high valuediversification crop for the UK!

Another first for TAA member Nigel Melican of Bedford-basedinternational tea consultants Teacraft Ltd (www.teacraft.com).As well as having tea-growing clients in England and Wales,Teacraft is now helping smallholders to grow tea commerciallyin the distinctly chilly climate of Scotland.

Walled gardens in Victorian times and earlier enabled thesupply of exotic fruits and novel vegetables to big housesdespite the chilly Scottish weather. Now, walled garden ownersin eastern Scotland are set to grow a new exotic crop - tea.

Encouraged by Susie Walker-Munro’s launch of her homegrown Kinnettles Gold tea last November, a group of elevenwalled garden owners have formed the Scottish Artisan TeaProducers Network, and are planning to plant out their teabushes later this year.

Susie has been learning to grow tea on her Forfar farm for thepast seven years. Last year, with the skilled help of Teacraftassociate consultant Beverly-Claire Wainwright, she processedand sold her first ever batch of Scottish grown tea to Pekoe Teaof Edinburgh. Jon Cooper, owner of Pekoe Tea announced “Weare very proud to be the exclusive stockists of Kinnettles Gold.Not only because it’s a Scottish grown tea, but because of itsunique flavour and the passion that has gone into theprocessing.”

As well as expanding her production of Kinnettles Gold in2016, Susie is spearheading the Scottish Artisan Tea Producers’foray into tea growing by propagating and raising 30,000 teaseedlings in a local glasshouse: enough plants to establishseven acres of bushes. “It’s a chance to support an industryand get it kick-started” Susie said, “and I think that the excitingbit is to be right in at the beginning of something.”

Specially selected cold-tolerant tea seed has been importedfrom Nepal and volunteer work has commenced filling potsand sowing seeds in glasshouses, formerly used for potatobreeding. The glasshouses have fan ventilation, shade, heatingand grow lights (Figure 1).

The Scottish Artisans group has been awarded a grant byScotland's Rural College (SRUC) for a study to pinpointchallenges and opportunities for Scottish tea growing. Thestudy will report in April and is being undertaken by NigelMelican. Nigel says “we shall highlight practical solutions togrowing tea under conditions very different to the hot tropics- certainly tea can be grown in Scotland but we need to beinnovative to make it commercially viable.” The report willbe freely available to anyone in Scotland who envisagesgrowing tea on any scale.

One day perhaps, locally grown tea may be seen as Scottish aswhisky or haggis?

More information is available from:

Susie Walker-Munro, Forfar, Angus.e.walkermunro@btinternet.com Tel: 07971817974.

Beverly-Claire Wainwright, Edinburgh.beverly.wainwright@gmail.com Tel: 07752449373.

Nigel Melican, Bedford, UK. nigel@teacraft.com Tel: 1234852121.

Nigel MelicanManaging Director, Teacraft Ltd

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News from the Field

Tea growers team up in Scotland

Figure 1. Glasshouse in Castleton of Easie, Forfar, with pots filled ready for sowingtea seeds.

No-till farming and slugsDear Sir,

With reference to the article on the above subject in Ag4Dev26, page 51, I would be interested to hear if slugs may be an excessiveproblem when using this system. A local farmer has indicated to me that on some soil types, slug infestation can be troublesomein no-till cultivations.

David Gollifer

Brian Sims comments:

Slugs can be a problem, especially with oil seed rape (OSR), whatever the tillage regime. Metaldehyde-based slug pellets can beused at crop seeding time, Tony Reynolds spreads pellets with the Autocast pneumatic broadcaster mounted to the rear of thecombine header as has been mentioned in previous reports of visits to Tony’s farm (see Land Husbandry Group Reports on theTAA website). Alternatively the pellets can be spread by a spinning disc applicator mounted on, for example, a quad bike.Metaldehyde has a legal maximum application rate of 210 g active substance (a.s.)/ha and is generally applied at around 5 kgcommercial product/ha. (The commercial product is available with a range of concentrations of a.s. from 1.5 to 4 percent.) Toprevent contamination of water supplies, there must be a 6 m no-spread zone adjacent to water courses. One point that Tonyhas made is that, in a no-till regime, the slugs have an alternative, surface residue, food source. In a clean tilled soil they willhead straight for the OSR seedlings.

Tony Reynolds has provided the following comment:

We find that slug numbers are always very varied from year to year, for many years the slug pelleter hardly ever left the shed. Thisyear (2015), admittedly, has not been a very good year, as a very mild autumn has meant that they have not gone dormant ordeeper into the ground. This is off the back of some very wet summers which have increased the population. However, as wespeak, the crops are looking very well and slugs have been managed. You tend to only find them when growing oilseed rape orwheat that is following oilseed rape – with any other situation on our farm you do not tend to see any grazing at all. Any grazingseen is often in patches and not covering the whole field, so often if we do pellet it is only on the heavier parts of the fields. Youalso have to take into account that with no-till the increase in microbiological activity provides a biological control from groundbeetles and the like. It’s a problem that is often seen as the pitfall of no-till and I really think this is not the case. Like many arablefarms across different establishment systems, with the correct management of the land and attention to detail there should be nomajor problems whatsoever.

GrowUp urban farmsDear Sir,

Congratulations on the Winter 2015 edition of Ag4Dev and the useful papers on peri-urban farming, a somewhat neglected butimportant form of agriculture.

I was reminded of an article in The Times in May last year, in which Edward Curwen described the GrowUp urban farm in Londonthat employs new and traditional technology.

It was set up in an old warehouse in Beckton, East London. GrowUp urban farms plan to use aquaponics to produce tilapia fish,salad and herb crops. This will mimic the south-east Asian practice of raising fish in paddy fields. The water in which the fishlive will be pumped to the roots of the crops to fertilise them, and then fed back to the fish tank. Their system is based on alternatetanks of fish and salads, and they plan to stack these vertically to intensify production.

The founder, Ms Hofman, came up with the idea while studying for an MSc in environmental technology at Imperial College.The farm aims to provide fresh salad material in cities, avoiding the current transport costs. They have their sights set on otherUK cities. But why limit the system to UK cities? Perhaps the TAA could arrange a visit to the GrowUp urban farm when it isfully operational?

Keith Virgo

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The All-Party Parliamentary Group on Agriculture and Food forDevelopmentDear Sir,

In November, DFID produced a new paper to which they are inviting responses. In presenting it, the Minister of State made thecomment that for the last 20 years agriculture has been neglected. Now it is ‘sexy’ again!

Could members of the TAA please start to contribute to a realistic debate on the issues? Otherwise it will continue to be a bit ofa ‘silly season’.

One of the fora in which issues of agriculture in the South are being discussed is the All Party Parliamentary Group on Agricultureand Food for Development.

Most of the APPG meetings are cat walk parades; everyone is sending invitations to other people in the same field, not to sayanything useful, but to ‘sell’ their own organisations. The result is event after event that does not relate to reality. And, becauseeveryone is too polite to criticise anyone else, the most egregious misleading statements are made in the genteel surroundings ofthe Houses of Parliament.

On Tuesday 12 January, following a short address from Jeremy Lefroy MP to launch the APPG’s new report, From subsistence tosuccessful businesses: enabling smallholder agribusiness development in sub-Saharan Africa, panelists from the UN’s WorldFood Programme (WFP), SAB Miller, the Department for International Development, and the Small Foundation, discussed theAPPG’s findings and their consequences for the implementation of DFID’s new Conceptual Framework on Agriculture (seeNewsflash 1 for a review of DFID’s Conceptual Framework, Ed).

Participation of the Small Foundation was a public relations exercise for the organisation. The WFP said how wonderful theyare, when we all know that the WFP’s mandate of buying food from the rich world for delivery to the poor world is actually killingthe small farmer in Africa (this is why they have introduced their Purchase-for-Progress, P4P, programme, Ed). SAB Miller, anenormous brewer, said how wonderful they are in providing beer to Africa. They might indeed buy from local farmers - becauseit is too expensive to buy sorghum from elsewhere and then transport it. But they did not allude to the fact that a study byActionAid showed that the little woman who is selling a few cans of beer outside the main gate of their factory in Accra pays morein taxes than the main factory across the road from her stand, more tax than all the breweries owned by the company in Ghana,and more tax than all the breweries owned by the company across the whole of Africa.

On occasions some people do make useful presentations, but surely the Group should be a more serious critic of the real challenges,of what should and could work in support of smallholders, and enable people like the members of the TAA to add to a more realisticdebate?

Benny Dembitzer

Sludge for agricultureDear Sir,

I have some 15 kg of international technical references on the application of sludge to agricultural land, including a major project‘package’ of results from Egypt (1995-1999). This important background material appears relevant to certain TAA members inview of the contributions to the last issue of Ag4Dev’s peri-urban agri-systems theme.

I would gladly send this material to any interested parties for recycling and application within this increasingly relevant area ofagricultural development.

Richard Smith

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Newsflash 4

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This feature article broaches a topic that has been the cause ofmuch confusion: what is conservation tillage (CT) and howdoes it differ from conservation agriculture (CA)? The paperstarts with a discussion of agricultural sustainability and itskey function in under-pinning global sustainability. Theauthor underlines the fact that soils are alive, are complex andplay essential roles in our food and water security, ecosystemservices, climate change adaptation and mitigation, povertyalleviation, and sustainable development, as well as globalenvironmental change and human evolution on earth. A widerange of tillage options is described from conventional ploughand harrow systems to para-ploughs, rippers, cultivators,vertical tillage, strip tillage to direct planting throughundisturbed crop residues. Figure 1 indicates the relationshipbetween tillage system and volume of disturbed soil, intensityand frequency of soil disturbance, and crop residue soil cover.

Tillage is not something that nature does and should not beconsidered a conservation objective. In fact the termconservation tillage is an oxymoron as it sends a mixed andconfusing message. Conservation is a word to be respected,revered and used to describe agriculture, not tillage. Thesignificant loss of soil from CT practices indicates that, despite

the accepted 30 percent residue cover, many types of CT donot adequately protect the soil from raindrop impact and arenot sustainable.

Conservation agriculture is a concept for resource-efficientagricultural crop production based on the integratedmanagement of soil, water and biological resources combinedwith external inputs. CA incorporates three key principles: (i)continuous residue cover on the soil surface; (ii) continuousminimum soil disturbance (no-tillage); and (iii) diverse croprotations and cover crop mixes. The success of the CA systemconcept relies on and benefits from the interactive synergiesbetween the biological, physical and chemical properties andprocesses in the soil that enhance carbon management.Without tillage more environmental benefits are accrued withfewer input costs over time. Increasing numbers of farmersare finding the hand-in-hand environmental and economicbenefits of this systems approach for food security.

Brian Sims

NewsflashConservation tillage is not conservation agriculture(Don C Reicosky, 2015. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 70 (5), 103A-108A)

1: mouldboard plough; 2: disc plough; 3: deep ripper; 4: sub-soil (high disturbance); 5: rotary tillage; 6: chisel plough; 7: field cultivator; 8: ridge till;9: sub-soil (low disturbance); 10: vertical tillage; 11: reduced tillage; 12: mulch tillage; 13: stubble mulch; 14: strip tillage; 15: slot tillage; 16: no-till(high disturbance); 17: no-till (low disturbance).

Figure 1. The relationship between tillage systems, crop residue cover and soil disturbance (from Reicosky, 2015)

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IntroductionThe United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC) has annual meetings of the Conference ofthe Parties (COP) to the convention with the ongoing objectiveof stabilising greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere toreduce the anthropogenic impact on climate. The 21stConference of the Parties (COP21) was held near Paris from30 November to 11 December, 2015. The COP21 negotiationsled to broad discussions on mitigation, transparent accountingand stock taking of country actions (every five years),strengthening countries’ abilities to adapt to climate change,strengthen abilities to recover from impacts and funding needsto build and become resilient. The Agreement consideredmechanisms to contribute to emission reductions andencourage sustainable development. It encouraged countriesto conserve and enhance sinks and reservoirs of greenhousegases and to practice sustainable forest and soil management.Despite the limited explicit action with respect to agriculture,the fact that 195 countries could come to any sort of anagreement was truly a feat of diplomacy.

Why should Agriculture be part ofCOP21?Agriculture is a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions butit is also an important industry impacted by climate change.We need to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and tobecome a solution for climate change. Agriculture is the largestprivate land manager in the world involved in the complexbusiness of food and fibre production. Extreme weather eventsare creating environmental problems, accelerating the rate ofsoil erosion, and threatening agricultural production

potentials. Climate change poses an urgent threat to ourenvironment, our health, our economic infrastructure, foodsecurity and our national security.

The COP21 meeting provided an opportunity to createawareness that Conservation Agriculture (CA) can moveconventional agriculture toward more sustainable systems thatare environmentally responsible. Global decision makers needto understand CA and adopt sensible action plans forsustainable food production in a changing climate. CA systemsprovide an appropriate response to build climate resilience withproven technology and farmer support. The CA system is thebest global alternative available with today’s technology toprovide system and resource resilience for both goals ofemissions mitigation and building resilience to climatechange.

If policy makers and scientists consider options for agriculturein the absence of those who know how to apply complex,integrated systems to working landscapes, the result may beless than appealing or optimal. Farm organisations and CApractitioners need to engage in intelligent, effective discussionscontributing their expertise, pragmatism and tacit knowledge.

Conservation AgricultureConservation Agriculture is an operational and integratedapproach of agro-ecology to manage agro-ecosystems forimproved and sustained productivity, increased profits andfood security while preserving and enhancing the resourcebase and the environment. CA is characterised by three linkedprinciples: (i) minimum mechanical soil disturbance; (ii)permanent mulch soil cover; and (iii) diversification of cropspecies grown in sequences and/or associations as cover crops.These principles are universally applicable to all agriculturallandscapes and land uses with locally adapted complementary

Conservation Agriculture activities at COP21

Don Reicosky is a Soil Scientist Emeritus, retired from USDA-ARS, and Adjunct Professor in the SoilScience Department, University of Minnesota. Much of his 42 years of research focused on tillageand residue management as related to global change issues, with emphasis on measuring CO2

losses following intensive tillage with a portable chamber. The gaseous losses of carbon followingtillage were related to the volume of soil disturbed, and help to explain the long-term decline in soilcarbon (C) associated with intensive cropping. These results suggest a need for improvedconservation agriculture. He continues to write about C management and environmental issues.

Amir Kassam is a consultant with FAO, and Visiting Professor at Reading University, UK.

Sophie Gardette, is Director of APAD (Association for the Promotion of Sustainable Agriculture,France).

Gérard Rass is General Secretary of APAD.

Benoit Lavier is President of APAD.

Ricardo Ralisch is a consultant with FEBRAPDP (Brazilian Federation of No-Till), and Professor atUniversidade Estadual de Londrina, Brazil.

María Beatriz Giraudo is Director of AAPRESID (No Till Producer Association of Argentina).

Tom Goddard is Senior Policy Advisor, Alberta Agriculture and Forestry, Canada.

Don Reicosky, Amir Kassam, Sophie Gardette, Gérard Rass, Beniot Lavier, Ricardo Ralisch, María Beatriz Giraudo andTom Goddard

practices that enhance biodiversity and natural biologicalprocesses above and below the soil surface. CA is compatiblewith a wide range of agriculture production systems and farmtypes. The entire food chain, both plants and animals, relyupon the diversity in CA systems and the quality of the soil,which in turn rests on efficient carbon cycling. The naturalsynergy of minimum soil disturbance (that minimises C andsoil loss) and the use of diverse rotations and cover crop mixes(that maximises soil coverage and C input) all contribute tosoil diversity, health and regeneration in CA. CA is practicedon about 160 million hectares around the world. It can spreadmuch further with the help of policy makers and networkedfarmer organisations willing to integrate their expertise andpragmatic experiences across nations.

Local sustainable agriculture groupsThe CA promotional effort at COP21 was initiated and led byAPAD (Association pour la Promotion d’une AgricultureDurable, or the Association for Promotion of SustainableAgriculture) in France, and included several collaborators fromthe global CA community providing promotional support anda global perspective. Planning and scheduling was conductedvia email and Skype calls with emphasis on (i) promoting CAat a display booth, (ii) supporting the ‘4 pour mille’ soil carboninitiative, (iii) planning a field trip to a local CA farm, (iv)holding a small conference on CA with EU CA leaderspresenting, (v) developing a CA manifesto, and (vi) developinga global conservation agriculture communication network (G-CAN).

The display booth emphasised ‘visual communications’ with25 posters describing CA and some related activities.Information flyers were handed out to more than 1,000interested visitors, and questions were addressed by APADmembers and staff. Noteworthy were the promotional postersprovided by the Buffett Foundation with emphasis on CA indeveloping countries. Much of the interest in the activities atthe display booth came from representatives of developingcountries, mainly Africa, interested in learning more about CAprinciples and techniques (Figure 1).

On the second day of COP21 members of APAD supported theFrench Minister of Agriculture, Stéphane Le Foll, at an event

to unveil the ‘quatre pour mille’ initiative, which emphasises thevalue of soil carbon to agriculture (Figure 2). Minister Le Follchallenged the world to see that agriculture can and must be partof the solution to climate change, and that soil carbonsequestration is a key part of the solution. He set forward anambitious agenda - ‘quatre pour mille’ or ‘four per thousand - toincrease soil carbon by four parts per thousand per annum. TheFrench National Institute for Agronomical Research (INRA)advocated that an annual increase of ‘four per thousand’ (0.4percent) of organic matter in soil would be enough tocompensate for the global emissions of greenhouse gases.

The CA conference entitled ‘Soil fertility and climate change:the challenge of conservation agriculture developmentworldwide’ was held on 5 December 2015 to a full room ofinterested participants. After a brief introduction to theobjectives of the conference, two farmers, one from France andone from Argentina, presented their perspective on CA. SarahSingla (France) indicated we must think of soil life differently,and we must understand ecosystem challenges and benefits(Figure 3). She placed emphasis on the soil as a living systemwith diverse soil biology that needs nurturing. María BeatrizGiraudo (Argentina) described how we need to mobilisefarmers to transition to conservation agriculture around theworld. She also highlighted the soil as a living biological systemand reinforced the importance of minimum soil disturbanceand continuous crop residue cover. Conservation agricultureexperts Ricardo Ralisch (Brazil) and Amir Kassam (UK)discussed how farmers must find local solutions that can growglobally and the importance of a Manifesto and GlobalNetwork. Conservation agriculture experts Gottlieb Basch(Portugal) and Emilio González (Spain) discussed theimportance of CA to mitigate and adapt to climate change, andthe role of ECAF (European Conservation AgricultureFederation). They showed several successful examples of CAthroughout Europe. At the end of the conference, there was apanel of farmers and CA experts that responded to questionsfrom the audience and discussed the role of civil society andpublic policy supporting the development of conservationagriculture development worldwide.

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Figure 1. Visitors and posters at the CA display at COP 21. The visitor is recordingthe explanation of the CA expert to share with his colleagues back home

Figure 2. French Minister of Agriculture, Stéphane Le Foll, presents his initiative,‘4 pour mille’, for carbon sequestration

A manifesto for action entitled ‘Farming Forward for ClimateChange’ was developed, bringing together the relevance of CAand climate extremes in more detail. The resilience of CA wasnoted for food security and suggested components of an actionplan were identified. Global issues addressed in the manifestoinclude: (i) climate is changing everywhere in the world soagriculture is dependent upon climate and exposed to climatechange; (ii) agriculture needs to adapt and be resilient to achanging climate; (iii) agriculture can also contribute togreenhouse gas emission reductions even though it is only 14percent of global emissions; (iv) agriculture produces food fora growing global population with expectations of a safe andsecure food supply. The manifesto further presented theeducational and social needs of CA. Farmers need credibleinformation and need to be engaged with other farmers tolearn how to successfully adopt new farm practices. Farmersperceive other farmers’ experiences and learnings withcredibility, often beyond that of researchers and academics.Farmers are willing to share, but need to be enabled to helpother farmers.

APAD and CA collaborators are also presently working towards theformation of a Global Conservation Agriculture Network called G-CAN. The formation of G-CAN was stimulated by globaleducational needs and for integrated action to deliver CA at thelandscape scale. To give a global CA perspective, the alliance isfocused on increasing food security by using enhancedcommunications supporting both large and smallholderagriculture and rural enterprise within healthy, sustainable andclimate-smart landscapes. The G-CAN organisers are in the initialstages of development and looking for additional collaborationwith specific suggestions on this initiative and potential membersinterested in exchanging information.

CA community and farmer-led organisations are willing to helpThe CA collaborators and farmers are willing to spearheadsynergistic collaborations with all players to design an adaptivepath forward to provide impetus to develop more climatesmart and environmentally friendly agriculture systems thatmake sense to farmers. We hope policy makers and global

world leaders who attended COP21 will create the conditionsto develop global adoption of CA. International agreements onclimate change mitigation and sustainable development ofagricultural production are needed, using adequate andenabling policies consistent across geographies, and includingeconomic incentive mechanisms for farmers andorganisations. Agreements should utilise policy tools such aspayments for ecosystem services, carbon offset trademechanisms, and transitional assistance for landscapemanagers moving to better production systems.

The FutureA foundation of enthusiasm, cooperation and knowledgeemerged at COP21, on which to build. Farmers who manageworking landscapes around the world need to be engaged withCOP policy makers at all future COP meetings, as well asnational policy makers and researchers. The seventh WorldCongress of Conservation Agriculture, to be held in Argentinain 2017, will be another opportunity to not only celebrate thesuccesses of CA, but to explore further needs and gaps toeffectively and efficiently mainstream CA. The world’s climateneeds help from all sectors - and quickly.

Acknowledgment of other contributingCA experts.Theo Freidrich, Rattan Lal, Emilio González, Gottlieb Basch,Sarah Singla, Magalie Corre, Cesar Belloso.

Signatory organisations on the Manifesto

• European Conservation Agriculture Federation, ECAF • Association pour la Promotion d’une Agriculture Durable, APAD (France)

• African Conservation Tillage Network, ACT • South Asian Conservation Agriculture Network, SACAN• Conservation Tillage Research Centre, CTRC (China) • Conservation Agriculture Australia • Western Australian No-Tillage Farmers Association, WANTFA

• Confederation of American Associations for the Production of Sustainable Agriculture, CAAPAS

• Fundação Agrisus (Brazil) • Federação Brasileira de Plantio Direto e Irrigação (Brazil)• Federación Paraguaya de Siembra Directa para una Agricultura Sustentable, Fepasidias (Paraguay)

• Asociación Uruguaya de Siembra Directa, AUSID (Uruguay)• Asociación Argentina de Productores en Siembra Directa, AAPRESID (Argentina)

• Sequoia Farm Foundation (USA) • Ohio No-till Council • Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, C-MASC, (Ohio State Univ)

• Agronomy Department of Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL, Brazil)

• David Brandt, No Till farmer, Ohio (USA) • Rattan Lal, Distinguished University Professor of Soil Science, Director, Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, President Elect, International Union of Soil Sciences (USA).

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Figure 3. French farmer Sarah Singla presents her ideas and concepts on soil biology at the CA conference at COP21, along with a panel of CA experts fromother countries

1. ApologiesAndrew Bennett, John Ferguson, Roger Cozens, Alan Stapleton, Bookie Ezeomah.

2. Approval of Minutes of AGM held on Wednesday 10December 2014 as presented in Agriculture for Development 24: Spring 2015.

Proposer: Jim Ellis-Jones Seconder: Antony Ellman

3. Matters Arising - None

4. Reports from Officers

• Chairman and Secretary, presented by Keith Virgo• Treasurer, presented by Jim Ellis-Jones• TAAF Chairman, presented by Antony Ellman

5. Adoption of Audited Accounts for the 2014-2015 Financial Year

Proposer: John Wibberley Seconder: George Taylor-Hunt

Reappointment of Examiners for the Association - Montpelier Professional of Dashwood Square, Newton Stewart, Wigtownshire for next financial year.

Proposer: Keith Virgo Seconder: Tim Roberts

6. ExCo Member Elections were held for Martin Evans as Corporate Members’ Co-ordinator, Nathan Duraisaminathan (Branches Co-ordinator), and Chris Kapembwa (Zambia Regional Co-ordinator).

Proposer: John Wibberley Seconder: Ray Bartlett

Membership Subscription Increase proposed by the Treasurer and detailed in Ag4Dev 25, Summer 2015, was accepted by the membership.

Proposer: Ray Bartlett Seconder: Chris Baker

7. AOBFriends and colleagues that have passed away during the year were remembered:

• Andrew Seager;• Professor J T (Trevor) Williams;• Bill Reed;• Maurice Purnell;• Brian Robinson;• Benny Warren;• Peter Goldsworthy.

8. 2015 TAA HonoursPresentations were made to:

• George Rothschild - Development Agriculturalist of the Year for a lifetime of work in agricultural research for development;

• Bill Reed - Award of Merit for his many years of work with the TAA SW and ExCo;

• George Taylor-Hunt - Award of Merit for his many years of work with the TAA SW and ExCo.

9. 33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecture

For the first time, the 33rd Ralph Melville Memorial Lecturewas not a single lecture, but included three presentations fromformer TAAF awardees to highlight the role that TAAF has hadon their careers. The presenters were:

• James Alden and Paul Baranowski, Imperial College (MSc Awardees 2015), presented their study on a decision support system for smallholder coffee production and climate change adaptation in Central America;

• Daniella Hawkins (2005 Awardee) covered her work as a TAAF awardee with a beekeepers’ co-operative in Zambia and her subsequent career in microfinance;

• James Lomax, now Head of Agriculture and Food Systems at UNEP, whose career was launched as a TAAF awardee with ILRI in Kenya in 2001.

The three lectures led to a general discussion of current needsand job opportunities in international natural resourcedevelopment for young UK professionals, and of the part thatTAA and TAAF can play in facilitating access to theseopportunities.

Elizabeth WarhamGeneral Secretary

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TAA Forum2015 AGMReport on the TAA 2015 Annual General Meeting, held at 17.00 on Wednesday 17 November, in the Royal Over-Seas League

It has been yet another exciting year for the TAA. We have newoverseas and UK branches. Generous contributions bymembers have further strengthened TAAF. Membershipcontinues to increase, with more younger people andcorporates joining. ExCo has met quarterly to strengthen theeffectivness of the TAA, and we are creating a webpage that listsExCo members and summarises their expertise, so that thegeneral membership is more aware of who we are and how tocontact us. Without such a dedicated ExCo, my job asChairman would have been impossible.

UK Regional Branches. Our UK Regional branches, haveoffered exciting programmes of meetings: the South West (TimRoberts) laid on successful meetings, seminars with partnerorganisations and a 3-day tour of Dorset, as well as a majorseminar on Soils at the Royal Agricultural University (RAU),Cirencester. Sadly, Bill Reed, a key member of the South WestBranch and ExCo, passed away in the summer. East Anglia(Keith Virgo) promoted several successful events in associationwith Cambridge institutions, including the annual Mayseminar on Food security - demand and supply. NorthernEngland (John Gowing) has been quiet, but London and SouthEast (L&SE) (Terry Wiles) has generated loyal support for thebimonthly ‘Curry Club Talks’ and strengthened links withAPPG-Agriculture and Food for Development, for which theTAA is a formal supporter. The Agribusiness (Roger Cozens)and Land Husbandry (Amir Kassam) Groups have arrangedpub lunch meetings and farm visits. A new Scotland branchhas opened under John Ferguson and we are still seeking amember to open a branch for the Midlands and Wales.

Overseas Branches. Established branches continue to act aspoints of contact in the Caribbean (Bruce Lauckner), India(Sanjeev Vasudev), South East Asia (Wyn Ellis), Ireland (PaulWagstaff) and the Pacific (Ravi Joshi). A new branch is beingopened in Zambia (Chris Kapembwa), who has joined us at thisAGM. We welcome ‘Nathan’ Duraisaminathan, who has takenover as Branches Coordinator, to ensure that we provide thesupport and services required by these branches. There aretentative plans for a TAA study tour of the Caribbean, beingdiscussed by Bruce Faulkner, CARDI, Jane Guise and Tim Roberts.

Agriculture for Development. Each edition of the journalseems to get bigger (the latest one is 82 pages) and better! Weshould all be proud of the quality of the journal and grateful tothe editorial team (Paul Harding, Elizabeth Warham, BrianSims). The results of the questionnaire survey indicatesatisfaction with the journal and provided some usefulsuggestions to strengthen the journal even more.

TAA Website (www.taa.org.uk). The Web Manager (Keith Virgo)continues to make improvements to the website, aided by ourvery competent web developer (Scott Wilson). Members havebeen adding their details to the Career Summaries and Directoryof CVs. The TAA Forum, aimed at TAAF members, was little usedand has been deleted. The ‘alert’ system for latest news, vacanciesand new events, reaches direct to members almost every day. Weare now working on pages that introduce the ExCo team. The

Vacancies team (Alan Stapleton, Bookie Ezeomah, MichaelFitzpatrick) has posted a constant stream of new jobopportunities.

Annual Memorial Lectures. The traditional Ralph MelvilleMemorial Lecture (RMML) and the mid-year Hugh BuntingMemorial Lecture (HBML) at the University of Reading havebeen our high profile international public events. At the 2015HBML, Trevor Nicholls, of CABI, spoke on Going the extramile. However, declining attendance at Reading and the AGMhas necessitated rethinking the nature and timing of theseannual lectures. This year, of course, we are testing a TAAF-focussed RMML, focussing on Changing needs and changingopportunities for UK professionals in international naturalresource development, as a means to encourage youngermembers. An ExCo sub-committee is examining the bestoptions for the lectures, in particular the timing of the HBMLso as to enable Reading students to participate, perhapsmodelled on the successful Soils seminar at RAU, whichengaged many students.

The TAA Award Fund. The TAAF programme thrives,especially for MSc students wishing to conduct theirdissertation studies overseas. There have been few takers forlonger duration assignments. The TAAF committee (AntonyEllman, Jim Watson, Lawrence Sewell et al) has refined therigorous selection procedure and provides a valuablementoring service for awardees. Generous donations frommembers have strengthened TAAF funds. The Chairman ofthe TAAF committee (Antony Ellman) will be reportingseparately and introducing our ex-TAAF speakers.

Organisational Memberships. TAA is a ‘supporter’ of the AllParty Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Agriculture andFood for Development. This was established in 2008 by theUK Forum on Agricultural Research for Development(UKFARD) and corporate TAA members. We have increasedour financial contribution this year. Our convenor for L&SEgroup (Terry Wiles) continues his dialogue with the APPGCoordinator. A recent meeting was addressed by the Ministerfor International Development, introducing the new DFIDConceptual Framework on Agriculture. The TAA is an’organisational member’ of the Royal Society of Biology(RSB): the L&SE Branch liaises with RSB and one of ourmembers (Ian Martin) has been invited to join the RSB’s UKPlant Sciences Federation as an advisory panel member.

TAA Honours. The reconstituted Honours Panel (under PaulHarding) has canvassed in vain for nominations from ourcorporate members. This year we present Awards of Merit forcontributions to TAA, to George Taylor-Hunt and(posthumously) to Bill Reed, both of the South West branch.The Development Agriculturalist of the Year is awarded toGeorge Rothschild.

Membership. The membership secretary (Lin Blunt), throughmuch dedicated work, has rationalised our membership listand, with help from our Web Developer (Scott Wilson), we are

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2015 AGMReport from the Chairman and General Secretary

now better able to interrogate our member database andensure that membership fees are paid. She has respondedquickly by sending invitations to people who members feelmay wish to join TAA. Please keep sending suggestions to her.The current active membership is: 543 individual members.This total is lower than last year but it represents active, fee-paying members (14 percent female): many previouslynon-paying inactive members have been filtered out. We have24 Corporate members. We welcome four new Corporatemembers (Blue Vanilla, Coventry University, Akola Universityin India, and ECHO in East Africa). However, four Corporatemembers are behind on their subscriptions (such as BictonCollege) and two have resigned (VSO and UKCDS). Wewelcome our new Coordinator for Corporate Members (MartinEvans), who will seek to encourage greater involvement andmore prompt payments by our Corporate members.

Charitable status. Since 1989, the TAA has been a registeredcharity, mainly due to our TAAF initiative. Our link withCARE-International and their LendwithCARE (Jim Ellis-Jones), a peer-to-peer micro-finance lending relationship

between people in the UK and farmers in developing countries,has strengthened our charitable ethos. We continue our linkwith GrassrootsAfrica, set up by a member (Benny Dembitzer)to provide a pool of advice to farmers in sub-Saharan Africa,and with AgriTechTalk which is now linked to LendwithCare.

General administration and executive responsibilities.Shortly, we will hear an important report from our Treasurer(Jim Ellis-Jones), who has efficiently managed our finances.This will include proposals for increasing and rationalisingsubscriptions rates.

Meantime, Elizabeth and I would ask the membership to joinus in expressing grateful thanks for another year of hard workby ExCo, the convenors of the UK Regional Branches andSpecialist Groups, and the organisers of our OverseasBranches. We also thank the many members who havecontributed ideas, posted news in Ag4Dev and participated inthe Association’s activities. We always welcome suggestionson how to improve further.

Keith Virgo and Elizabeth Warham

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2015 AGMTreasurer’s 2015 Annual Report and TAA 2015 Accounts

TAA’s 2015 annual accounts (1 July 2014 to 30 June 2015),finalised by our external accountants, Montpelier ProfessionalLimited, were presented and approved at the AGM on the 11November 2015. These are submitted each year to theCharities’ Commission and can be viewed on www.taa.org.ukunder the page on Finance and Accounts. Key points include:

Income

Total income was £30,663, slightly less than that of 2014 andincluded:

• Subscription income of £18,267 received, a small increase on last year.

• Seven donations received for the Award Fund amounting to £8,148. All are greatly appreciated, thank you to thedonors.

• A tax rebate of £2,841 received from the Inland Revenue for ‘Gift Aided’ subscriptions and donations. Although there has been an increase in members providing ‘Gift Aid’ forms, we continue to lose potential income from members who do not.

• Other income included £976 from events, £34 interest and £297 miscellaneous items.

Expenditure

Total expenditure in 2015 was £29,906 of which 93% wascharitable and 7% was for governance expenditure. This wasslightly more than in 2014 and comprises:

• Agriculture for Development journal costs of £12,774, for

three publications produced during the year, slightly higher than last year.

• TAAF approved eleven awards amounting to £9,215, slightly more than the amount awarded in 2014.

• A further £2,100 being invested to support CARE International’s LendwithCare programme. TAA’s 2-year contribution of £4,100 has now funded loans of £8,858 to 164 individual and groups across nine countries. £4,824 has been repaid and reloaned. TAA’s contribution to poverty reduction as determined by CARE shows 786 entrepreneurs helped, 3,237 family members supported and 200 jobs created. www.lendwithcare.org/groups/profile/tropical_agriculture_association

• Other charitable expenditure included £1,767 for events, £1,035 for ongoing development and maintenance of the website, £500 for the All Party Parliamentary Group on Agriculture and Food for Development and £298 to support London and the South-East. Biology Society membership cost £250.

• Governance costs amounted to £1,967, slightly less than that in 2014.

Funds available

A small surplus of income over expenditure of £757 wasachieved. This compares with a surplus of £3,761 in 2014.The total funds available at the end of June were £59,528 ofwhich £23,775 is restricted for TAAF and £820 for the UKForum.

Looking forwards

A deficit of around £11,000 is expected in 2016, although this does not take into account any possible donations. A major reasonfor the budgeted deficit is due to TAAF awards being made from TAAF donations in earlier years.

TAA Accounts, July 2014 to June 2015

Jim Ellis-JonesTreasurer

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2015 2014 Change Receipts

751£ 011,81£ 762,81£ snoitpircsbuSAward Fund donations £8,148 £9,442 -£1,294

001£ 0£ 001£ snoitanod rehtO 292£ 0£ yrotceriD VC -£292

010,1£ 679£ snoitcnuF -£34 122£ 026,2£ 148,2£ euneveR dnalnI

2£ 23£ 43£ tseretnI knaB 662£ 13£ 792£ suoenallecsiM

735,13£ 366,03£ stpiecer latoT -£874 Expenditure Charitable

380,1£ 196,11£ 477,21£ lanruoJ 502£ 0£ yrotceriD VC -£205

Shows and functions £1,767 £1,770 -£3 Regional Subventions £298 £0 £298

672£ 052£ yteicoS ygoloiB -£26 British Expertise £0 £0 £0

001£ 000,2£ 001,2£ ERAChtiwdneLAward fund and expenses £9,215 £8,798 £417 UK Forum for All parliamentary

052£ 052£ 005£ puorGInternet/web costs £1,035 £693 £342

386,52£ 939,72£ latot bus £2,256 Governance

0£ 144£ 144£ ecnarusnIAccounting services £408 £360 £48 Executive Committee £689 £1,136 -£447

372£ 651£ 924£ nimdA 390,2£ 769,1£ latot bus -£126

Total expenditure £29,906 £27,776 £2,130

Excess of receipts over payments £757 £3,761 -£3,004 Bank balance brought forward £58,771 £55,010 £3,761 Funds available £59,528 £58,771 £757

Twenty applications for MSc awards were received in 2015from students at ten UK universities. Ten awards were madewith a total value of £8,750. The subjects studied ranged frommarketing of agricultural products in Peru, to geneticheritability of cauliflory in cocoa accessions in Trinidad, andthe design of a decision support tool for coffee smallholdersadapting to climate change in Central America.

Three applications for long term awards were received duringthe year, and one award valued at £2,000 was offered to a PhDstudent from Lancaster University who is studying the impacton productivity of alternate wetting and drying in ricecultivation in Madagascar.

Many recent years’ awardees have found productive jobs indevelopment. For example, an Imperial College graduate whoworked last year on environmental change in the Republic ofCongo is now employed by the Wildlife Conservation Societyof Congo; an awardee who worked on water management inUganda is now in the Policy Unit of Water Aid; and another

who worked on food security in Ghana is doing a PhD onConservation Agriculture at Sussex University.

In 2015, TAAF had a budget of £10,000, with approximately£20,000 held in reserve. The bulk of this funding comes fromdonations made by individual TAA members (£8,148 in 2015)and from TAA’s annual subvention of £3,000. Institutionalsources of funding are still being sought, but so far withoutmuch success. Promises of legacies are also being urgentlysought, as a way of putting TAAF finances on a more securelong term footing.

All these financial contributions are greatly appreciated by theTAAF Committee, who continue to do sterling work inassessing applications and supporting awardees professionally.Members who donate money to TAAF can be sure that theircontributions are being put to very good use.

Antony EllmanTAAF Chairman

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2015 AGMTAAF 2015 Annual Report

2015 AGMTAA 2015 HonoursEach year, the TAA recognises the contributions to agriculture for development of a few outstanding individuals. The most prestigious awards, Development Agriculturalist of the Year, and Young Development Agriculturalist of the Year, are open to anyone involvedwith agriculture for development. Awards of Merit are restricted to TAA Members. The TAA wishes to congratulate this year’s worthy awardees.

Professor George Rothschild – DevelopmentAgriculturalist of the YearProposer: Jim Ellis-Jones

Seconder: Terry Wiles

Citation: George Rothschild is nominated for a long andillustrious career in support of agricultural development.Currently a Member of the IWMI Board of Trustees, Member(former Chair) of the Board of Crops for the Future, Member(former Chair) of the European Forum on AgriculturalResearch for Development (EFARD), Chair of the UK Forumon Agricultural Research for Development (UKFARD), andChair of the Support Committee for the UK All PartyParliamentary Group on Agriculture and Food forDevelopment, George is a consultant to the EC, and anadviser to the UK Department for Environment, Food andRural Affairs (Defra) and the Chemicals RegulatoryDirectorate (CRD).

Previous roles have included Chair of the Board of theChallenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), Director-General of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),Director of the Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research (ACIAR), Foundation Director ofthe Australian Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS), Chief

Research Scientist in CSIRO Australia, and principal scientificadviser in successive Australian Federal parliaments to theMinisters of Primary Industries and Energy, Ministers ofForeign Affairs, and Ministers of Overseas Development.

Professor Rothschild responded as follows:

My sincere thanks to the honours panel for very kindly grantingme this award, although I know many people, including a lot ofthose here today, who have contributed every bit as much as I

Figure 1. TAA Chairman Keith Virgo presents Professor George Rothschild withthe 2015 TAA Development Agriculturalist of the Year award (Photo: TimRoberts)

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have during the past years. I am also very conscious thateverything that I have done has been as part of a team effort, andI am grateful for the opportunities to have worked with so manydedicated partners, especially colleagues and friends from thedeveloping world.

I have to confess my old age in that my first job was in the colonialoffice era in the early 1960s. I went for an interview and wasoffered a position as a government entomologist in a particularcountry - which sounded vaguely familiar - but geography wasnever my best subject at school. When I got home, I told my wifethat we were going to the West Indies, so she got out a batteredatlas, and said that the country in question was not in the WestIndies, but actually in Borneo in the East Indies - in Sarawak.

Well, I had six very rewarding years there as governmententomologist, learning that the only previous British person withentomological interests who had been a long-time resident wasAlfred Russell Wallace. My first lab and field centre was a woodenformer Japanese POW camp building, but it was very functional.It was at this time that I met my counterpart entomologist in

North Borneo, now Sabah, Gordon Conway, also of course amember of the TAA.

Since that time I have ended up in a wide range of jobs - notalways by design, but they were always an experience. Over thepast decade this has included a lot of advocacy work throughcommitted politicians and other decision makers, as well as lotsof dedicated colleagues and friends in government and non-government organisations. It has been possible, against the odds,to raise the profile of agriculture in international development,and to bring much needed funding to the cause.

This has been vital in creating an environment where youngpeople feel enthusiastic about international development as acareer, bringing new knowledge - not least in biotechnology andICT as well as, importantly, the social sciences - to bear on themajor problems of food and nutritional security, climate change,and the many other challenges still out there. They are excitingtimes.

Once again, my sincere thanks for this award. It is greatlyappreciated.

Bill Reed - Award of MeritProposer: Roger Cozens

Seconder: Amir Kassam

Citation: Awarded for many years of service to the TAA SW Groupand the ExCo. Bill worked in Malawi (then Nyasaland) from 1954to 1964, returning to the UK to work in the poultry industry. Billwas one of the original founders of the TAA SW Group and heserved both on our local committee and on the ExCo as SouthWest Coordinator for many years.

One of his main attributes was being able to galvanise others toplay a part with his gentlemanly persuasion - it took a brave manto refuse to purchase a TAA tie with which he would appear at allour events. He was a keen promoter of TAA’s stand at both theNational Agricultural Show and the Bath and West Show. Nosooner had one Bath and West show ended than he was recruitingmembers to man the stand the following year.

Bill and his wife Mavis travelled extensively in recent years, visitingfamily in Malawi, Kenya and the Cayman Islands. In fact it was

Bill who set up some strong links for the TAA in Malawi, Kenyaand the Caribbean.

Unfortunately, Bill passed away shortly before the AGM, so hisAward of Merit was awarded posthumously. Bill’s son John anddaughter Catherine attended the AGM, and John accepted theaward on behalf of his father.

Figure 2. TAA Chairman Keith Virgo presents Bill Reed’s Award of Merit to hisson John (Photo: Tim Roberts)

George Taylor-Hunt - Award of Merit

Proposer: Tim Roberts

Seconder: John Wibberley

Citation: Awarded for many years of service to the TAA SW Groupand the ExCo. Following an early career advising farmers in the UKon mechanisation, George moved to Nairobi to work for theGovernment of Kenya. After three years, he joined the InternationalPotato Centre (CIP) in Nairobi. After 13 years in Kenya, he movedto Bangladesh for five years working for the Canadian government.He became a respected post-harvest specialist.

Returning to the UK, George became a stalwart, diligent and good-humoured Chairman of the TAA SW Group for a decade. He was aregular organiser of the TAA stands at Agricultural Shows andevents, always arriving early to set things up. This included

supporting the annual BOAT (Bicton Overseas Agricultural Trust)tractor renovation scheme with which TAA SW is associated.George also served faithfully for many years on the TAA ExCo, andwas much appreciated for his ready wit and valued common sense.

Figure 3. TAA ChairmanKeith Virgo presents anAward of Merit to GeorgeTaylor-Hunt (Photo:Tim Roberts)

Paul HardingTAA Honours Panel Convenor

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TAA 2015 Annual Membership Report (year ending 31 June 2015)

The TAA membership database is now being used effectivelyto collect a range of data, which provides us with accurate,current information. It will gradually allow the presentationof trends and any potential membership concerns. Thefollowing report is compiled from data collected up to 2 July2015.

Membership

Full members receiving hard copies of the journal through thepost total 264, of which 143 are under 70 years old, and 121are 70 years old or more. Online members total 168, of which133 are under 70, and 35 are 70 or more. There are 19 TAAFmembers, and 36 student members. Corporate Members standat 22. The number of fully paid-up members is 509, with afurther 56 members partially paid-up. Total membership istherefore 565. Although overall membership appears to bedown on previous years, this is largely due to the increasedaccuracy of the membership database.

Partial payment of membership fees

A significant number of members are not paying the fullsubscription rate (for various, usually unintentional, reasons)but this is now managed through partial online membershipand eventually suspension, to ensure fairness to fully paid-upmembers. Members who have been suspended continue to belisted for up to two years, are regularly contacted, andencouraged to re-join. After two years, they are deleted fromthe membership list.

New members

The good news is that there continues to be a high number ofnew members joining the Association, many of whom arestudents. Between August 2104 and July 2015, 63 newmembers joined the TAA. There is also an increase in thenumber of Corporate Members, which will hopefully continuenow that there is a Corporate Membership Coordinator on theExCo. It should be noted that Corporate Members includeseveral thousand employees and students with access to theTAA webpage and journal.

Membership age distribution

The age range data confirms the high proportion of memberswho are approaching, or who have already reached, nominalretirement age. Many of these members, of course, continueto be active through consultancy or voluntary activities.

Payment of membership fees

The methods of payment currently available include cheque,online via PayPal, bank transfer and Standing Order. Most newmembers pay via PayPal as this is quick and easy and allowsimmediate membership of the TAA. However, the mostcommon payment method is by Standing Order, which isencouraged since it enables much simpler membershipmanagement with all payments made on 1 August each year.Members will be further encouraged to pay by this method for2016/17, when subscription rates are updated.

Finally, although 170 members have completed the Gift Aidform, this still represents a minority of members. Gift Aidallows additional funds to be collected because 25 pence inevery £1 can be reclaimed from HMRC.

Lin BluntMembership Secretary

90+ 2 Total 403

(all others have not given their age)

Age range (years) Number of

members Under 20 2

20-30 18 30-40 32 40-50 22 50-60 70 60-70 135 70-80 82 80-90 40

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57

Environmental Conservation Group UpdateTAA and the Cambridge Conservation Forum (CCF)

The TAA is a member organisation of CCF, an informal butactive forum that encourages conservation activities andnetworking among the 60+ member organisations with linksto Cambridge. Please take a look at our website for moredetails (http://www.taa.org.uk/sub-content.asp?subId=60&sub=yes). As a member, TAA has collaborated successfully withorganising several seminars, as well as the ‘annual’ and‘summer’ symposia.

This year’s annual symposium (7 January 2016) was acclaimedas one of the best. It was the first major event in the new DavidAttenborough building, a state-of-the-art conservation centrein the centre of Cambridge. With an attendance of some 100people, the symposium focused on ‘communicatingconservation’, as well as several technical papers. TonyReynolds, representing TAA, gave a presentation on A Decadeof Conservation Agriculture, which was well received andalmost received a standing ovation! Encouragingly, Tony laterreceived requests from the RSPB for them to bring their farmmanagers to visit his Thurlby Grange farm.

The TAA is represented on the council of CCF by Keith Virgoand Bill Thorpe. On 14 January, Keith attended the six-monthly council meeting. It was agreed that CCF wouldproceed with seeking ‘Charitable Incorporated Organisation’status, to provide a more formal basis for operation. Otherdiscussion centred on how member organisations can use the

facilities of the David Attenborough Building. It is envisagedthat members (such as TAA) will have bookable access to hotdesks, meeting rooms and seminar room, and free access tothe cosy common room. Details of booking arrangements, andany costs, will be posted on the TAA website. The commonroom will be particularly ideal for short ad hoc meetings inCambridge! Judith Schieicher, the current Treasurer, alsopresented the financial results. Judith was a TAAF awardee(2010) and has just completed a PhD at Cambridge: she laterproudly announced to me that she had just joined TAA!

Members should please make a note of the Summersymposium on 24 June 2016, which this year will focus onFood Security – please look at our Events webpages for detailshttp://www.taa.org.uk/events.asp?menuId=19.

TAA members are encouraged to sign up to the CCF Newsletter and to participate in the varied events of CCF, which are regularly updated on their website(http://www.cambridgeconservationforum.org.uk/).

Keith VirgoCoordinator, Environmental Conservation GroupEnvironment_conservation@taa.org.uk

Publications and Communications (P&C) Committee UpdateAgriculture for Development

Ag4Dev28, the Summer 2016 issue, will be a Special Issue onAgroforestry, with Robert Brook and colleagues at BangorUniversity as Guest Editors.

Ag4Dev29, the Winter 2016 issue, will be another open issuewith no specific theme. Articles and other items are invitedfrom members.

Ag4Dev30, the Spring 2017 issue, will be a Special Issue onClimate Smart Agriculture. Any Corporate or individualmembers willing to Guest Edit this issue should contact theCoordinating Editor (paulharding@btinternet.com).

Future issues and topics

A Special Issue on Women in Agriculture is planned. Anymember willing to Guest Edit this issue should contact theCoordinating Editor. Any members willing to submit articleson Drones in Agriculture, or Insects as Food, should contactthe Coordinating Editor.

New members of the Editorial Team

We are pleased to welcome two Proof Readers to the EditorialTeam: Dr Charles Howie and Michael Fitzpatrick.

Martin Evans has already had a positive impact on sourcingmaterial for Corporate Members’ Page, but we are now seekingcoordinators for Opinions Page, Obituaries, and Reminiscencesand Reflections.

Paul HardingCoordinating Editor, Ag4Dev

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News from the Regions

TAA SW Group Workshop: Soils - where the answers lieRoyal Agriculture University, Cirencester, 15 October 2015Overview of soil management issues in the UN Year of Soils 2015Professor John Wibberley

IntroductionAn annual World Soil Day was initiated by the UN on 5December 2014, but 2015 has had all year to celebrate Soils!Since soils yield 95 percent of our global diet, plus many otherecosystem services (carbon capture, water filtration andstorage, ‘culture’, terroir…) it is self-evident that they are thebasis of all farming systems and “where the answers lie” giftingtrue sustainability. Long ago the Psalmist (65:9) wrote wiselyof The Creator, “You care for the land and water it; You enrichit abundantly”. As with a farming business, it is not the preciseamount of organic matter that soils contain so much as itsturnover rate that indicates dynamic fertility and soil health.Fertility is the ability of a soil to produce and go on producinguseful crop yields. It is at the very heart of the delivery ofsustainability in practice. Threats to soil health includeerosion, exhaustion, pH imbalance, salinisation, wetness,drought, contamination and infestation with weeds, pests anddiseases. Solutions offered by good soil management (ieproper land husbandry) to these respective issues include: soilconservation, soil nutrient management, pH adjustment (oftento pH 6.5), proper irrigation management, drainage, moistureconservation and/or irrigation and positive soil health throughproper weed, pest and disease prevention and control, togetherwith avoiding pollution.

StatusWorldwide, around one-third of all farmed soils are reckonedby the FAO to be degraded to varying degrees, and thisproportion is increasing. Soil degradation may be due toerosion, compaction, soil sealing, salinisation, depletion of soilorganic matter and nutrients, acidification, pollution and otherprocesses caused by unsustainable land management

practices. Furthermore, while world population grew by some30 percent between 1990 and 2010, soil losses are estimatedat some 24 billion tonnes of fertile soil each year (equivalentto 3.4 t/year/person on earth). José Graziano da Silva, DirectorGeneral of FAO, notes: “It can take up to 1,000 years to formone centimetre of soil (1 tonne per hectare per year), and with33 percent of all global soil resources degraded and humanpressures increasing, critical limits are being reached thatmake stewardship an urgent matter”.

Urbanisation led to the loss of some 705,000 hectares of Britishrural land between 1945 and 1990, and building is now leadingto the loss of some 1,400 hectares per year from UKagriculture. Globally, some 2 hectares of soil per minute (300acres an hour!) are sealed over by expanding cities.Furthermore, although some under-grazing by sheep ispossible, covering productive fields with solar panelsexacerbates this loss of productive land - notwithstanding theirsound short-term business sense given recent UK energygrants, and the appeal of generating renewable energy.

SignificanceSoils are reckoned to contribute some 25 percent of the world’sbiodiversity, with their myriad micro-organisms (more thanthe global human population of 7.25 billion in a levelteaspoonful of fertile loam) plus the larger contributors suchas the humble yet noble earthworm (Table 1). Our forebearswere not far out in reckoning the potential productivity of apasture in terms of meat, wool and milk being proportional tothe population of earthworms within its underlying soil! TheInternational Union of Soil Sciences reckons that there are over100,000 different types of soil – that is biodiversity indeed! Weneed to recover the concept of terroir, as they say in French!The hefting of particular breeds of sheep - and of types within

Beneficial Microbial Activity Detrimental Microbial Activity Decomposition of organic matter (OM) Competition for limited soil nutrients Mineralisation (release of soil nutrients) Denitrification (yielding global-warming

gases) Special chemical changes eg nitrification Natural toxin production in anaerobic

soils Aggregation (thus improving soil structure) Some are themselves pathogens or pests Antibiotic production (deterring pathogens) Nitrogen-fixation (Rhizobia and free living) Toxin breakdown (degrades applied biocides)

Table 1. Soil Fertility: encouraging beneficial and minimising detrimental microbiological activity

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them - to particular soils and their associated climatescontributes hugely to the rich agricultural biodiversity withinthe UK; not forgetting our notable heritage of crop ecotypessuch as Suffolk’s Kersey wild white clover or Kent’s variant ofthe same species. In this connection, I have just read andcommend superb books on these themes by farmers: CountingSheep: a celebration of the pastoral heritage of Britain byPhilip Walling (2015, Profile Books, London, 266 pages) andThe Shepherd’s Life: a tale of the Lake District by JamesRebanks (2015, Allen Lane, Penguin, 293 pages).

In general, conditions favouring beneficial microbiologicalactivity also favour crop root systems and thus consistent goodyields, with the special case of paddy soils for wetland rice.

ManagementGood farmers worldwide are cherishing and striving to care fortheir soils while obtaining optimum productivity from themby means of correct cultivations, appropriate plantingtechniques, strategic use of cover cropping and suitable croprotation. Many are now challenged with sustainableintensification. Table 2 attempts to summarise issues in soilmanagement. For proper land husbandry, I was taught threegreat principles of soil management by my late great ProfessorE Walter Russell at Reading, which apply everywhere but areespecially applicable to tropical soils:

• Maintain soil cover (mulch, cover crops) particularly with loose, light soils on erodible sites.

• Keep the nutrients in by maintaining vigorous nutrient cycles and nutrient management planning.

• Keep the weeds out, which is easier said than done in the case of such recalcitrant ones as blackgrass! However, regular timely weeding, perhaps while singing weeding shanties in teams in resource-poor farming communities, can more than double yields, as this writer’s research with sorghum and dryland rice in Nigeria showed 40 years ago.

Conservation Farming (CF)CF is an overall soil management system that is gainingground worldwide (Indo-Gangetic Plain, Southern Africa,Brazil and elsewhere in South America, North America,Australia, as well as in parts of continental Europe, and herein the UK). It is also called Conservation Agriculture (CA), andoften historically called minimal tillage or reduced cultivationin the UK, though this is not the full CF approach (see alsoNewsflash 4 in this issue, Ed). CF has a set of associatedpractices that are combined together: it links reduced early

cultivation, seed and nutrient placement, mulching androtations. Its efficacy lies not only in saving theoperational/energy costs of traditional cultivations (by movingonly some 15 percent of soil by contrast with overall tillage)but also in conserving moisture which can substantiallyincrease yields in dry seasons and drought-prone climates. Insuch situations, farmers have doubled or even trebled yieldsquite commonly with proper CF adoption where amplenutrition is maintained using composts, manures andfertilisers.

CF offers a disciplined but adaptable management approach.CF benefits of water and organic matter conservation,combined with soil structural improvement, are cumulativebut rely on enough previous crop yield and thus proportionateroot activity and enough healthy mulching matter residues touse for the next crop. However, minimal cultivation tends tochange weed ecology needing more initial in-crop weed controland maybe more perennial, especially grass weed, control later.

Our challenge is to consider these issues in more depth andapproach their management as reflective practitioners, not justfor the next harvest but for our grandchildren’s!

Table 2. Overview of soil management issues

snoituloS staerhT secitcarp noitavresnoC noisorE

noitirtuN noitsuahxE yllausu 5.6 Hp ot gnimiL ecnalabmi Hp

tnemeganam noitagirrI noitasinilaSWetness and compaction Drainage and subsoiling

noitagirrI thguorD sesaesid ,stsep ,sdeew lortnoC noitatsefnI

lortnoc noitulloP noitanimatnoC

SummarySoil is often overlooked and undervalued as a natural resource.As well as supplying the rising global population with food,soils help regulate the hydrological and carbon cycles, somitigating the negative effects of climate change and extremeweather events. They are also the living space for themicroorganisms that underpin terrestrial food chains. Theyalso deliver many cultural services to society, such as providingraw materials for infrastructure and supporting recreationalactivities. However, processes such as erosion and compactiondegrade soils so they are no longer able to function: this haseconomic, social and environmental consequences, which aredifficult to quantify in purely financial terms. Controlling soildegradation is possible through better land managementpractices, including reduced tillage, cover cropping, grasswaterways and organic amendments. However, to besustainable, these measures have to be economically, sociallyand environmentally acceptable to all stakeholders in the agri-food supply chain.

The importance of soilsHealthy soils are able to function well and thereby deliver arange of ecosystem goods and services that have been relatedto human health and well-being, and to individual and nationaleconomic status (Daily, 1997). These goods and services thatderive from soil include: the production of food, fibre, fodderand fuel, so underpinning the basis of agricultural businessesand associated industries. Soils also regulate the hydrologicalcycle by storing water for the control of floods during wetperiods and droughts during summer months. Theystore/sequester carbon to reduce CO2 emissions to theatmosphere which are associated with global warming, climatechange and extreme weather events. Soils are the habitat formany species of flora and fauna that support complex foodchains and ensure effective nutrient and carbon cycling.Finally, soils provide a range of cultural services including theprotection of heritage, landscape aesthetics and recreationalpursuits. In this way, soils support the three pillars ofsustainability: economic (eg crop production), environment(eg clean water) and social (eg rural livelihoods). Doran andParkin (1994) conclude that “The thin layer of soil coveringthe earth’s surface represents the difference between survivaland extinction for most terrestrial life”.

The challenges aheadFood production is dependent on healthy soils, as over 94percent of all food originates from terrestrial environments(FAOSTAT, 2011). There is increasing demand for food from a

rising global population, set to reach 9-10 billion by 2050,requiring a 3 percent year-on-year increase in global foodproduction (Foresight, 2011; Beddington et al, 2012; Godfray etal, 2010). However, meeting this demand is challenging giventhe physical and economic constraints on food supply. First,there is a finite land mass and even less physically suitable landfor food production. Agriculture has to compete with otherland uses such as biofuels (with demand increasing due to theexhaustion of finite fossil fuel sources), urban development andinfrastructure. There is also competition from industry forwater supplies otherwise needed to supplement rainfedagriculture in the more arid parts of the world, which are likelyto grow in extent under climate change scenarios.

One argument is that we should intensify agriculturalproduction on land, by increasing inputs of fertiliser and water,often seen as the limiting factors to higher yields. However,despite the availability of inorganic fertilisers, a ‘yield plateau’has been observed where unit increases in fertiliser applicationare not matched by equivalent increases in crop yield (Knightet al, 2012). Clearly the solution to sustainable foodproduction has to be found elsewhere.

Threats to soils and ecosystem goodsand servicesIn addition to the constraints discussed above, the land that isavailable to agriculture is under threat from soil degradationprocesses. Soil degradation occurs when land is used beyond its‘capability’ or specifically, beyond its capacity to produce foodwithout incurring degradation. Soil degradation takes manyforms including soil erosion, compaction, loss of organic matter,decline in soil biodiversity, surface sealing, contamination,salinisation and acidification (EC, 2006). Globally, it is estimatedthat 12 million hectares of land are lost every year to theseprocesses, some of which are irreversible. The UNCCD (2011)estimate that 20 million tonnes of grain are lost per annum tothese processes. In England and Wales alone, Graves et al (2011)estimated the annual costs of soil degradation to agriculturalproduction alone were in the range of £212-£270 million (2010prices)(Table 1). However, this might be an underestimate asthere was a lack of empirical evidence on the impact of many ofthe processes on crop yields.

Soil conservation practicesSoil conservation measures are needed to mitigate the negativeeffects of soil degradation on ecosystems and the services theyprovide to society. The overall aim is to maintain a fertileseedbed and root zone, whilst retaining maximum resistanceto soil degradation processes. Healthy soils will enhance crop

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Soil degradation and its impacts on ecosystem security

Professor R Jane Rickson

Jane Rickson is Professor of Soil Erosion and Conservation in the Soil and AgriFood Institute, partof Cranfield University, UK. She trained as a physical geographer and applied geomorphologist, andwent on to specialise in land resource management. Her PhD was on the evaluation of soil erosioncontrol products. Jane has over 30 years of experience in soil and water engineering, in the UK andoverseas, specialising in land management and soil degradation processes (including soil erosion).Her clients include farmers, land owners, retailers and policy makers.

productivity (quantity, quality and reliability of marketableyield) by improving the uptake of water and nutrients by roots,as well as reducing soil-borne pests/diseases/weeds associatedwith poor yields. Soil conservation measures will also controlor even reverse soil degradation processes (Powlson et al,2011). By achieving both these aims simultaneously, healthysoils have an important role to play in progressing towards‘sustainable intensification’, where producing more(quantity/quality/reliability of marketable yield) will not be atthe cost of any associated environmental damage.

Examples of soil conservation include cultivation and tillagepractices that maintain soil structure, increase organic mattercontent and protect soil biology (Zhang et al, 2007). This canbe achieved by incorporating surface crop residues and/or farmyard manure (although the decline in mixed farming limits thelatter practice). Tillage can also remove local or general soilcompaction problems and promote drainage to avoid futuretrafficking problems (Batey, 2009; Hamza & Anderson, 2005).Conservation tillage practices that aim to disturb the soil aslittle as possible in creating a seed bed include reduced tillage,minimum till, strip tillage and zero till. These practices areeffective in conserving soil and water, because they retain aplant cover to minimise erosion, increase organic matter,maintain soil structure and once established create lesscompaction. Niziolomski (2014) reports on optimising soildisturbance and the use of mulches for erosion and runoffcontrol in asparagus fields in south-west England. Differenttillage implements (a winged tine, a narrow tine with twoshallow leading tines, and a modified para-plough) were usedto create shallow soil disturbance (175 mm) to improveinfiltration and control erosion. Some treatments included astraw mulch applied at 6 t/ha which was designed to protectthe loosened soil from raindrop impacts, so maintaining thesoil structure. The results showed that the modified para-plough with straw was most effective of all treatments inreducing runoff and soil loss.

In addition to these environmental benefits, many farmersfavour conservation tillage practices primarily because they

reduce labour, fuel and machinery costs (Holland, 2004).Further research is needed to address farmers concernsincluding residue management, slug populations (Kennedy etal, 2012), the need for specialist machinery and the costs ofweed control (economic and environmental).

The use of crop agronomy for better soil management isgaining increasing interest lately. This includes cover andcompanion cropping, including break crops and the use ofnutrient replenishing crops (eg N fixing legumes). Farmersare using the rooting properties of different crops to ‘engineer’better soil structure. For example, cereals have fibrous,vigorous deep roots that can improve soil cohesion andaggregation; root vegetables such as fodder radish and chicoryhave tap roots that can penetrate compacted layers; andgrasses have fibrous root systems that can add structure,organic matter and nutrients to surface soil layers. Recentchanges to the eligibility criteria for farm subsidies in Englandand Wales mean that cover cropping is now recognised asproviding ‘good agricultural and environmental conditions’(GAEC) and is covered by the new ‘greening rules’ relating to‘ecological focus areas’ (EFAs).

Another example of using vegetation to control soildegradation is the installation of grass waterways for soilerosion and runoff control. These swales are designed to deliverrunoff to the edge of field without erosion. Any sedimentcarried in the runoff is deposited within the swale. Althoughthese features do not control in-field soil erosion, they canreduce the amount of sediment getting into adjacentwaterbodies where it can reduce water quality and damageaquatic habitats.

Soil quality can be improved by soil amendments such ascomposts, mulches, animal manures, treated sewage sludgeand digestate from anaerobic digestion plants, which are usedto increase soil organic matter content and soil biota toimprove soil structure and resilience to degradation. Theeffects will be specific to the materials used, rate of applicationand local site conditions (eg weather, soil type).

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Table 1. The total costs of soil degradation in England and Wales (Graves et al, 2011)

Degradation Process

£ million per year (2010)

Total (central

estimate)

Ecosystem service

Provisioning Regulating

Agricultural production Flooding Water

quality

Green-house gas emissions

Other Cultural

Erosion 30 - 50 46 - 80 55 - 62 8 - 10 ? ? 165 13%

Compaction 180 - 220 120 - 200 60 - 80 30 - 40 ? ? 481 39%

Loss of organic matter

2 ? ? 360 - 700 ? ? 558 45%

Diffuse contamination

? ? ? ? 25* ? 25 2%

Loss of soil biota

? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Soil sealing ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

TOTAL 212 - 270 166 - 280 115 -142 398 - 750 25 ? 1,229

% 20% 19% 11% 49% 2% 100

* = Cost of regulation to protect soils from contamination; ? = Estimates not available at national scale

ConclusionsThere is a ‘perfect storm’ gathering caused by the increasingdemands on soils to produce food (as well as other goods andservices needed for economic and social well-being), on finiteland resources that are under threat from other land uses, andthe damaging effects of climate change and extreme weatherevents. Soil degradation can be controlled and even reversedto improve soil health. The costs and technical effectivenessof practices will be site specific, but must fit into currentfarming practices in terms of the socio-economic context,existing infrastructure/machinery and farmerpsychology/behaviours. The ultimate goal is to produce foodeconomically, whilst respecting social structures in agriculturalcommunities, and protecting the environmental resources onwhich the whole of society depends. The challenge for globalagriculture is to “grow more food, on not much more land,using less water, fertiliser and pesticides than we havehistorically done” (Foresight, 2011).

ReferencesBatey T, 2009. Soil compaction and soil management - a review. Soil Use andManagement 25, 335-345.

Beddington J, Asaduzzaman M, Clark M, Fernández A, Guillou M, Jahn M, etal, 2012. Achieving food security in the face of climate change.https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/35589/climate_food_commissionfin al-mar2012.pdf?sequence=1.

Daily GC, 1997. Nature’s services: societal dependence on natural ecosystems.Washington, USA: Island Press.

Doran JW, Parkin TB, 1994. Defining and assessing soil quality. In: Doran JW,Coleman DC, Bezdicek DF, Stewart BA, eds. Proceedings of a symposium ondefining soil quality for a sustainable environment, 1992. Wisconsin, SoilScience Society of America/American Society of Agronomy.

European Commission, 2006. Thematic strategy for the protection of soil.COM (2006) 231 final. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels.

FAOSTAT, 2011. http://faostat.fao.org/site/368/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=368 #ancor. Accessed 22/02/16.

Foresight, 2011. The Future of Food and Farming. Final Project Report. TheGovernment Office for Science, London.

Godfray HC, Beddington J, Crute, IR, Haddad L, Lawrence D, Muir JF, et al,2010. Food security: the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. Science 327,812-818.

Graves A, Morris J, Deeks LK, Rickson RJ, Kibblewhite MG, Harris JA, FarewellTS, 2011. The total costs of soils degradation in England and Wales. SP1606.Final Report to Defra, June 2011.

Hamza MA, Anderson WK, 2005. Soil compaction in cropping systems. Areview of the nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil and Tillage Research82, 121-145.

Holland JM, 2004. The environmental consequences of adopting conservationtillage in Europe: reviewing the evidence. Agriculture, Ecosystems andEnvironment 103 (1), 1–25.

Kennedy TF, Connery J, Fortune T, ForristaLD, Grant J, 2012. A comparisonof the effects of minimum-till and conventional-till methods, with and withoutstraw incorporation, on slugs, slug damage, earthworms and carabid beetlesin autumn-sown cereals. Journal of Agricultural Science 151 (05), 605–629.

Knight S, Knightley S, Bingham I, Hoad S, Lang B, Philpott H, et al, 2012.Desk study to evaluate contributory causes of the current ‘yield plateau’ inwheat and oilseed rape. Project Report No 502. Home Grown CerealsAuthority.

Niziolomski J, 2014. Optimising soil disturbance and mulch attenuation forerosion and runoff control in asparagus crops. Unpublished PhD Thesis,Cranfield University.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2011. Desertification:a visual synthesis. Bonn: UNCCD Secretariat. www.unccd.int/knowledge/docs/Desertification -EN.pdf

Zhang GS, Chan KY, Oates A, Heenan DP, Huang GB, 2007. Relationshipbetween soil structure and runoff/soil loss after 24 years of conservation tillage.Soil and Tillage Research 92 (1-2): 122-128.

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Travels with an auger: tropical soil diversity in practice

Alan Stapleton

Alan is a freelance soil scientist, based in Devon. Formerly Soil Surveyor with Hunting TechnicalServices, Teaching Associate at Silsoe College (now Cranfield University), Soil Physicist with theMinistry of Agriculture, Zambia, and Soil Fertility Adviser with the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute; also former Research Fellow at University of Exeter, and former Research Technologistwith Teagasc, Ireland. Alan has also been a short term Consultant with FAO, IFAD, Soil Survey ofPakistan and SRDI, Bangladesh (alanstapleton@btinternet.com).

BackgroundTropical soils support diverse ecosystems and providelivelihoods for millions of people living in a zone shownhighlighted in red in Figure 1. In the tropics where it is warmall year round, soil development has had the chance, wherepast or present moisture conditions have permitted, to formsoils that do not occur under less consistently warmconditions. The result is a diverse range of soils that providehighly contrasting conditions of soil health and fertility.

This paper is a summary of a presentation given to membersof the Tropical Agriculture Association to celebrate the diversityof tropical soils during 2015, declared by the UN as theInternational Year of Soils, to help promote an understandingof soils and the need to manage them appropriately. The

presentation was based on the author’s experience in Africaand Asia, though important areas of the tropics also occur inLatin America and the Caribbean and in Australia.

The World Reference Base (WRB) for Soil Classification (FAO,2014) was used in this paper, but reference was also made toOrders and Suborders of Soil Taxonomy, the USDA SoilClassification System (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), which alsoaims to classify the world’s soils.

Soil formation is affected by climate, geodiversity, topographyor age, and by biodiversity (including the activities of man),and it is the wide range in these factors that gives rise to thewide range of different soils occurring in the tropics. The aimwas to present an overview of this soil diversity as influencedby these soil forming factors and to indicate where in thetropics the different soils can be found, based in many cases

on experience of their use and management.

Several Soil Taxonomy Orders including Vertisols, Aridisols andOxisols, as well as less developed Inceptisols and Entisols, haveexisted since Precambrian times when only microbial lifeexisted on land. Histosols, Alfisols and Ultisols appeared bylate Devonian or Carboniferous times, when large plants andanimals were present. Mollisols did not appear until Tertiarytimes when grassland evolved in Africa and America, but arerare soils in the tropics today. Anthrosols would have appearedvery much later as early farming in Africa in the EthiopianHighlands only began around 5,000 BC.

Where to find soils of wet tropical climatesFerralsols (WRB) (Oxisols), soils dominated by kaolinite andhydrated iron and aluminium oxides, fix soil phosphorus andhave low nutrient holding capacity, on old landscapes in Brazil,SE Asia and Zambia (Figure 2).

Nitisols (WRB) (Oxisols), less weathered productive soils withwell-developed nut shaped structure, fix soil phosphorus, inhighland regions of Brazil, Kenya (Figure 3), Tanzania,Ethiopia, India, Indonesia.

Plinthosols (WRB) (Oxisols or Ultisols), soils in which iron hasbeen segregated, harden on drying, on old old landscapes inBrazil and Africa.

Alisols (WRB) (Ultisols) strongly acid, clay enriched subsoilswith high nutrient holding capacity, found on old landscapesin Indonesia, West Africa, and South America.

Acrisols (WRB) (Ultisols), strongly acid clay enriched subsoils,low nutrient holding capacity, in West and East Africa West andEast Africa, SE Asia, parts of Amazonia.

Lixisols (WRB) (Alfisols), slightly acid clay enriched subsoils,base enriched, but low nutrient holding capacity, in seasonallydry Eastern Brazil, India, West Africa.

Luvisols (WRB) (Alfisols), slightly acid, clay enriched subsoils ofhigh activity clay and high base status and nutrient holdingcapacity, on younger land surfaces, eg East and Southern Africa.

Where to find soils of dry regions inthe tropicsCalcisols (WRB) (Calcids), soils with accumulation of calciumcarbonate, found in Ethiopia, Yemen, Oman.

Gypsisols (WRB) (Gypsids), soils with accumulation ofgypsum, found in Tanzania and Ethiopia.

Solonchaks (WRB) (Salids), soils with salt accumulation,found in Senegal.

Solonetz, soils with clay accumulation, rich in sodium, andfound in Northern Kenya and Mozambique.

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Figure 1. Map showing countries falling within the Intertropical Zone (Wikipedia, 2016)

Figure 2. Ferralsols under shifting cultivation, Soil Productivity Research Programme, N Zambia, 1986

Figure 3. Soil scientists from National Agricultural Research Laboratories, Kenyagiving farmers advice on Nitisol management, 1999

Where to find soils reflecting topographyor age in the tropicsLeptosols (WRB) (Entisols), shallow soils over hard rock, foundin Ethiopia.

Fluvisols (WRB) (Fluvents), young soils in periodically floodedreas, found in the Zambezi floodplain.

Gleysols WRB) (Aquic suborders in Soil Taxonomy), soilsaffected by groundwater, found in Zambia.

Stagnosols (WRB) (Inceptisols), soils affected by perched watertables, found in Rwanda.

Cambisols (Inceptisols), soils with colour or structuraldevelopment, found in the Ethiopian Highlands.

Where to find soils reflecting geodiversityin the tropicsHistosols, soils with deep organic matter accumulation, foundin Gabon and Indonesia.

Andosols, soils developed in volcanic materials, found in theAfrican Rift Valley and Indonesia.

Vertisols, clay rich soils with deep cracks formed in base richmaterial, formed in alternating wet/dry climates, found inSenegal, Ethiopia, India and Australia.

Arenosol (WRB) (Psamments), sandy soils with low water andnutrient holding capacity, in Senegal, Zambia, Yemen (Figure4), and Oman.

Regosols (WRB) (Entisols), soils on unconsolidated materials,found in West Africa.

Where to find soils strongly influencedby human activity in the tropicsAnthrosols (WRB) (Anthrepts), soils formed or modified byhuman activity, for example paddy fields and extensivelymanured soils, found in India (Figure 5) and Indonesia.

Technosols (WRB), sealed soils, found in urban and industrialareas.

References

Soil Survey Staff, 1999. Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classificationfor making and interpreting soil surveys, 2nd edition. Natural ResourcesConservation Service, US Department of Agriculture Handbook 436.

Wikipedia, 2016. Tropics. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics#/media/File:World_map _indicating_tropics_and_subtropics.png. Accessed 28 February2016.

FAO, World reference base for soil resources, 2014 http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soil-classification/world-reference-base/en/ Accessed 28February 2016.

Figure 4. Soil Survey of Arenosols for Ma’rib Dam and Irrigation Project, Yemen1997

Figure 5. Soil and water management investigation in Deltaic Areas of Tamil Nadu,1984

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IntroductionForests cover a third of the world’s land surface and their efficient management is vital. Areas of drifting sands and non-forested wilderness are also often the responsibility of government forestry departments.

The global consumption of both fuelwood and industrialroundwood is still increasing, which is remarkable consideringthat wood was already a very important raw material in theStone Age. Our use of many materials has come, peaked andgone, but wood is still with us and its use continues toincrease.

Forests are multiple-use resources, so to manage public forests- and most forests in the world are publicly owned - requires agood diplomat, because stakeholders will hold differentproduction objectives for the forest. Some will focus ontimber, but others on outdoor recreation or natureconservation. TAA is mainly concerned with agriculture andanimal husbandry, so this presentation will focus on theinterface between these disciplines and forestry.

Forestry, agriculture and animal husbandry - protection of forests byimproving surrounding agricultureSmall farmer communities in search of land for survival veryoften carry out deforestation in Africa. In such cases it is notenough to increase forest guards and equipment. Theagriculture in the area around the forest must also be improvedto secure livelihoods. During my time at the World Bank, from1981 to 1994, free-standing forest protection projects werereplaced by projects which included an agriculturalcomponent.

Contrary to current public perception, there is nothinginherently wrong with deforestation. Some of the mostproductive agricultural soils in the world were formerly coveredby forests. Land use should surely aim to provide maximumhuman welfare. However, many forest areas that areunsuitable for agriculture or grazing should be protected.Forests are important to maintain biodiversity, for theregulation of stream flow, and for other ecological purposes.In Africa, such forests were protected by legislation as long ago

as the beginning of the 20th century as demarcated ‘ForestReserves (Forêts Classées)’, and it is essential that these shouldbe preserved.

Forests contain huge amounts of carbon, and when they aredestroyed this carbon is returned to the atmosphere. Becauseof the current concern about carbon dioxide emissions, thefinal deal at the recent climate summit in Paris contained aclause on forest conservation, or in today’s climate jargon‘Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)’.Britain, Norway and Germany undertook to make one billionUS dollars a year available for forest conservation in the tropicsuntil 2020. America, France and Japan considered that theircontributions could be more effectively spent on othermeasures, because it is very difficult to stop deforestationwhere people search for land for survival, and forestdegradation is difficult to determine. Also, forest owners aresometimes paid incentives for not deforesting, when they hadno intention of doing it anyway.

Community, social or participatoryforestryIn this type of forestry system, farmers themselves areencouraged to plant trees around their houses and fields, eitheras woodlots or as single trees, working either as families or asvillage communities. Family forestry often works better thancommunity forestry, because in general people prefer to workfor themselves rather than for the community. The mainproduct of farm forestry is fuelwood, which in African villagesis collected by women and children, whereas it is men whomake the village level decisions and they therefore tend tounderestimate the importance of fuelwood projects. It helpsif village elders are reminded that tree planting also yields polesfor their traditional constructions, because their collection isthe task of the men.

The World Bank farm forestry programmes of the 1980s and90s usually had only two components: tree nurseries andextension. Seedlings were always sold at a heavily subsidisedprice, but never given away free, because it was our belief thatpeople tend not to look after what they get for nothing.Similarly, grant recipients often are not aware of costimplications and ask for projects that are only of marginalinterest to them. Loans, on the other hand, which have to be

London/SE Branch, Curry Club talk, 10 December 2015Not Just Wood: reflections on the diversity and importance of forests, trees andtheir management in developing countries

Mikael Grut

Mikael Grut holds a BSc in Forestry from the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa, and an MScand a DSc in forest economics from the Royal Swedish School of Forestry. He started his careerwith a Swedish forestry firm and then moved to the forestry faculty at the University of Stellenbosch,FAO in Rome, and the World Bank in Washington, where he was Senior Forestry Specialist. Mikaelhas led and participated in many international forest development programmes, principally in Africa,but also in Asia and Latin America.

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repaid, may improve the commitment of communities andcountries to the project, especially if the recipient governmentalso has to pay part of the project cost.

A wonderfully drought-hardy tree for arid areas in the tropicsis Neem (Azadirachta indica), which is very popular in theSahel. It is an excellent fuelwood and also yields poles. It iseven attractive to look at with its light feathery leaves, andwhenever one sees television pictures from the Sahel, there aresome neem trees. As its Latin name indicates, it is of Indianorigin. In India and other south Asian countries oil is extractedfrom the seeds, and the remaining neem cake is an excellentsoil fertiliser. The bark contains 12-14 percent tannin; theneem oil is used in soap, disinfectants and other products; andthe seeds and leaves contain azadirachtin, an insect repellent.I did not come across these non-wood neem products beingutilised in Africa, and I do believe that this represents abusiness opportunity for DFID, an NGO or the private sector.

AgroforestryAgroforestry can be defined as a production system whereagriculture (or animal husbandry) and forestry are carried outin association on the same land. Where the combinationsinclude forestry (or the use of individual trees or even shrubs)and animal husbandry, the term ‘silvo-pastoralism’ is used.Agroforestry is as old as agriculture itself because agriculturebegan as shifting cultivation, which is serial agroforestry.Many crop/tree associations are used in developing countries.

Alley-cropping consists of rows of trees with agricultural cropsgrown between them. The crops provide quick revenue -small-farmers cannot afford to wait - and the trees act asshelterbelts, nutrient pumps, provide leaf mulch and, in thelonger term, generate revenue from the sale of the wood. Andyet, alley cropping has not been widely taken up by Africanfarmers, because it is rather complicated and the upfront costsare relatively high. However, it is experiencing a revival, eg inthe form of ‘Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)’ or climate-resilient cropping.

Shifting cultivation, slash-and-burn, bush fallow orswiddening was practised in Sweden and Finland until about100 years ago, and is still practised over large areas of thedeveloping world. Forests are felled, the residue burnt, andseed planted in the ash, which is a mineral fertiliser. Then,after a few years the fertility of the soil declines and the weedgrowth increases, the land is abandoned and the farmer moveson. It is a viable system only where land is very plentiful.Usually the farmers wait for the surrounding forest torecolonise the abandoned land, but sometimes they sow soil-improving, nitrogen-fixing leguminous plants when they leave.

Grazing or cropping under savanna or forest trees. The areaof savanna in Africa is about six times that of closed forest. Inthe drier areas, cattle often graze under the trees of the opensavannah and where the rainfall is higher, crops are grown.Some savanna trees are particularly valued by farmers, and inWest Africa these are called ‘economic trees’, eg:

• The Shea Butter tree produces ‘butter’ for use in the local cuisine and also for export.

• Gao (Faidherbia albida, syn Acacia albida) is a nitrogen-fixing tree, which comes into leaf during the dry season,

providing shade for the cattle. During the rainy season it loses its leaves, allowing light to penetrate to crops planted under the canopy. This is the reverse of other savanna trees that lose their leaves in the dry season.

• The Gum Arabic tree (Acacia senegal) produces gum for export and good quality hard wood, while leaves and pods provide nutritious fodder. This species and Faidherbia albida are nitrogen-fixing, but some varieties are more efficient in that respect than others, and perhaps merit more research.

• Frankincense and myrrh, mentioned in the Bible and still in use internationally, are produced from the resin of trees in north-east Africa and Arabia.

There is a danger that these traditional agroforestry systems -which are hardly even thought of as agroforestry - areneglected by research. Tree-breeding, for example, could yieldimportant results.

Agriculture is practised not only under the savanna trees, butalso in the rainforest. If the latter is felled, it is generally betterfrom an ecological point of view if it is replaced either by a treecrop like rubber or oil palm, or by an open forest with croppingunder the trees. Care has to be exercised if completedeforestation is not acceptable, because agroforestry in thenatural high forest can become a subterfuge for deforestation,with only a symbolic tree left here and there.

Shade trees. Some crops such as coffee, tea, bananas, cacaoand kola, grown in the open sun, can get too much insolationand can benefit from shade trees. Since the mid-1970s, sun-tolerant coffee shrubs have been developed, and there was atrend away from shade trees in the coffee plantations, but todaythis is considered unsustainable and unsuitable for theenvironment, so there is now a trend back to shade trees. Thecoffee shrub was originally a plant of the undergrowth,accustomed to shade.

The Taungya system. Taungya is a Burmese word for a widelypractised system of afforestation. Forestry departments uselocal farmers to plant the trees, between which, ascompensation, they are allowed to grow their crops for up tothree years, by which time the crops are shaded out. Theforestry department gets its trees planted for nothing and doesnot have to weed the plantation for the first three years, andthe farmers get access to the land. However, they do have topay a fine for every damaged tree.

Fodder trees. Some ‘economic’ savanna trees provide goodfodder from the leaves and the pods, but fodder trees can alsobe planted. At the end of the dry season they are sometimesthe only fodder still available for the animals. Some foddertrees of non-African origin, but useful in Africa, are:

• Prosopis juliflora: For arid areas, thorny, excellent fuel. Invasive where not checked by strong fuelwood demand.

• Albizia lebbek: For semi-arid areas.• Sesbania grandiflora: For humid tropics. Leaves and pods also used as human food.

Other non-wood benefits from forestsMedicine. In Africa, the vast majority of people still consultthe traditional healers who obtain many of their medicines

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from trees. Some Western medicines were first derived fromtrees, for example the salicylic acid in aspirin from willows(Salix spp).

Honey and beeswax. The name of the forest department inTanzania was until 2010 ‘The Forestry and BeekeepingDivision’; and even now in the savanna, the value of the annualproduction of honey and beeswax often exceeds the value ofwood production.

Bush meat. Bush meat from forests, including worms andinsects, is a hugely important source of protein in manydeveloping countries.

Stream flow regulation. Reduced vegetation in catchmentareas can increase stream flow but can also increase soilerosion, silting-up and flooding. Forests act as sponges,intercepting precipitation with their foliage and allowing morewater to penetrate into the soil. That is why the French calltheir forest service Le Service des Eaux et Forêts (‘The Waterand Forest Service’), and why the Chinese, Thais and othersbanned clearfelling of their forests after disastrous floods. Ifmarginal and loss-making hill farms in Britain were afforestedon a large scale, there would perhaps be less flooding. The UK

Environment Secretary announced in December 2015, in thewake of the devastating floods in Cumbria, that more needs tobe done to ‘rewild’ the uplands, including planting trees to holdwater on higher grounds.

Reduction of carbon dioxide emission. This is a hugeopportunity for developing countries. Forest conservation hasalready been mentioned. Many development agencies andeven individuals also plant trees to absorb (‘sequester’) CO2,and it is much more cost-effective to do so in the developingcountries where wages are lower and growth often better.Finally, because wood is a renewable energy source, its use forelectricity generation is subsidised, and in 2014 the UKimported seven million tons of fuel in the form of wood pellets,more than the total volume of sawnwood. Most of these woodpellets were imported from developed countries, but it is apotentially enormous market for the developing countries.

Further reading:

Cook CC, Grut M, 1989. Agroforestry in sub-Saharan Africa: A farmer’sperspective.World Bank Technical Paper Number 112.

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Artemisia annua (Qinghao): a smallholder grown antimalarial treatment

Antony Ellman

Antony Ellman is an agronomist and socio-economist. He has worked for over 40 yearson smallholder farming systems and links to markets. For the last 20 years he has focused particularly on the cultivation and use of Artemisia annua in East Africa, Madagascar, India, Vietnam and China. Antony is a Professional Associate of the Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich. He is also the Chairman of theTAA Award Fund.

This is a brief summary of the talk given on 29 October 2015.It updates the article on the same subject published inAg4Dev19 (Summer 2013), to which reference should be madefor further details.

The talk traced the history of the use of Artemisia annua(Qinghao in Mandarin) for treating malaria and other diseases,and highlighted the constraints facing its continued use. The‘Qinghao Journey’ starts from a recipe for an infusion of Qinghaoleaves, found in a Han Dynasty tomb in China dated to 168 BC.It culminates in the widespread cultivation of Artemisia annuain Africa and Asia, extraction of the active ingredient(artemisinin), and manufacture of Artemisinin CombinationTherapies (ACTs). These now constitute the frontline drug fortreating severe and uncomplicated malaria in most malaria-endemic countries of Africa and South-East Asia.

Cultivation of Artemisia annua spread from China (where theplant originates) to Vietnam in the 1970s, and to East Africaand Madagascar in the 1990s. Some 100,000 small farmers inthese countries now cultivate a total area of 20-30,000 ha ofArtemisia annua each year. Most of the crop is grown oncontract to processing companies which supply farmers withseed and technical advice, purchase their harvest at an agreedprice, and extract the artemisinin using a solvent extractionprocess. The pure artemisinin is then sold to pharmaceuticalcorporations which manufacture and distribute the ACTs.

Some Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) promote the useof Artemisia leaves as an aqueous infusion for treating malaria,though artemisinin is poorly soluble in water and there is noscientific evidence to justify this approach. It would be a cheapoption if it worked, but unfortunately it does not: its promotionappears to be based more on wishful thinking than on hard fact.

The cost of ACTs has fallen dramatically as experience and scaleof production have increased: in 2015 over 400 million ACT

Figure 1. Artemisia at 1 month and 6 months after planting, Antsirabe, Madagascar(Photo: Antony Ellman)

treatments were administered at an average price of US$1.50per treatment. But even at this price ACTs are unaffordable tomost users and African Governments. The bulk of ACTpurchases are funded by donors including Bill and MelindaGates Foundation, the President’s Malaria Initiative, DFID, EUand others, channelled through the WHO Global Fund forAIDS, TB and Malaria.

Imperfections in the market have led to a boom and bustsituation, with cyclical surpluses and shortages of Artemisia leaf,extracted artemisinin and ACTs. Several measures have beenadopted in an attempt to stabilise the supply of ACTs and to alignit more closely to demand: establishment of an artemisinin bankfrom which stocks can be released when needed, development ofa semi-synthetic artemisinin to supplement the plant-basedproduct, and a series of annual conferences organised by WHOand UNITAID, which bring together actors involved at all stagesin the supply chain, in an attempt to improve communicationand co-ordination between them.

These measures have been partially effective. However, the biggerlong-term threat to the use of ACTs stems from the appearanceof resistant strains of the malaria parasite, already found on theThai/Cambodia and Thai/Myanmar borders. WHO’s ResistanceContainment Strategy is delaying, but not halting, this spread.

ACTs have saved many thousands of lives and their productionhas given improved incomes to many thousands of smallfarmers. Best estimates are that artemisinin-based ACTs still haveanother 5-10 years of useful life, during which it is hoped thatnew antimalarial drugs and approaches will be developed, andthe scourge of the disease will be greatly reduced or eveneliminated.

JBD (Brian) Robinson,1927-2015

Brian Robinson passed away after a shortillness on 6 August 2015. Brian’s careerspanned 50 years. He graduated fromReading University with a ‘first’ inagricultural chemistry. His first postingwas as the agricultural chemist in Barbadosand then as Acting Government Analyst.After four years he was posted to Kenya, aschemist at the Coffee Research Station,Ruiru. In 1960, he was appointed asDirector of Coffee Research in Tanzania,

returning to Kenya as Assistant, and thenActing Director of Research. He returned tothe UK as Research Fellow at Long AshtonResearch Station in 1969, from where heundertook many long (Fiji and Tonga) andshort-term overseas assignments until hisfinal retirement in 1998.

TAA members will be able to read Brian’sown summary of his career andexperiences in the Spring 2014 issue ofour journal Agriculture forDevelopment (Ag4Dev21).

Brian was a consummate professionaland world authority on coffeeproduction. Many TAA members willremember with appreciation his soundand practical advice, and at times firmguidance. For me (AB) it was in 1978,when he arrived in Juba to advise on therehabilitation of coffee estates that hadgrown into trees during the first civilwar, and on the development of asmallholder coffee programme.Undaunted by the absence of eggs for anomelette or of a decent cup of coffee, heset off on a gruelling seven day journeyvisiting coffee forests across southernSudan. He would, perhaps, be gratified

to know that despite the second civilwar, Nespresso have decided to marketa unique robusta coffee, Suluja, withthe help of George Clooney.

Brian displayed a very quiet generosity:it was impossible to pay your way withhim, and this extended to supportingpeople in financial trouble, keepingmost of the village supplied with greensand fish, visiting the sick, andcontributing to parish council andschool governors.

He had a love of nature: an immaculate(and very productive) garden; hisknowledge of birds and their habits, aswell as of local plants and animals, albeitwith a particular hatred for strawberry-eating badgers and lawn-digging moles,was wide. He also loved fishing: fromthe mountain rivers of Kenya via NewZealand and Iceland to the shores ofBlagdon Lake in North Somerset, hefished them all.

Food and drink were important in hislife: from the pleas of the station officialto remove the over-ripe, well-travelledstilton from the station in East Africa, to

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Figure 2. Harvested Artemisia plants, Thika, Kenya

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his commentaries on coffees fromaround the world.

Brian’s family was important to him.Sadly his wife Daphne predeceased him,but his daughters Karen and Gillianwere a great joy, as were his grand-children and great grandchildren, towhom we extend our deepest sympathy.

Andrew Bennett and Ian Steed

James ‘Benny’ Warren,1932-2015

Many of us will remember both Bennyand his wife Dot as good friends, and fortheir kindness and hospitality overmany years and in different parts of theworld. He was a broad-basedagriculturalist with a strongcommitment to, and understanding of,smallholder farming. He wasappreciated by his colleagues for hispractical advice, breadth and depth ofhis knowledge of agriculture and theenvironment, and his professionalism.

James was christened James BoswellWarren and his father always called himJB. From the earliest times in thescouts, his friends first thought that thisstood for Benjamin and so shortened itto Benny. This then stuck as anickname and remained the favouredcalling by most friends and colleaguesthroughout his life.

Benny Warren was born on 16 August1932 and grew up with his youngersister in Teddington, Middlesex. Thefamily were on holiday in Wells at theoutbreak of the Second World Warwhere they remained for a while beforereturning to London; however followinga near miss he was evacuated to acousin’s farm in Pembrokeshire, wherehis interests in outdoor life andagriculture were ignited.

He went on to study agriculture at theUniversity of Reading, where he metDot. They were married before leavingfor Trinidad in 1955 to study tropicalagriculture.

He was posted to Uganda in 1956, wherehe served until 1972. While based atKawanda and Namulonge Stations heserved in many roles (Figure 1), from farmextension work in the remoter parts ofUganda in the early days; through oxhusbandry, farm mechanisation, landplanning and finally seed multiplication.These varied experiences gave him abreadth of knowledge in agriculture,natural resources, the environment andsustainable development as a whole. Healso experienced the winds of change asthe Obote government was toppled by IdiAmin, and he was finally asked to leavesoon after the Asian community leftUganda. In 1973, he joined the OverseasDevelopment Ministry (ODM) Corps ofSpecialists and was posted to Ethiopiawhere he was fortunately in time to helpguide the famine relief programme there.

He went on to serve with distinction asa senior Natural Resources Adviser inOverseas Development Administration(ODA) / Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID)'s DevelopmentDivisions in Nairobi, Fiji and Barbados.

After his retirement from ODA/DFID in1992, Benny advised several charitiesworking in smallholder agriculture. Hewas tempted by a former colleague to carryout the first feasibility study of the possibleresettlement of the Chagos islands. WhenDot fell ill, he readily took on the role offulltime carer for more than a decade, andhe devoted free time to his passions, thelocal Scouts, walking, gardening and hislocal church.

Keeping up with the overseas exploits ofhis son, who still works in developmentaround the world, kept Benny linkedwith ground-floor development andchanges in the many countries in which

he served. He shall be sadly missed byall who met and worked with him,including national counterparts and themany for whom he acted as a mentorand sounding board.

Andrew Bennett

David Friend MBE,1940-2015

David Friend was born in Hampshire in1940. He obtained a BSc (Agric) fromReading University and a DTA from theUniversity of the West Indies. He wasappointed as tree crops agronomist tothe British Solomon Island Protectorateduring 1964 and was posted to DalaResearch Station on Malaita. At Dala heundertook basic agronomic researchinto the cocoa crop which included studiesinto spacing, fertiliser application, shadeand most importantly selection ofcultivars best suited for SolomonIslands conditions. He also worked onprocessing technology and, with theplant pathologist and entomologist, ondiseases and pests of the crop. During1972 he was transferred to Ndodo CreekResearch Station on Guadalcanal, where heworked on cocoa, coconuts and oil palm(in collaboration with the CommonwealthDevelopment Corporation (CDC).During this time he assisted with thejoint coconut research work at Yandina(Russell Islands) in collaboration withLevers Plantations Ltd. His workincluded the intercropping of cocoa andcoconuts on the Guadalcanal Plains andat Yandina. He was appointed as ChiefResearch Officer during the late 1970s.

On leaving Government service he wasappointed as Research Officer for LeversSolomons Ltd (LSL) coconut plantationwhen Levers Pacific Plantations Ltdbecame a joint venture with the

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Figure 1. Benny in the early Uganda years in landplanning (when windy shorts were in vogue)

Solomon Islands Government. During1983 he was posted to East Malaysia asGeneral Manager of Pamol Sabah (oilpalm). He took up the position ofManaging Director of LSL at Yandina,Solomon Islands during 1986, and heldthis position until 1995. He retired toBundaberg, Australia after theCommodities Export Marketing Authority(CEMA) took over LSL and created asubsidiary company called Russell IslandsPlantations Estates Ltd (RIPEL). He wasa Board member of CEMA and provided acollaborative link between the industryand CEMA. He was also instrumental inharmonising the smooth take-over of LSLby CEMA during 1995/96.

David was one of the hard working youngagricultural scientists that were fortunateto be posted to the Solomon Islands duringthe 1960/70s where little, if any,agricultural research work had been donepreviously, and where importantly therewas little active local political pressure forindependence. He, like his peers in varieddisciplines, was able to make a substantialcontribution to agricultural developmentin the Solomons through acquisition ofknowledge. For instance, the annualproduction of cocoa now stands at about5,000 tons, which is a substantial increasefrom the less than 100 tons per annum ofthe 1960s. David was awarded an MBE forservices to agricultural development in theSolomon Islands.

David had a good sense of humour, wasexcellent company and wasaffectionately known as ‘the Major’ dueto his jocular claim of having served inthe ‘Hampshire Mudguards’. I haveinserted below a statement from one ofhis colleagues, Moses Pelomo, whostarted his career at Dala ResearchStation and also worked at CEMA. Itsuccinctly summarises David’scontribution to the Solomon Islands.

“I can confidently say that David andCarol remain true friends of theSolomon Islands and SolomonIslanders for their importantcontribution to the economicdevelopment of the nation, as well asfriends indeed to their workers, work-mates and the public in general. Davidwill be always remembered not only forhis dedication of work but also for hisfriendship to the rural people. Thelegacy of his work still supportsSolomon Islands by enabling over

70,000 rural households, representing420,000 people (76 percent of totalpopulation) to make a reliable living infarming coconut and cocoa andbringing in over SBD200-300 million inforeign receipts to the Solomon Islands.May his soul rest in peace. Ourcondolences to Carol, family andfriends.” Moses Pelomo.

David Gollifer (with help fromCarol Friend, Moses Pelomo andGrahame Jackson)

Richard (Dick) NormanJenkin, 1935-2015

Dick was born in Manchester, but thefamily soon moved to Southport where hegrew up. He attended King George VSchool in Southport and according to hisfinal school report he “had an excellentschool career and was a loyal andsuccessful school prefect”. In 1954, heattained a scholarship to EdinburghUniversity to study forestry and, whilethere, won a number of University medalsincluding the prestigious StebbingSilviculture medal. He took an honoursforestry degree at Edinburgh in 1958 andhis first overseas post was as ResearchOfficer, on contract to the Federal Serviceof Nigeria based at Ibadan, specialising inforest soils. Some of his work was at theOlokemeji Forest Reserve. Here he built afoot-bridge to enable him to cross a smallriver and established his philosophy that“if you can’t get there in carpet slippersthen the area isn’t worth developing”. Hiswork in Nigeria left a legacy of a new andfully-equipped Forest Soils ResearchLaboratory.

On leaving Nigeria, Dick joined the LandResources Division (LRD) in the UK wherehe worked on a wide variety of projects in

a number of countries. These included:surveys of the Lower Mgeta River area inTanzania, the coconut growing potentialof Christmas Island in the Pacific (the siteof the early UK atom bomb tests), theagricultural potential of the Belize Valley,and forest development of the ImatongMountains in Southern Sudan. In Fiji,Dick was project manager, with theagricultural part of the project lasting forabout two years while the forest inventory,where Dick played a major role getting theinventory data digitised, continued forthree years. When back in the UK, Dickhad a great interest in the Institute ofProfessional Civil Servants (thegovernment scientists’ trade union) wherehe was the local representative pushing forbetter recognition, terms and conditionsfor those working overseas.

In 1976, Dick participated in theOverseas Development Ministry (ODM)reconnaissance of the Khosi Hills areain eastern Nepal. This led to his passionfor the area and its people. He wasinvolved in the development of thePhase II plan for the area and from1979-82 was Senior Technical Adviser ofthe Khosi Hills Area Rural DevelopmentProgramme (KHARDEP). At that timethere was no vehicle access into theKhosi Hills so Dick and his team wouldfly in from Kathmandu, overnight at theGurkha camp in Dharan before walking3,000 feet uphill to the projectheadquarters in Dhankuta. The projectarea covered over 6,000 km2 and alltravel was by foot. There was notelephone so Dick established radios ateach district centre manned by ex-Ghurkha radio operators with poorEnglish skills, from where Dick andteam would send cryptic messages inMorse Code to the outside world withsome hilarious results. It was clear toall the team, that ‘Jenkin sahib’, with hisgentle approach to his staff, wasappreciated and he was much missedfollowing his departure from the hills.

After LRD, Dick joined ODA as a forestryadviser and was posted to the South-EastAsia Development Division in (SEADD) inBangkok, where he continued to supportpeople and projects in Sri Lanka, Indonesiaand Nepal. Dick finished his posting withSEADD in February 1995 then, afterworking at HQ in London for a few months,he retired in October the same year.

Dick continued to support projects and

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people well after retirement including theexceptionally talented craftspeople fromthe hills of Nepal. He guided andpromoted several initiatives includingweaving, basket work and embroidery thatwere promoted and sold at severalexclusive central London outlets. Dickenjoyed seeing and catching up with oldfriends and colleagues. He maintainedregular contact with many of the staff fromBangkok, often meeting them on arrival atthe airport, shepherding them safely totheir hotel and acting as a guide tosupermarkets and directions to DFID inVictoria Street. On many occasions Dickwould act as driver and tour guide takingex-colleagues to sites as far as York, as wellas assisting entrance to the Houses ofParliament and to various gardens andhistorical sites.

His favourite countries were Nigeria andNepal. After retirement he workedvoluntarily for the Britain-Nigeria andBritain-Nepal Associations, and was amember of the Nigerian Field Society. Forsome years, he was the regional convenorof the London and South East branch ofthe Tropical Agricultural Association. Dickmanaged to visit both Nepal and Thailandafter his retirement. Contacts through aformer colleague resulted in Dick makingan annual visit to the HexingtonAgricultural show in Lincolnshire, doingwhatever he could to assist. His name isremembered through the ‘Jenkin Cup’ thathe donated and which is awarded to theprize donkey exhibited at the show. Dickloved cooking and was a very good cook.He was also a keen classical music lover.Back in the UK he was able to increase theamount of time he spent attendingconcerts, becoming a friend of both theLondon Symphony Orchestra and theLondon Philharmonic Orchestra.

Dick had a genuine interest in people andthe countries where he worked, and adesire to make a difference to their lives.All who knew Dick were struck by hiskindness and consideration for others.Dick was generous and helpful whereverhe was posted. He always had a good wordto say about others and never appearedupset. Although a lifelong bachelor, he wasa very sociable person who enjoyedcompany and maintained a wide circle offriends and colleagues. Dick wasparticularly protective and supportive ofstaff with whom he worked andsupervised. Rarely, if ever, did Dick makea critical comment. He spent much of his

time mentoring and encouraging youngforesters to assist and develop their careers.

All who knew Dick have many fondmemories of him and his belief that nodistance was too far to go in search of agood pub and of his enjoyment of a glassof English bitter. In the Sudan, while Dickwas setting up the Imatong project,supplies of food and beer were in shortsupply. However, Dick solved this bybrewing his own beer but when he left hedonated his brewing kits to newcomers - acharacteristically generous and muchappreciated gesture. In Nepal, the HQ andguest house in Dhankuta, started by Dick,became a haven and social centre for thoseworking in the harsh conditions of theeastern hills. Almost every developmentworker who has passed through that partof the world will remember with gratitudethis miraculous guest house: hot water,ironed sheets and excellent food. Peaceand comfort away from the fleas andmosquitos. Here at the guest house, Dickensured there was cricket on the radio,bed-tea served each morning, egg andbacon for breakfast and roast dinners,served with Dick at the head of the table.He was never happier than when all theteam was gathered and he would keep allentertained with anecdotes and stories.Any passing visitors were welcomed byDick who ensured that sufficient beer wasin stock even though every bottle had tobe transported to Dhankuta in baskets byporters. Dick often told a story abouthimself: while in Nepal, his project vehiclein Kathmandu at the time was an ancientred Ford Cortina no longer “suitable forembassy use”. Driving home one nightafter a particularly heavy session he took awrong turning and finding the car sluggishdecided to rest until daylight. When heawoke he was surrounded by water andthought he was at sea until he realised thathe was parked in a rice paddy!

Dick never married, but on his departurefrom Nepal he was so bedecked inmarigold garlands that he could hardly seeor be seen. It was suggested that perhaps,not understanding the customs of thearea, he had inadvertently married one ofthe girls. His reply as always was “that’sright, that’s right”. Dick will be greatlymissed.

John Hansell (with contributionsfrom Dick’s friends and colleagues)

Patrick Haynes, 1931-2015

Patrick Haynes was an agronomist whodevoted most of his career to tropicalroot crops. He died aged 84 of advancedheart disease, a condition that he hadlived with and managed since his 60s.

He was born in Barbados to a governmentofficial and an elementary school teacher.Education was the top priority in hisfamily with a well-read father and verydetermined mother, so he attendedHarrison College, the leading grammarschool in Barbados. In 1950, he went toTrinidad to attend ICTA (the ImperialCollege of Tropical Agriculture), where hecompleted a Diploma in TropicalAgriculture. This was a qualificationdesigned as a post-graduate course forBritish graduates going to the tropics tomanage plantations and commercialcrops and as an under-graduate course totrain West Indians for supportingtechnical roles. After completing hisstudies he was awarded a CommonwealthDevelopment and Welfare (CDW)scholarship to study for a degree inAgriculture at Queen’s University Belfast.This opened many doors for him and puthim on a professional footing.

During his studies at Queens, he tookthe opportunity to travel around Britainand Europe, and in his positive, openmanner made many friends along theway. Coming from a small island, he feltthe need to broaden his horizons bytravelling throughout Europe. Thismay have been the start of hisinternational perspective on economicand social development. He subscribedto the view that you could not separateagricultural development from socialand economic factors, which in turn areinfluenced by international relations.

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When he had completed his studies, hereturned to Barbados as AssistantGovernment Chemist since this was acondition of his CDW scholarship. He wasfortunate in returning to the Caribbean, justas former colonies were beginning to gainindependence and as the University of theWest Indies was being set up in Trinidad andJamaica. After four years in Barbados hetook up a lectureship at the Trinidadcampus of the newly-formed University ofthe West Indies, working at the Faculty ofAgriculture (and teaching many subsequentmembers of the TAA). On one of hissabbatical trips he returned to Queen’sUniversity to do a Masters degree.

It was during his time in Trinidad as alecturer in agriculture that he developeda particular interest in subsistencecrops. Having witnessed the effects ofmalnourishment around him during hischildhood in Barbados, he wasconcerned that the effort that was beingdevoted to cash crops at the expense ofsubsistence crops was a directcontributor to poverty. He was one ofthe organisers of the first internationalRoot Crop Symposium and was veryproud of his on-going association withthe organising group. He was able tocontribute to the organisation ofsubsequent symposia and formed manyenduring friendships and collaborationsas a result.

The widespread recognition of theimportance of subsistence crops, suchas root crops, is a legacy of the work thatwent into the symposia and one hopesthat it has changed the fundingpriorities of the internationaldevelopment agencies.

Patrick left Trinidad in 1972 to take up apost as Director of a research station atKoronivia, near Suva in Fiji. He worked ondalo, or taro, a staple food in the SouthPacific, with a huge diversity of varieties,suggesting genetic origin in the region.He recognised that the knowledge of thesevarieties had been put to good use inexploiting a range of different growingconditions and circumstances.

He spent two years working in theCongo (then known as Zaire) as directorof a research station and working oncassava, used both for its roots and itsleaves. He learned French in order to beable to communicate with his staff andwith government officials in Kinshasa.He subsequently worked as an

independent agronomist with the Foodand Agriculture Organisation (FAO),United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) and theInternational Institute of TropicalAgriculture (IITA) in countries in Southand Central America, the South Pacificand West Africa.

In 1980, he joined the agricultureconsultancy arm of WS Atkins inCambridge, where he worked for the last10 years of his career. His work there tookhim around the world, notably to IrianJaya, Papua New Guinea and back to theSouth Pacific. He was fascinated by theagricultural systems of the indigenousDani people of Irian Jaya, and in his reportto the Indonesian Government pointedout that the agricultural methods the Danideployed for sweet potatoes and taro wereparticularly well-suited to the localconditions. It is now thought thatagriculture originated in that regionseveral thousand years ago, perhaps aslong ago as in the Fertile Crescent. Forhim, this was one of the most interestingassignments that he undertook, not onlybecause of the scientific interest, but alsothe development issues and the beautyand diversity of life in the region. Formuch of his professional life, Patrick wasa member of the TAA.

He enjoyed his retirement in Cambridgeand continued his interests in botanyand agriculture. He acted as a guide atthe Cambridge University BotanicalGardens and grew fruit and vegetablesuntil his last weeks of illness preventedhim from going to the allotments downthe road. He read widely about thelatest trends in economic development;as well as the fascinating insights intoquantum biology and the origins of lifeon earth. He was a religious man andhis Christian faith sat comfortably withhis scientific training and his evidence-based approach to the natural world.

He leaves behind his wife, Ruth, andtheir two sons, David and Andrew.

David Haynes

George Taylor-Hunt,1933-2016

Born in 1933 in Sussex, George was oldenough to sample a boy’s appreciationof the excitements during the Second WorldWar without, perhaps, understandingthe enormity of the issues involved.Whatever influences those early yearshad, George decided to study AgriculturalEngineering and this he did on one ofthe most practically-respected coursesavailable at the time, at Writtle Collegenear Chelmsford in Essex from 1955-57.

After three years in Africa, George joinedthe Ministry of Agriculture, Farming andFood (MAFF) as a Drainage and WaterSupply Officer. In 1968, he took up a postin the Advisory Service (Mechanisation) inNorfolk. Promotion followed, and in 1976he moved to Northallerton, withresponsibility for Mechanisation advice tofarmers in North Yorkshire. Eventually, thecall of Africa became irresistible, and heand Margaret moved to Nairobi whereGeorge took up a post with theGovernment of Kenya. After three years,he joined the International Potato Centre(CIP). Thereafter, he spanned the linkbetween agriculture and engineeringthroughout his career overseas. Hecompleted his MPhil at CranfieldUniversity, was an Incorporated Engineerand became a Post-Harvest specialist.After farmers had toiled to produce, hedeplored the high percentage ofsubsequent losses in store - commonly upto 50 percent and more. His mission wasto improve on this situation, and he did,with potatoes and other crops. Much ofhis work was carried out in Kenya andTanzania. After 13 years in Kenya, hemoved to Bangladesh for 5 years workingon a food programme for the Canadian

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government (CDP). Only a few years agohe undertook an assignment throughBESO in Uganda.

George was a stalwart, diligent andgood-humoured Chairman of the TAAin the south-west for a decade, sharingthe task with the late Bill Reed asCoordinator. He was a regular organiserof the TAA stands at Agricultural Showsand events, arriving early to set thingsup, including supporting the annualBOAT (Bicton Overseas AgriculturalTrust) tractor renovation scheme withwhich TAA SW is associated. His time-keeping at meetings was well-knownand respected - making it easier for hissuccessors! George also served

faithfully on the TAA ExecutiveCommittee with his ready wit andvalued common sense. A prominentRotarian and leader in that organisation,George was a keen supporter of worthyorganisations such as the RoyalNational Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) andShelterbox. He was accorded the raredistinction in Rotary circles of two ‘PaulHarris’ Awards. The TAA recognisedGeorge’s work with a special Award ofMerit in 2015, the year when he andMargaret also celebrated their GoldenWedding Anniversary.

George and his wife Margaret,continued to serve on the TAA SWCommittee, including the preparation

of this current year’s programme, andhe gladly undertook to arrange andcoordinate meals for the January AGMsat Exeter Golf and Country Club.Referring to his gratitude to Ray Bartlett(TAA SW Secretary) for handling theJanuary 2016 AGM Menu choices whenGeorge became ill, he characteristicallywrote: “My special thanks to Ray. Givehim a clap! Finally, ‘bon appetit’ andall the best for 2016”. We have lost areal friend, keen to the last to see theTAA prosper - and its members well-fedat their AGM! Our condolences are withMargaret and their sons Robin andDominic, and the family.

John Wibberley

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TAAF NewsSummary reports from the five remaining MSc students whoreceived TAAF awards in April 2015 appear below (the first fiveappeared in Ag4Dev26). Hannah Wright, a PhD student fromLancaster University, who received a long term award inOctober 2015 for her study of the effects of alternate wettingand drying in lowland irrigated rice in Madagascar, has startedwork in the field. A news item on the progress of her studywill appear shortly on the TAA website.

Four TAAF awardees made presentations at the AGM inNovember 2015 as part of the 2015 Ralph Melville MemorialLecture. The focus of the lecture was the changing demandfor UK natural resource specialists in internationaldevelopment today. The presentations led to an interestingdiscussion on how TAA and TAAF can adapt to a changingenvironment and help a new generation of young professionalsto launch their careers. The presentations and subsequentdiscussion are summarised in Article 1 at the beginning of thisissue of the journal.

On the initiative of one past TAAF awardee, Alex Tasker, a moveis under way to link recent recipients of TAAF awardsinformally for purposes of networking, sharing information onjob opportunities and professional exchanges.

Following an appeal at the AGM, contributions to TAAF fundsfrom individual TAA members totalling £12,700 have beenreceived or promised in the last two months. These include£5,000 from the Harry Potts memorial fund and £5,000 fromthe family of the late Bill Reed. Such donations are critical tokeeping TAAF afloat, and are enormously appreciated both bythe TAAF Committee and by our awardees.

A plea was also made in past issues of the journal (egAg4Dev23, page 59, Remember TAAF in your Will) toencourage members to consider if they could make acontribution to the future of TAAF’s work. Such legacieswould put TAAF on a firmer long term financial footing andwe would be very grateful if members would look again at ourappeal.

George Barrett, MSc International Development,SheffieldStakeholder responses to Corporate SocialResponsibility: power and responsibility on the LowerSanaga Basin, Cameroon

The study examined the corporate social responsibility (CSR)and stakeholder engagement strategies of active oilcompanies within the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve inCameroon’s resource-rich south. Established in 1932 andcovering 160,000 hectares of dense equatorial forest, theDouala-Edea Wildlife Reserve is home to a range ofthreatened flora and fauna, including some of West Africa’slargest mangrove swamps and the endangered West African

manatee. The Reserve’s largest inhabited area, Mouanko,with a population of two thousand people mainly subsistenton farming and fishing, provided the main research site(Figure 1). The project assessed the purpose and inclusivityof the two strategies, and the developmental roles of a rangeof stakeholders within the Reserve.

Respondents suggested that, far from being genuinelyaltruistic, the CSR and stakeholder engagement strategiesemployed represented a strategic tool to coerce and pacifypotential opposition, in turn fostering an environmentconducive to profit maximisation. Additionally, the giftsemployed as part of the CSR strategies, such as pens to thelocal school, beds to the hospital and financial donations tothe local chief, were argued to reproduce colonial distinctions

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between a technically progressive west and backward ‘others’.As such, this highlighted the continued imperialunderpinnings of development discourse and the West’sperpetual engagement with the global South.

It was also argued that active corporations did not representappropriate agents of development and social change.Instead the CSR strategies were seen to further disengage thecitizens from the Cameroonian state by marginalisingdebates surrounding government-level solutions. Moreover,

the employed CSR strategies were considered to reinforcedependency relations and in turn undermined thedevelopmental prospects of the rural populations within theDouala-Edea Wildlife Reserve.

The study exposed the re-branding of Western engagementwith the global South, from the enlightenment era, colonialplunder, foreign assistance, to contemporary ideas ofpartnership and corporate social responsibility, and the arrayof ideological and material tools employed by the West tomaintain its security and superiority at the expense of‘others’. Furthermore, the study advocated the need for amore vociferous role of civil society members within theDouala-Edea Wildlife Reserve, and a more broad-rangingdevelopment focus. Additionally, the project highlighted theneed for collective action at the local level to contest state-and corporate-level natural resource extraction.

The project has been particularly useful for me in pursuingmy career in CSR analysis and consultancy, whereby theresearch experience was key to attaining internships withEIRIS (Ethical Investment Research and Information Service- UK) and AccountAbility shortly after I completed myMasters. Without the TAAF’s generous support, and theadvice from Naysan Adlparvar, it is highly unlikely that theproject would have ever been viable.

Figure 1. An ex-fisherman excluded from his livelihood by offshore oil drilling

Bamnan Catherine Dagu, MSc InternationalDevelopment, University of EdinburghUnderstanding urban poverty: the economics oftechnology change in vending agricultural products inPeru

The objective of the research was to understand howtechnology is impacting work opportunities and livelihoodsof street vendors of agricultural products (SVAPs) and localwaste recyclers, of predominantly herbal agricultural foodsgrown in the Peruvian highlands. The SVAPs oremolienteros are vendors of emoliente - beverages made withmedicinal plants, sold on the streets of Lima. They providean important service as an inexpensive on-the-gobreakfast/snack, rivalled by none in Peru’s densely populatedcapital.

As the third largest city in the Americas, Lima presents a hugemarket for the emolienteros, with much potential for growth.They have been able to form a robust labour union, well-structured into associations in the main districts in whichthey function. This became possible after securing supportfrom the city council and authorities, not available inprevious years. Today, it is considered one of the mostprestigious informal sectors in Lima to work in.

Despite their accomplishments, they face threats throughcompetition with the growing number of chain supermarketsin the city. Although the presence of knowledge transferwithin their labour unions helps the workers get informationabout new and improved technology, many lack the accessto better technology that helps mitigate the risks of losingtheir livelihoods to the market competition. In response,these workers have set a plan in motion to start an enterprisewhere they manufacture, package and sell the naturalproducts used in their emoliente. This would enable mass

production at cheaper rates to cater for the increasingdemands for their products and services, and would put themin a better position to retain their market share.

The main technologies used by the emolienteros are mobilecarts or carretillas (Figure 2), and freezers to store excesssupplies on days of low sales. Changing from older to bettermodels of carretillas improves their efficiency and

Figure 2. Traditional and modern carretillas

Figure 3. Bamnan with a group of street vendors

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productivity, so they earn slightly more, with some increasingspare time spent on childcare, family support or on a secondjob. In this sector, most of the technological change isbrought about by the reinvestment of income into newer-generation technology.

Throughout the project, I have consistently acquired not onlypersonal development, but academic and career development aswell. I have improved both my understanding of the informaleconomy’s link to agricultural technology, and my skills and

experience in the development field through transforming mytheoretical knowledge to practical applications.

The project will directly bring benefits to the local communitythrough an understanding of the role of technology forinformal agricultural workers. It has enabled stronger linksbetween local NGOs and the local SVAPs, a relationship thatwill foster growth of the sector, while also contributing toknowledge and understanding in the UK of developmentissues in Latin America (Figure 3).

Harriet Ibbett, MSc Conservation Science,Imperial CollegeImpact of grassland user groups on Bengal floricanpopulations, Central Cambodia

In April 2015, I was generously gifted a grant from TAAF toconduct research assessing the impact of local people onBengal florican populations in central Cambodia. My aimwas to gain a greater understanding of the drivers behind landuse change in the grassland landscape, and to identify otherpotential threats to floricans, and how local people interactedwith grassland habitat. The Bengal florican (Houbaropsisbengalensis) is a critically endangered bustard species, ofwhich the Cambodia population (the world’s largestremaining population) is increasingly threated by theexpansion of rice cultivation (Figure 4).

Armed with the resources to successfully conduct myresearch, I travelled to Cambodia to work with the WildlifeConservation Society (WCS) to conduct social surveys invillages surrounding florican breeding sites on the floodplainof the great Tonle Sap Lake. Research revealed rapid adoptionof intensive rice cultivation by local people over the last tenyears and a low, but significant, prevalence of bird huntingamongst floodplain communities. Findings helped toidentify several areas for future research for WCS and someimmediate actions that could be implemented in order tosupport sustainable agricultural development and improveflorican conservation. I am extremely grateful to have beengiven the opportunity to conduct this research. Not only didit provide me with an excellent insight into the challenges of

collecting data in developing countries, but I was luckyenough to have a unique exposure into rural Cambodian life.I have learnt lessons that will undoubtedly guide me throughmy future career (Figure 5). Thank you TAAF.

Figure 4. Male Bengal florican(Photo: JeremyHolden, Flora andFauna International)

Figure 5: Harriet interviewing Cambodian farmers

Ben Taylor, MSc International MarineEnvironmental Consultancy, NewcastleInvestigation of pollution impacts of the Al LithAquaculture Facility, Saudi Arabia, using invertebrateindicator species

Aquaculture production is currently increasing to meet globaldemand for fish protein. However, aquaculture facilitiestypically produce by-products known as fish farm wastes(FFW), consisting of unconsumed food and fish excreta.These FFW can be a major source of pollution when releasedas effluent into the natural environment.

The study I conducted with the support of the King AbdullahUniversity of Science and Technology (KAUST) and the TAA,focused on the National Aquaculture Group (NAQUA) facilitynear Al-lith, Saudi Arabia. NAQUA is one of the largestaquaculture facilities in the world. It produces an estimated35,000 t/year of shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) in 250 km2

of inland marine lakes. The aims of the project were: firstlyto conduct a baseline study of benthic mega invertebrates inthe reefs of the Al-lith bay; and secondly, to investigate theuse of two separate invertebrate indicator techniques toassess whether any differences between the sampled reefscould be attributed to NAQUA’s FFW effluent. The firstindicator was a scuba diving based visual population censusrecording any invertebrate >5 cm long (Figure 6). Thesecond indicator was a stable isotopic analysis of carbon andnitrogen taken from the tissue of specific invertebrates(Figure 7).

In brief, the study provided the baseline of benthic mega-invertebrates distribution in the region of Al-lith, enablingfuture secondary studies and further monitoring. Thecombination of the two indicators, stable isotopes andpopulation census techniques, indicated spatial differencesbetween the invertebrate communities centred on the siteclosest to NAQUA effluent. Furthermore, a majority of the

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results coincided with previous investigations whichdescribed FFW impacts on invertebrates, and suggested thatmarine invertebrates may be impacted by NAQUA effluent.Although the study did not directly investigate the effect ofthe aquaculture facility on the local community,

anthropogenic pollution impacts on the surroundingenvironment and can be detrimental to dependentcommunities. For this reason it is important that potentialsources of pollution are rapidly and effectively assessed, toallow for the appropriate remediation and mitigation ofimpacts, for the environment and the community that itsupports.

Overall, the project provided me with valuable consultancyand field experience, which not only taught me useful newresearch, organisation and leadership skills, but also gave methe ability to deal with new challenges. One of the majorobstacles faced during the project was the lack of scientificdocumentation on the invertebrates inhabiting the regionprior to conducting the fieldwork. Overcoming this challengethrough a flexible methodology and exchange with projectpartners gave me a new-found confidence in my scientificabilities, allowing me to achieve aspired targets through hardwork, adaptability and determination which will be essentialfor my career. Conducting the research in Saudi Arabia gaveme a unique, raw and truly wild experience of the Red Sea,especially when we were exploring potentially virgin reefs ordiving with whale sharks, as well as invaluable momentssharing cultural exchanges with the local people. Thank youonce again to the Tropical Agriculture Association for makingthis possible.

Figure 6. Tridacnaspecies found alongthe transect

Figure 7. Extracting the adductor muscleof Lithophaga species for stable isotopicanalysis

Adam Southern, MSc International MarineEnvironmental Consultancy, NewcastleTracing aquaculture effluent in coral tissue anddinoflagellate symbionts in the Red Sea

The Red Sea is a unique environment which hosts a highlevel of diversity and endemism that is increasingly under anunprecedented threat from anthropogenic influences ofindustrial development, over-fishing and climate change. Ifthis level of threat develops at current rates, the future healthof the Red Sea is very uncertain.

The National Aquaculture Group (NAQUA), previously calledthe National Shrimp Company, near Al Lith, Saudi Arabia, isthe largest fully integrated desert coast aquaculture projectin the world. Located 180 km south of the historic port ofJeddah, just north of the town of Al Lith, it has plans toexpand its already extensive land-based facility of 5,000hectares of shrimp ponds, producing around 35,000 metrictonnes of shrimp each year.

Despite the fact that the waste water is transferred fromshrimp ponds into a complex system of waste effluent ponds,lagoons and filtration systems with the aim of reducingenvironmental damage, little is known about the chemicalcomposition of the effluent and the impact that this couldhave on the marine environment.

This study aims to assess the potential impact of enhancednutrients resulting from aquaculture on the coral reefs. Coraltissue and zooxanthellae were chosen to assess the impact ofthe aquaculture facility on marine organisms. Corals are thefoundation of the coral reef ecosystem, so any impacttraceable within corals would infer potential impacts on theentire ecosystem. A sampling strategy was adopted to

describe the coral reef environments in the north, south andwest (offshore), and to trace potential impacts of the effluentin these flow directions. Five sample sites were selected, aswell as a site as close as possible to the outflow channel(Figure 8).

Samples were collected from Acropora humilis andPocillopora verrucosa colonies on five reefs (Figure 9). Coralfragments of approximately 30 cm2 were removed from thehorizontal tops of colonies using a hammer and chisel atdepths of between 3 and 7 m. The samples were stored inindividual bags in seawater to avoid contamination, andtissue was removed within 24 hrs. The samples were ovendried at 60°C for 48 hrs, weighed on an analytical balance andsealed in air-tight vials prior to shipment to Berlin, Germany,for stable isotope analysis.

Overall, the isotope analysis of both coral tissue andzooxanthellae samples shows no significant variation in Pvalues between sites. This suggests that, despite the largeinput of nutrients to the surrounding reefs, their impactcannot be traced within the coral samples. Given thereliability of coral as an indicator of pollution is not proven,care should be taken in interpreting these results, and the

Figure 8. Diving for samples in the RedSea

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lack of impact on isotope values in corals should not be usedas a proxy for the whole ecosystem.

Further studies are needed to identify the composition of theeffluent in sites within immediate proximity (<500 m) of the

outflow. The study highlights the need for baseline data incoral reef environments, and for continued monitoring andassessment of the environmental impact of future coastaldevelopments in Saudi Arabia and the Red Sea.

The support I received from the TAA award scheme helpedmassively in giving me first-hand experience of researchusing sophisticated methodologies in a professionalenvironment. As an aspiring marine consultant, thisexperience allowed me to gain insights into methodologydevelopment, client negotiation, hands-on research and teammanagement, which have greatly improved my individualskills. I would like to personally thank the awards committeefor making this possible. The backing I received will beinvaluable to my future career.

Figure 9. Adamp r e p a r e s samples in thelaboratory

Antony Ellman and Alastair Stewart

Corporate Members’ Page

The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF)was constituted in Brussels by six national associations on 14January 1999, as a non-profit international NGO. Today ECAFbrings together twelve national associations which promoteamongst Europe’s farmers sustainable soil management basedon the principles of Conservation Agriculture, ieminimum soildisturbance, permanent organic soil cover and crop diversity.With member associations in Denmark, Finland, France,Germany, Greece, Italy, Moldova, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia,Spain, Switzerland and hopefully soon in the UK, ECAFrepresents the interests of the majority of the EuropeanUnion’s cropped farmland.

At national level, ECAF’s member organisations aim to:

• improve technology transfer to farms;

• promote agricultural and environmental policies supportive of sustainable soil management;

• improve information exchange in the research, policy and practitioner communities;

• research, develop, evaluate and promote soil management systems to improve crop production and protect the environment.

ECAF’s central body represents the aims of its members atEuropean level by:

• serving as main contact point for discussion on conservation agriculture with European policy makers;

• being a clearing house and platform at European level for exchange of information and experience on conservation agriculture;

• encouraging the investigation, development, and teaching of all aspects of conservation agriculture;

• collaborating with other international and national organisations that have related and complementary objectives.

In 2001, ECAF initiated and organised the first World Congresson Conservation Agriculture in close collaboration with FAOand within the frame of the European LIFE project

The European Conservation Agriculture Federation (ECAF)

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Co-ordination of activities and technology transferactions to reduce soil erosion, water contamination and emissions of CO2 from agricultural land in Europe. Thiswell-established event has already been held on all continentsand will take place for the seventh time next year in Argentina.ECAF has also been the promoter of other international events

such as the International Congress on ConservationAgriculture in Córdoba, Spain in 2005, and the Green CarbonConference in Brussels in 2014.

ECAF has also been involved in other EU projects such asLife+ Agricarbon (Sustainable agriculture in carbonarithmetics, 2010-2014) and Life+ ClimAgri (Best agriculturalpractices for climate change: integrating strategies formitigation and adaptation, 2013-2018), and is nowcoordinating a privately funded European project namedINSPIA (European Index for Sustainable ProductiveAgriculture), which promotes the implementation of bestmanagement practices over a network of European farmsbased on sustainability indicators.

In addition, ECAF pursues regular advocacy actions at severallevels, directed mainly towards members of the EuropeanParliament and EU Commission officials (Figure 1). Recentlybriefings took place at both DG Agri and DG Env. CurrentlyECAF is also assisting two MEPs in their initiative for a motionon Conservation Agriculture in the European Parliament.

Prof Dr Gottlieb BaschPresident, ECAFProfessor of Crop Science, University of Evora, Portugal

Figure 1. ECAF representatives, CA farmers, MEPs and DGAgri official at the European Parliament following the seminar on Making sustainable agriculture real,13 January 2016

Reminiscences and ReflectionsMonsanto, the Gold Coast, the Gambia and Bayer,1952-1964

My interest in agriculture began when I wasevacuated to a farm in Gloucestershireduring World War II. I had a year withoutany schooling and my time was occupiedwith doing farm work such as haymaking,looking after pigs and poultry, and drivingsheep and cattle to Tewkesbury marketalong the country lanes. I really enjoyedthat year which inspired me towardsdoing natural sciences at school andbecoming a graduate in the subject. Thepossibility of working for the colonial

service was appealing, and to some extentfostered by my time in Singapore andMalaya with national service in the army.

Monsanto Chemicals Ltd,1952This was my first job, at £500 per annum.After three months with the company Iwas sent to the USA to investigate a newproduct known as Krilium SoilConditioner. This chemical had originally

been produced by Montecatini in Italy andwas still in the experimental phase. It wassaid to have a beneficial effect on soilstructure and to assist in stabilising thesoil surface.

At the tender age of twenty-five I flewfirst class to New York in the upper deckof a Boeing Stratocruiser and in theadjoining berth to a well known actressof the day, Yolande Donlan. She hadearlier been feted at Heathrow. I wastreated as a VIP by local staff in New

Basil Hoare

Basil Hoare worked in industry with Monsanto and Bayer for four years and spent six years in the GoldCoast (later Ghana) and the Gambia with the Colonial Service. This was followed by sixteen years withUN agencies (International Labour Organisation (ILO) and Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)) carrying out assignments in agronomy, horticulture, agricultural education, training and extension inseven countries. A period with the consultancy company ULG, with assignments in Malaysia and Indonesia, was followed, finally, by ten years of freelance consultancy with sixteen projects in nine countries in Asia, the Pacific, Africa and the Caribbean.

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York and the HQ in St Louis, and thenspent some time at the research centreof Monsanto in Dayton, Ohio. I hadvery detailed discussions with seniorresearch staff, and took part in a numberof trials (Figure 1) and somedemonstrations accompanied by a blazeof publicity, sometimes with glamorousfemale models in prominentattendance. We also conducted a trial inthe garden of the president of thisorganisation where I was greeted by theillustrious character himself.

I flew to Texas to an area near theMexican border, where trials had beenlaid down which were intended to provethat Krilium had a beneficial effect onthe emergence of cotton seedlings. Myfinal field visits were to Illinois wheretrials were being conducted on maize bythe giant De Kalb company. Finalmeetings were held with both researchand sales staff before I flew back to theUK to write my report.

My assessment was that not enoughresearch work had been carried out tojustify any further development of thischemical. Furthermore, I consideredthat it was too expensive apart frompossible use in high value horticulture.The report was thus very pessimistic innature. I left the company prematurelysoon after my USA venture to take up auniversity fellowship in California.When I returned a year later, Monsantoinformed me that there was no longer aplace for me in the company. Perhaps Ihad been too honest!

The Gold Coast andGhana, 1954-1958 My first tropical posting was to the GoldGoast in 1954, as an Agricultural Officer(AO) in the local civil service on contractterms. After a few days in Accra I left forthe Northern Territories, as they were thenknown, to be based at Nyankpala, somemiles west of Tamale the regional capital.

My duties involved extension activities,initially in the Dagomba District, whichextended as far as Yende in the east andGonja in the west. A period was alsospent working at the CentralAgricultural Station, Nyankpala, andsome time as officer in charge of thisstation. For a time I had to combine thetwo jobs as AO Dagomba and duties atthe Station.

Some five or six expatriate senior staffwere based here, including an engineer,a production officer and a plant breeder.The officer in charge was the only seniorAfrican staff member. There were alarge number of junior local staff anddaily labourers. The station coveredsome two thousand acres and waslargely devoted to production of cropssuch as rice, maize, sorghum andmillet. A part of the area was taken upby trials of the plant breeder, theagricultural chemist and theentomologist, the latter two being basedin Kumasi. As AO Dagomba I hadseveral assistants based in variousvillages, and there was some emphasison swamp rice production with thedevelopment of a number of damswhich would also provide water forvegetable and fruit production. Mixedfarming was also encouraged with theproper use of farmyard manure. It isclear that the highly efficient work of theplant breeder was of particularimportance, since the potential forincreased crop yields was considerable,and some of the recently improved typeswere made available to farmers.

Two further postings in the NorthernTerritories were to Damongo in theGonja District and to Babile in theLobi/Dagarti area of the far north-westand on the border with Burkina Faso.In Gonja there was some emphasis onthe re-settlement of farmers from theover-populated Frafara area of thenorth-east. Damongo was also thecentre for the Gonja DevelopmentCorporation which became well knownas a week-end destination for expatriatesfrom Tamale owing to the mostexcellent swimming pool. TheGovernment Agent (GA), or DistrictCommissioner, was an Englishman, andit is of interest to note that the secretaryof the District Council at this time wasEA Mahama, who was the father of thecurrent President of Ghana. There waslimited social life in Damongo, which

was a somewhat isolated station withmy bungalow being situated as the solehabitation in the midst of a forestedarea. There were no glass windows,only mosquito-proof netting, and thecorrect positioning of the bed in thecase of rain was very important in thisisolated building where surfaces werecovered with dark creosote rather thanpaint, adding to the overall quite sombreenvironment. The neighbouringbungalow was not inhabited by humansbut by nesting hornets!

This posting did not prove to be verysatisfactory and I was very happy to beposted to Babile. The station was a fewmiles south of Lawra, the district centrewhere the Government Agent wasbased. Apart from the Lawra district Ialso covered the Wa and Tumu districts,making for a very large area overall andmuch travelling necessary to visitfarmers and the various local field staff.The GAs in Lawra, Wa and Tumu wereall expatriate Englishmen. However, in1958 and after independence, theincumbent in Lawra was a Ghanaian.

I was much happier in Babile with avery good bungalow and a rest house tocater for the frequent visitors. Thestation had a good vegetable garden andthere was an emergency water tankwhich made a very attractive swimmingpool. Although the nearest expatriateswere based more than forty miles away,Sunday lunches were notable for thepresence of a number of folk who madefull use of this amenity.

Some villages were quite remote andnot used to the attention of whitevisitors. However, I was able to get toknow a number of chiefs and headmenwith whom I would arrangedemonstrations, particularly of newvarieties of groundnuts and fertiliseruse. The local population were veryfriendly and I would sometimes spendan evening sitting on the roof of aparticular chief consuming pito, madefrom fermented sorghum, which has acidery taste and is quite palatable. Thisindividual was noted for his hospitalityand for his liking for the odd drop ofwhisky, which was generally available.We were some two hundred and fiftymiles from head office in Tamale onquite passable laterite roads. At thisdistance, one was able to get on with thejob without too much bureaucraticinterference.

Figure 1. Application of Krilium, Missouri, 1952

Reminiscences and Reflections

80

A notable event was the LawraAgricultural Show, which I organised in1957. This was a considerable task.There were innumerable visitors,including the Chief Commissioner andhis wife, and also many members of theDepartment of Agriculture. This was amost successful event, but excessiveexposure to the very hot January sunresulted in a bout of heat stroke - whichwas successfully dealt with by multipleapplications of ice to my head and neckby the wife of the GA.

Independence Day in March 1957 was amemorable occasion (Figure 2) whenthe country became Ghana under thepresidency of Kwame Nkrumah. Therewas a Durbar in Tamale attended by theGovernor Sir Charles Arden Clarke,together with a multitude of chiefs andVIPs.

The Gambia and theRiver Niger, 1958-1960Since some reminiscences have alreadybeen included in a previous edition ofAgriculture for Development, it onlyremains for me to give a brief outline ofmy two year stay in this country.

I was appointed on pensionable terms asan Agricultural Officer and posted toYundum as AO Western Division. Forthe second year of this stay I was alsogiven the job of Acting Manager of theExperimental Farm. This was a periodbefore independence and theatmosphere was not as friendly as hadbeen the case in Ghana. In fact it couldbe quite hostile, as I myself experienced.

Extension activities included work withsimilar crops as in Ghana, but rice andgroundnuts were widely grown.Vegetable and tree crops were alsowidely grown, and limes were ofparticular importance. New varieties ofrice and groundnuts were activelypromoted. Seed dressings of fungicideand insecticide proved to beeconomically very attractive, with a

marked yield increase noted in manyinstances. There was also muchemphasis on ox ploughing and trainingcentres were established. Thisprogramme proved to be verysuccessful.

The Experimental Farm at Yundumhoused a number of senior researchstaff, including agronomists, a soilscientist, a plant physiologist and apathologist. My position was purelyadministrative and was not concernedwith research activities (Figure 3).However, noting that the large vegetablegarden was used purely forconsumption by station staff andBathurst expatriates, I took over an areafor the growing of new varietiesimported from South Africa, andtomatoes and onions in particular.Some of the onion types did very welland seed of both crops was distributedto farmers as part of the extensionprogramme in my other role as AOWestern Division. I also decided toslaughter a sty of pigs, which wereclearly kept for the convenience of localexpatriates, mainly in the capitalBathurst, in this predominantly Moslemcountry. This operation was carried outwithout the authority of the director,and I was none too popular at this timewith the boss, and also with the wives ofthe various important expatriates whomissed their regular leg of pork!

As the only member of the Departmentwith even minimal French, I visited thelarge and important agricultural stationat Bambey, Senegal, and also theInstitut de Recherche pour Les Huiles etOleagineux (IRHO – the Oil CropsResearch Institute) station inCasamance. It was apparent that therehad been little or no such liaison withFrench West Africa in the past and withSenegal in particular. I was able to bringback improved types of various cropsincluding groundnuts and fruits, suchas mangoes.

I finally left the Gambia in mid-1960 totravel back to the UK via FrenchSoudan, now known as Mali. I flewfrom Dakar to Bamako, the capital ofthis newly independent country, andwas able to take a conducted tour of theOffice Du Niger based in Segou somemiles east of the capital. This was a veryimpressive and prestigious projectconsisting of several thousand acres of

irrigated cotton and rice. Following thistour I boarded an engineless bargepulled by a tug for a journey along theriver Niger as far as Gao in the far eastof the country. This was an incredibleexperience, in intense heat, via variouscentres such as Mopti and Timbuktu.The boat was housing Members ofParliament returning fromindependence celebrations in Bamako,and I shared a very small cabin with theMP for Bandiagara as I recall. As wetouched down at each port the local MPdisembarked and was greeted with alarge and vociferous crowd by the localcommunity, a fascinating sight from thedeck. Unfortunately, the onlyrefrigerator on board stoppedfunctioning at one stage, and Ideveloped a minor stomach disorderwhich prevented me from hitch hikingacross the Sahara as I had intended, soI took a flight from Gao back to the UKas a result.

Baywood Chemicals Ltd,1960-64I was employed as a Technical Adviserby this agrochemical company, whichwas a subsidiary of Bayer of Germanyand based in Peterborough, now part ofCambridgeshire. My duties coveredfourteen counties from the West Ridingof Yorkshire in the north, toHertfordshire in the south, includingthe important counties, agriculturally,of Lincolnshire and Bedfordshire. Theoffice was overseen by a regionalmanager, responsible for overalldirection and sales, and there were sixor seven field staff at various locations.My immediate boss was a most excellentGerman, a true scientist and a man ofgreat charm, who was based in London.The company had a field experimentalstation in Kent.

Company products were herbicides,fungicides and insecticides, with the

Figure 2. Independence Day, March 1957

Figure 3. With junior staff at Yundum, the Gambia

main emphasis being on the latter, andmost of my time during this three yearperiod was spent dealing with this groupof chemicals in their fully developed andexperimental phases. The primeproduct was metasystox or demetonmethyl which was an insecticide for thecontrol of aphids and other plantsucking insects, particularly in potatoes,sugar beet and Brassicae. My dutiesincluded the support of the field staffand I covered many miles on the M1and minor roads between Yorkshire andLondon. My sole sale was one case ofmetasystox during this three yearperiod, and a principal concern wasliaising with scientists and governmentadvisory centres, research stations anduniversities. I was also able to becomefamiliar with some prominent farmersto encourage them to use our products.

Much of my time was taken up withexperimental work, and although therewas a national trials team, I assisted inand carried out some of this workmyself. I recall that we were keen to laydown a potato trial with the newlyreleased organo-phosphorus insecticideknown as disyston. The final plantingdate was deemed to be 14 April, but nohelp was available and so I wascompelled to do the work on the layout

and planting of this replicated trial onmy own. Quite a feat!

Disyston with the chemical namedisulfoton, was a very poisonousinsecticide in granular form, and with apronounced fumigant effect. Theregional manager and I did the initialexperimental work on a farm in theFens, with the application of thischemical in the soil at the planting timefor a field of potatoes direct from tractorbased equipment. I was also responsiblefor a number of field trials at variouslocations which had the aim, in themain, of comparing the efficiency ofdisyston with other chemicals includingmetastystox and materials fromcompetitor companies. The product wasparticularly effective against mealycabbage aphis on brussels sprouts,owing to the fumigant effect which wasable to reach the axils of the leaves. Oneof our agents in Bedfordshire even triedout aerial application on this crop,during which a few errant granuleslanded on me! With all this closeproximity to quite poisonous chemicals,banned today of course, it is surprising,perhaps, that I am still here and in,more or less, one piece.

Another activity was the holding of

farmer meetings where we were able toacquire the presence of scientists frominstitutions such as Rothamsted (Figure4). This was very helpful as ourproducts were deemed to be veryeffective and metasystox, in particular,was recognised as the most efficientchemical for its purpose amongst anumber of competitor products. Wealso attended a number of technicalconferences, including those heldannually in Brighton.

This was an extremely tough job and Ihave never worked as hard in my life.However, having such competent andcharming colleagues was a greatincentive. I finally left the company,with some regret, in early 1964 to takeup a position with the InternationalLabour Office in Nigeria.

Figure 4. Invitation to a farmer meeting in Doncaster

Upcoming events

Reminiscences and Reflections / Upcoming Events

81

CURRY CLUB TALKS: CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE

(CA) FOR THE SMALLHOLDER

FARMER — MYTH OR MAGIC?

Date and Time: 28 April 2016

11am for registration and coffee

Details: Guest speaker Prof Amir Kassam. ConservationAgriculture (CA) for small farmers is relatively new. In spiteof the huge potential benefits to numerous small-scalefarmers, it is not part of mainstream thinking or research.

Many of the benefits of CA simply cannot be harnessed withconventional tillage agriculture, which has left a worldwideswath of soil and environmental degradation in its wake.Being a different paradigm, CA seems like a myth to theuninformed but is magic to those who practice it.

The talk will be followed by curry lunch (£14.00 per head)with a chance to relax and chat.

Venue: Strand Continental Hotel India Club, 143 Strand,London WC2 R1JA

Contact: Terry Wiles email: southeast convenor@taa.org.uk

Upcoming Events

82

SEMINAR ON INNOVATIONS IN

AGRI-TECH, TAA E ANGLIA

Date and Time: 05 May 2016

Start Time: 14.00 – 18.00

Details: The seminar is being organised by the TAA EastAnglia Branch, the Centre for Global Equality (CGE),CambPlants Hub and the University of Cambridge StrategicResearch Initiative in Global Food Security (GFSI).

The speakers will be: (i) Dr Stephanie Race, CropPerformance Ltd, Cambridge on ‘Sustainable Perennial CropProduction in the Tropics: understanding yield variationunder a changing climate’. This will cover innovativeapproaches to satellite remote sensing data acquisition, cropmodelling and analytics to inform practices that increase yieldand quality, with a focus on tea production in Kenya, (ii) ProfSir David Baulcombe, Department of Plant Sciences,Cambridge, on ‘Biotechnology to control disease in Africancrops’. He will describe how molecular biology and genomicshave revolutionised understanding of disease resistance inplants and led to the development of new strategies for robuststrategies for crop protection.

To reserve a place at the seminar and more details visit thewebsite: https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/innovations-in-agri-tech-tickets-19491639017

(Free entry but £5 / head donation to TAA’s TropicalAgriculture Award Fund)

Venue: The Sainsbury Laboratory, Cambridge University,Bateman Street, Cambridge, CB2 1LR.

CROPDIVERSIFICATION SEMINAR,TAA ZAMBIA BRANCH

Date and Time: 20 May 2016 09.00

Details: Crop Diversification, presentation by the nationalcrops officer in the Ministry of Agriculture, on effective cropdiversification.

Venue: St Joseph Guest House at Ndola Catholic diocese,along Broadway, Ndola, Zambia

Details: More details and RSVP to Chris Kapembwa, ZambiaBranch Organiser, zambia_organiser@taa.org.uk+26 (0) 977 536825

10TH INTERNATIONAL

SYMPOSIUM ON AGRICULTURE

AND THE ENVIRONMENT

(AGROENVIRON 2016)Date and Time: 23 - 27 May 2016 10.00

Details: This symposium seeks to provide a forum forscientists to present new research on environmental studies,agricultural research, processes of soil erosion by wind andwater, conservation policies, and innovative practices topreserve and protect the soil, water, and air resources whileat the same time providing for a sustainable agriculture.http://topsoil.nserl.purdue.edu/AgroEnviron2016/

Location: Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, USAhttps://www.purdue.edu/campus_map/maps/campusmap-80515.pdf

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE

AND SUSTAINABLE LAND USE

Date and Time: 31 May - 2 June 2016

Details: Organised by The Geographical Institute of theHungarian Academy of Sciences. The conference aims toshare knowledge of conservation agriculture (CA)internationally and across different scientific fields. Maintopics: Soil science and geomorphology in CASystems; Agro-ecological research in CA Systems; Yields andeconomy; Climate change and CA Systems; CA Systems andcarbon cycle; Sustainability assessment of land use and coverchange

The conference will include two days of plenary sessions withkeynote speeches and a one-day field trip. The application ofCA Systems is spreading worldwide. New results in the fieldof scientific and practical applications are constantly beingadded.

More Details and Registration:http://caslu2016.mtafki.hu/index.html

Venue: Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest, Hungary

Upcoming Events

83

LEARNING, ACTION RESEARCH

AND OUTREACH FOR INCLUSIVE

DEVELOPMENT COURSE, WAGENINGEN

Date and Time: 6 June 2016

Details: ICRA (International Centre for development orientedResearch in Agriculture) strengthens innovative capacity byproviding training and coaching to individuals and teams fromdifferent backgrounds. This course is for professionals in tertiaryagricultural education to prepare as competent graduates readyfor the job market. In addition, you are requested to do actionresearch that contributes to innovation for food security, andprovide services for rural communities that support inclusivedevelopment. Are you ready to make your courses moreinteractive and interdisciplinary? How do competency-basedlearning approaches affect the way you design your courses?How do you determine what services to provide to surroundingcommunities? To what extend is your research relevant anduseful to farmers and agribusiness? This course helps you findthe answers to these questions. It is challenging and hands-onwith a range of activities such as trainer-assisted group sessions,role play, case studies and excursions to Dutch universities.

More details: http://www.icra-edu.org/courses/18/linking+research+to+inclusive+development+for+food+security+-+facing+rural+innovation+challenges,+++6+-+24+june+2016

Venue: Wageningen University, P.O. Box 9101, 6700 HBWageningen, the Netherlands

ASIA-PACIFIC SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS)CONFERENCE AND EXPO

Date and Time: 05 – 06 June 2016

Details: an exciting two-day Conference Program for expertsand practitioners in the development sector plus an Expo ofdevelopment sector service providers’ booths anddemonstrations. The focus will be on introducing, explainingand discussing the seventeen new SDGs.

Venue: EastinMakkasan Hotel in Central Bangkok

Website: http://www.apsdgexpo.com/

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE:NEW HORIZONS IN PLANT

SCIENCE

Date and Time: 9 – 11 June 2016

Details: The Plant Physiology conference 2016 aims to gatherrenowned scientists, professors and research professionalsacross the globe under a single roof, where they discuss theresearch, achievements and advancements in this field. Thisconference will lay a platform for the interaction betweenexperts around the world and aims to accelerate scientificdiscoveries and major milestones in the field of PlantPhysiology. The theme of the conference is “NovelInnovation, Plant derived therapeutic agents and GM cropin plant science”.

Venue: Dallas, USA

Registration:http://plantphysiology.conferenceseries.com/registration.php

Contact: sssninfo@gmail.com

CCF SUMMER SYMPOSIUM

2016Date and Time: 24 June 2016 10.00

Details: Cambridge Conservation Forum (CCF)'s ever-popular Summer Symposium series continues with anevent co-organised with the “Global Food Security Initiativeof the University of Cambridge”. The day will exploresolutions to the challenge of securing future food supply foran increasing global population whilst conserving ecosystemsand biodiversity and adapting to a changing climate. Whetherin global governance or multi-functional landscapes, how dowe deal with the trade-offs? How do we capitalise on thesynergies?

Venue: Conservation Campus, David Attenborough Building,Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3QZ UK

Registration Details: http://www.cambridgeconservationforum.org.uk/event/ccf-summer-symposium-2016-security-agenda-global-food-and-biodiversity

Upcoming Events

84

WASWAC WORLD CONFERENCE

III: NEW CHALLENGES AND

STRATEGIES OF SOIL AND WATER

CONSERVATION

Date and Time: 22 – 26 August 2016

Details: Invitation by WASWAC to join the conference and tosubmit papers. The theme will be on new challenges and strategiesof soil and water conservation in the changing world andsustainable management of soil and water resources. Selectedpapers could be published in International Soil and WaterConservation Research (ISWCR), Bulletin of Forestry, or otherjournals. Perceived wisdom in the approach to evaluation, use andmanagement of land resources is changing rapidly anddramatically. Past emphasis on land development focused onmaximizing production and return from land use investment andplanned against a background belief that suitable lands forexpansion could always be found somewhere, is forced to give wayto a more cautious approach - one that recognizes the finite extentof fertile land and the seemingly insatiable demands of a growinghuman population. Conference topics will include: New challengesto soil and water resources in condition of climate change; Landdegradation processes and mechanism; Soil and waterconservation strategies to adapt and mitigate climate change; Soiland water conservation measures benefits assessment; Sustainablewatershed management; Social and economic aspects and policiesrelated to soil and water conservation; Innovations andimplemented global/regional/national projects in land conservation;Education in soil and water conservation.

Venue: Belgrade, Serbia

Details and Registration:http://3rdwaswacconference.sfb.bg.ac.rs/index.html

ECOSUMMIT 2016 - ECOLOGICAL

SUSTAINABILITY: ENGINEERING

CHANGE

Date and Time: 29 August – 1 September 2016

Details: The Summit will centre on the ecology of terrestrialecosystems and all habitats that are integrated within thoseecosystems, including river networks, wetlands and coastlines.Focus will be placed on fragile ecosystems that are more likely tosuffer the consequences of climate change and anthropogenic

pressure. However, in the current context of an increasing worldpopulation, changes in social habit (increasing worldconsumerism) and climate change, it is evident that agricultureis being intensified but with a growing awareness of the need topreserve and use sustainably world resources. Therefore, we willalso address how terrestrial restoration can be carried out whenthe massive demand for food results in fragile ecosystems, forestsand marginal lands being turned over to agriculture.

Venue: Le Corum, Montpellier, France.

Further Information: http://www.ecosummit2016.org/

Registration: http://www.ecosummit2016.org/conference-register.asp

TROPICAL AGRICULTURE

DEVELOPMENT (TAD) WORKSHOP: INTRODUCTION

TO SMALL-SCALE LIVESTOCK

PRODUCTION IN THE TROPICS

Date and Time: 20 – 22 September 2016

Details: Integrating animals into the small farm offers manyopportunities for enhancing food production, ecosystemstability and socio-economic resilience. Livestock and poultryare considered extremely important components ofsustainable smallholder farming systems, providing a rangeof valuable resources to farmers throughout the tropics in theform of food, income, manure and other services. This Small-Scale Livestock Production TAD Workshop will exposeparticipants to the foundational principles of animalproduction in a tropical, small-scale farming context. Overthree days, special attention will be given to the productionof ruminants (cattle and goats), pigs, rabbits and poultry.Discussions and activities will include feeding systems,animal health and slaughter techniques.

Venue: ECHO Global Farm,17391 Durrance Road North, FortMyers, Florida 33917 USA.

More Details including registration:http://www.echocommunity.org/en/resources/5a49260e-e938-40fa-ae8e-ea862ca5745f

(The 3-day course costs $450.00, including dormitorylodging and food. ECHO cannot accommodate any dietaryrestrictions)

Registered Charity No. 800663

How to become a member of the TAA If you are reading someone else’s copy of Agriculture for Development and would like to join, or would like to encourage or sponsor someone to join, then please visit our website at http://www.taa.org.uk/

Step One - Application: Applications can be made on-line at:http://www.taa.org.uk/membership Alternatively an application form can be downloaded, completed and sent to: TAA Membership Secretary, 15 Westbourne Grove, Great Baddow, Chelmsford CM2 9RT.

Step Two - Membership Type: Decide on the type of membership you require – see the details and subscription rates below:

Types of Membership and Annual Subscription Rates (£)

Full Individual (printed copies of Agriculture for Development)

40 Full Individual 70 (>70 years) (printed copies Agriculture for Development)

30

On-line Individual (on-line copies of Agriculture for Development)

30 On-line Individual 70 (>70 years) (on-line copies of Agriculture for Development)

20

Corporate Members (printed copies of Agriculture for Development and on-line access for company staff)

100 Student Membership (on-line copies of Agriculture for Development)

10

Step Three - Payment: Payment details are on the website with ‘Bank Standing Order’ being the preferred method since this ensures annual payment is made and is one less thing to remember! Payment can also be made by bank transfer, on-line using PayPal, or by cheque. Bank details are available from: treasurer@taa.org.uk

Step Four - Access to website and Journals: When application and payment has been received then the Membership Secretary will contact you with your membership number and log-in details for you to fully access the website and journals. The latest journal will be sent to full members.

For membership enquiries contact: membership_secretary@taa.org.uk

(Note: These rates only apply to 2015/2016. Rates increase on 1 August 2016)

Committee

TAA is a registered charity,No. 800663, that aims to advanceeducation, research and practice in

tropical agriculture.

Specialist GroupsAgribusinessRoger Cozens, Coombe Bank, Tipton St John, Sidmouth, DevonEX10 0AX. Tel: 01404 815829; email: agribusiness@taa.org.ukLand HusbandryAmir Kassam, 88 Gunnersbury Avenue, Ealing, London W5 4HA.Tel: 020 8993 3426; Fax: 020 8993 3632;email: landhusbandry@taa.org.uk

Environmental ConservationKeith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB89LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: environment_conservation@taa.org.uk

Overseas BranchesTAA India: Sanjeev Vasudev, S-154, Greater Kailash II, New Delhi110048, India. Tel: +91 98101 12773. email: india_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Caribbean: Bruce Lauckner, c/o CARDI, PO Box 212,University Campus, St Augustine, Trinidad & TobagoTel: +1 868 645 1205/6/7; email: caribbean_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA SE Asia: Wyn Ellis, 4/185 Bouban Maneenin, Ladplakhad 66,Bangkhen, Bangkok 10220, Thailand. Mobile: +66 818 357380;email: seasia_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Pacific: Ravi Joshi, Visiting Professor of Biology, Universityof the Philippines, Baguio, 2600 Baguio City, The Philippines,Mobile tel +63-919 955 8868/+63 998 578 5570email: pacific_organiser@taa.org.ukTAA Zambia/Southern Africa: Chris Kapembwa, Plot 30 Kaniki, Ndola,Zambia. Tel: +260 977 536 825, Email: zambia_organiser@taa.org.uk

UK Regional BranchesScotland

John Ferguson21 Pentland Drive, Edinburgh, EH10 6PU. Tel: 07734249948, email: scotland_convenor@taa.org.uk

North of England

John Gowing, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1 Park Terrace,Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU.Tel: 0191 222 8488; email: northernengland_convenor@taa.org.uk

South-West

Tim Roberts, Greenways, 15 Marksbury, Bath, Somerset BA2 9HSTel: 01761 470455; email: southwest_organiser@taa.org.uk

London/South-East

Terry Wiles, 54 King George Gardens, Chichester, West SussexPO19 6LE. Tel: 07971 626372; email: southeast_convenor@taa.org.uk

East Anglia

Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB89LU. Tel: 01440 783413; email: eastanglia_convenor@taa.org.uk

DESIGN, LAYOUT AND PRESS-READY FILESRobert Lewin Graphic DesignTel: (01353) 722005lewin994@btinternet.com

PRINTINGAltone LimitedTel: 01223 837840info@altone.ltd.ukwww.altone.ltd.uk

TAA, Montpelier Professional Services, 1 Dashwood Square, Newton Stewart, Wigtownshire DG8 6EQ Web site: http://www.taa.org.uk

TAA Executive Committee

OFFICE HOLDERS

President: Andrew Bennett, Chroyle, Gloucester Road, Bath BA1 8BH. Tel: 01225 851489; email: president@taa.org.uk

Chairman: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 9LU.Tel: 01440 783413; email: chairman@taa.org.uk

Vice-Chairman: Paul Harding, 207 Lightwood Road, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 6RN.Tel: 01298 27957; email: vice_chairman@taa.org.uk

General Secretary: Elizabeth Warham, TAA, c/o Montpelier Professional Services, 1 Dashwood Square, Newton Steward, DG8 6EQ, UK. Tel: Mobile 07711 524 641, email: general_secretary@taa.org.uk

Treasurer/Subscriptions: Jim Ellis-Jones, 4 Silbury Court, Silsoe, BedsMK45 4RU. Tel: 01525 861090; email: treasurer@taa.org.uk

Membership Secretary/Change of Address: Linda Blunt, 15 WestbourneGrove, Great Baddow, Chelmsford CM2 9RT.email: membership _secretary@taa.org.uk

Corporate Membership: Martin Evans, 35 Cavendish Avenue, Cambridge, CB1 7UR. Tel: 01223 244436,email: Corporate_membership@taa.org.uk

Branches Coordinator: ‘Nathan’ Duraisaminathan Visvanathan, WS Atkins,Western House (Block C), Peterborough Business Park, Lynch Wood,Peterborough PE2 6FZ. Tel: 07834 507380,email: branch_coordinator@taa.org.uk

Agriculture for Development Editors:Coordinating Editor:

Paul Harding, 207 Lightwood Road, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 6RN. Tel: 01298 27957, email: coordinator_ag4dev@taa.org.uk

Technical Editor: Elizabeth Warham,email: editor_ag4dev@taa.org.uk

Technical Editor: Brian G Sims, email: editor_ag4dev@taa.org.uk

Website Manager: Keith Virgo, Pettets Farm, Great Bradley, Newmarket,Suffolk CB8 9LU. Tel: 01440 783413, email: webmanager@taa.org.uk

Award Fund Chairman/Enquiries: Antony Ellman, 15 Vine Road, Barnes, London SW13 0NE. Tel: 0208 878 5882, Fax: 02088786588; email: taa_award_fund@taa.org.uk

Honours Panel Chair: Paul Harding, 207 Lightwood Road, Buxton, Derbyshire SK17 6RN.Tel: 01298 27957, email: chairhonours@taa.org.uk

Vacancies Team Members:Alan Stapleton, Michael Fitzpatrick, Bookie Ezeomah.email: vacancies@taa.org.uk

PUBLISHED BY THE TROPICAL AGRICULTURE ASSOCIATION (TAA)ISSN 1759-0604 (Print) • ISSN 1759-0612 (Online)