motivation = the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior

MotivationMotivation

= the process of arousing and sustaining = the process of arousing and sustaining

goal-directed behaviorgoal-directed behavior

THREE TYPES OF THREE TYPES OF MOTIVATION THEORIESMOTIVATION THEORIES

InternalInternal Focus on variables within individual that lead to Focus on variables within individual that lead to

motivation and behavior. motivation and behavior.

ProcessProcess Emphasize nature of interaction between individual Emphasize nature of interaction between individual

and environment. and environment.

ExternalExternal Focus on elements in the environment to explain Focus on elements in the environment to explain

motivation and behavior. motivation and behavior.

Early Motivational TheoristsEarly Motivational Theorists

Max WeberMax Weber

Protestant work ethicProtestant work ethic

Sigmund FreudSigmund Freudperson’s person’s organizational life organizational life founded on founded on compulsion to work compulsion to work and power of loveand power of love

Early Motivational TheoristsEarly Motivational TheoristsAdam SmithAdam Smith

people motivated by people motivated by self-interest for self-interest for economic gain to economic gain to provide necessities of provide necessities of life.life.

Frederick TaylorFrederick Taylorscientific management; scientific management; emphasized cooperation emphasized cooperation between management and between management and labor to increase profit.labor to increase profit.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Low

est t

o hi

ghes

t ord

er

Theory X and Theory YTheory X and Theory Y

A set A set of of assumptions of assumptions of how to manage how to manage individuals individuals who are who are motivated by motivated by lower order lower order needsneeds

A set of A set of assumptions of assumptions of how to manage how to manage individuals individuals who are who are motivated by motivated by higher order higher order needsneeds

McGregor’s Assumptions About People McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory XBased on Theory X

Naturally indolentNaturally indolent Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and

prefer to be ledprefer to be led Inherently self-centered and indifferent to Inherently self-centered and indifferent to

organizational needsorganizational needs Naturally resistant to changeNaturally resistant to change Gullible, not bright, ready dupesGullible, not bright, ready dupes

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Yon Theory Y

Passive and resistant behaviors not Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational inherent; result of organizational experience experience

People possessPeople possess Motivation Motivation Development potential Development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward Readiness to direct behavior toward

organizational goalsorganizational goals

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

McClelland’s TheoryMcClelland’s Theory

AchievementAchievement PowerPower AffiliationAffiliation

Three Categories of Needs

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement

Need for AchievementNeed for Achievementa manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming goals, persistence, and overcoming difficultiesdifficulties

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for PowerNeed for Power

Need for PowerNeed for Power

a manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need to make an impact on others, to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in events, and make a difference in lifelife

McClelland’s Need Theory:McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

a manifest (easily perceived) need a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with close, intimate relationships with other peopleother people

Need Theories of MotivationNeed Theories of Motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene factorHygiene factor Motivation factorMotivation factor

Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different

part of an employee’s experience

MotivationMotivation––Hygiene Theory of Hygiene Theory of MotivationMotivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy and administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

© 2011 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Critique of HerzbergCritique of Herzberg

A factor may not be exclusively A factor may not be exclusively motivation or hygiene (e.g., salary). motivation or hygiene (e.g., salary).

Does not account for individual Does not account for individual differences (age, sex, social status, differences (age, sex, social status, education). education).

Does not account for intrinsic job Does not account for intrinsic job factors. factors.

Supporting data comes from peculiar Supporting data comes from peculiar critical-incident technique.critical-incident technique.

New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, HopeNew Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope

Eustress Eustress healthy, normal stresshealthy, normal stress Encourages optimism, hope and health.Encourages optimism, hope and health. While things happen that are While things happen that are

out of our control, we can out of our control, we can control our response to them.control our response to them.

New Ideas : New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full EngagementPositive Energy and Full Engagement

Individuals are activated by their own physical, Individuals are activated by their own physical, emotional, mental and spiritual energy, not by emotional, mental and spiritual energy, not by unmet needs.unmet needs.

Stresses the role of energy recovery. Stresses the role of energy recovery.

A new study in England argues that motivational awards given to children, such as points, stickers, and treats, have little effect on performance.

May reduce “intrinsic motivation.” Rather than doing a task for its own sake, they do it just for the reward.

Does Motivation “Work”?Does Motivation “Work”?

Social Exchange & Equity TheorySocial Exchange & Equity Theory

Equity theoryEquity theory – – concerned with social concerned with social processes that influence processes that influence motivation and motivation and behavior. behavior.

IndividualIndividual––Organizational ExchangeOrganizational Exchange

Adam’s Theory of InequityAdam’s Theory of Inequity

People are motivated when they find themselves People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity or unfairness. in situations of inequity or unfairness.

To look for inequity, people consider their inputs To look for inequity, people consider their inputs and their outcomes. and their outcomes.

Equity and Inequity at WorkEquity and Inequity at Work

Strategies for Resolution Strategies for Resolution of Inequityof Inequity

Alter the person’s outcomesAlter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputsAlter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outputsAlter the comparison other’s outputs Alter the comparison other’s inputsAlter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison otherChange who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequityRationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situationLeave the organizational situation

New Perspectives on Equity TheoryNew Perspectives on Equity Theory

Equity Sensitive Equity Sensitive

I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other.

New Perspectives in Equity TheoryNew Perspectives in Equity Theory

BenevolentBenevolent

I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other.

New Perspectives on Equity TheoryNew Perspectives on Equity Theory

EntitledEntitled

I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other.

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

explains motivation in terms of an explains motivation in terms of an

individual’s perception of the performance individual’s perception of the performance

process. process.

Two Basic Notions of Expectancy TheoryTwo Basic Notions of Expectancy Theory

People expect certain outcomes of People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance. behavior and performance.

People believe that the effort they put People believe that the effort they put forth is related to the performance they forth is related to the performance they achieve and the outcomes they receive. achieve and the outcomes they receive.

Key Constructs of Expectancy TheoryKey Constructs of Expectancy Theory

ValenceValence –– value or importance placed on a value or importance placed on a particular rewardparticular reward

ExpectancyExpectancy –– belief that effort leads to belief that effort leads to performanceperformance

InstrumentalityInstrumentality –– belief that performance is belief that performance is related to rewardsrelated to rewards

Expectancy Model of MotivationExpectancy Model of Motivation

3 Causes of Motivational Problems3 Causes of Motivational Problems

Belief that effort will not result in Belief that effort will not result in performanceperformance

Belief that performance will not result Belief that performance will not result in rewardsin rewards

The value a person places on, or the The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain preference a person has for, certain rewardsrewards

Moral MaturityMoral Maturity

the measure of a person’s cognitive the measure of a person’s cognitive

moral developmentmoral development

Moral Maturity and MotivationMoral Maturity and Motivation

Morally mature people behave and act based

on universal ethical principles.

Morally immature people behave and act

based on egocentric motivations.

Cultural DifferencesCultural Differences

Most motivation theories in use today have been developed by and about Americans.

These theories may not deal adequately with cultural differences.

Participants in the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing faced harsh conditions – 16 hour sessions, heatstroke, exposure to rain, and one session that lasted 51 hours. During the ceremony, some performers wore adult diapers so that they could perform for six hours.

There were, however, almost no complaints from the performers, most of whom agreed that such sacrifices were worth it for the good of the nation.

Now That’s Motivation!Now That’s Motivation!