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Gender Equality in Access to Rural Service Delivery:
Governance at the Local Level Reflections from India Ghana and Ethiopia
Gender and Governance Research Team
Page 2
Social and economic services and infrastructure in rural areas
Rural roads
Electricity
Drinking water
Health and education
Agricultural extension
Agricultural research
Background
• The poor receive poor services (WDR 2004)• Service provision is particularly poor in rural areas.
• .. and particularly poor for rural women.• Triple challenge:
• Market failure: Example: Extension for smallholder farmers• State failure: Services in rural areas difficult to supervise• Community failure: Elite capture and social exclusion
• Fourth challenge: Perception bias: “Women don’t farm.”• Governance reforms to improve service provision
• Decentralization, public sector reforms• Knowledge gap: What works where and why?
Gender and Governance in Rural Services Project
• Goal: • Assess strategies for improving agricultural and rural
service delivery• with a focus on providing more equitable access to
these services, especially for women
• Approach• Comparative study in India, Ghana and Ethiopia
• All three countries underwent decentralization.• Differences in political system, overall governance
conditions, socio-economics and gender roles• Mix of quantitative and qualitative methods
Research Team and Partner Organizations
• IFPRI: Afua B. Banful, Regina Birner (coordination), Peter Gaff, Tewodaj Mogues, Nethra Palaniswamy, Zelekawork Paulos, Katharina Raabe, Josee Randriamamonjy, Yan Sun
• Oxfam: Marc J. Cohen• India• K. G. Gayathridevi, Institute of Social and Economic Change (ISEC),
Bangalore; Madhushree Sekher, Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Mumbai
• Ghana• Felix Asante, Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research
(ISSER), University of Legon, Ghana• Ehtiopia • Fanaye Tadesse, Economic Policy Research Institute (EEPRI)• Mamusha Lemma Woldegiorgis, Poverty Action Network Ethiopia
Leah Horowitz† May 23, 2009
Conceptual Framework
Types of strategies to make rural service provision gender-responsive
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Development Agencies / Advocacy
NGOs (DA)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Strategies to make service provision gender-responsive
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Strategies to make service provision gender-sensitive
Reserving seats for women in local councils
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
• Supporting female political candidates
• Party quota• Women’s
manifestos
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Involving women groups in service delivery
Quota in user organizations
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Creating a gender machinery in the public administration
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Hiring female service providers,e.g., extension agents
Using gender-specific service delivery approaches
National / State-level Ministries (NM)
National / State-levelPolitical Representatives (NP)
Community-Based Organizations (CO)
Local Political Representatives (LP)
Household Members (HH)
Public SectorService Providers (PS)
NGO / Privateservice providers (NG)
Services
Short route
Long route
Political Parties (PP)
Accountability Framework based on World Bank (2004)
Research Approach
Surveys (1) approx. 1,000 households(2) Local politicians(3) CBOs(4) Service providers
Case studies
What strategies did the three countries use?
And how effective were they?
India
Main strategy: Targeting local politicians33% reservation of seats in local councils
India
-all
India
- Kar
nata
ka
Gha
na
Ethiop
ia - D
istric
t
Ethiop
ia - K
ebele
0
10
20
30
40
50
Percentage female representatives in local councils
Percentage female members
Reservation Policy: Potentials and Challenges
• Potentials• Policy is enforced: Women have a “seat at the table” of
political decision-making - Goal in its own right!• Challenges
• Female representation in Gram Panchayats does not necessarily result in better service provision outcomes.
• Example: Public Works Program in Karnataka• Gram panchayat council members have to bargain for the
resources to be spent in the village they represent• Villages represented by women from scheduled castes
get significantly fewer resources• Policy implication
• Find ways to increase bargaining power – or use formula
User organizations in service provision –How inclusive are they?
0
20
40
60
80
100
011 10
100
0 3 6
100
5 4
30
16Female chairpersonFemale secretarySC/ST Chairperson
Source: Karnataka survey (2008)
Ghana
Main Strategy: Gender Machinery in the Public Administration
• Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs• District level gender focal point • Ministry of Food and Agriculture -Women in Agricultural
Development (WIAD) Directorate• WIAD unit in every district agricultural office - typically
headed by a female• Extension agents required to provide gender
disaggregated reports of farmer interactions• Informal female quotas of 30 – 40% for some political
appointments
Gender mainstreaming in public administration somewhat evident
ISEC / ISSER / EEPRI - IFPRISurveys
Gender composition of extension staff(% in sample)
Strategy has shown some success in reaching women
Extension service example: Female frontline staff serve more female farmers
Female Extension agents
Male Extension agents
00.20.40.60.8
11.21.41.6
Ratio of females to males amongst farmers interacted with
Strategy has shown some success in reaching women
Female extension agents serve relatively more female farmers
Impr
oved
see
ds
Agroc
hem
icals
Plant
ing
tech
niqu
es
Chem
ical f
ertili
zer
Posth
arve
st s
tora
ge0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00Ratio of females to male amongst those taught technology
Female AgentsMale Agents
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Forest Zone Transition Zone Savannah Zone0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
11.7% 12.3%10.9%
0.0%2.1%
0.0%1.8% 1.4% 0.5%
Male-Headed Households Female-Headed HouseholdsFemale Spouses
But … despite strategy women’s access to extension service is particularly low
ISSER-IFPRI Survey, 2008
Access to agricultural extension (% interacting with agent during the past year)
Policy implications for Ghana
• Extension agents need clear targets of number of farmers to reach.
• Targets should include female to male ratios for specific technologies and not just interactions.
• Female farmers more likely than men to receive advice on sanitation, water filtration, HIV/AIDS prevention from extension agents
• Increase proportion of female extension agents as they are more likely to serve women.
Ethiopia
Main Strategies in Ethiopia
• Gender machinery• Ministry of Women’s Affairs—at federal, regional, and
district levels• Women’s affairs departments in sectoral ministries
(e.g. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development)—at three tiers of government
• Gender-specific design of service packages• Quota to reach rural men and women with
services
Strategy 1: Set quota to reach minimum percentage of women with services
EEPRI-IFPRI Survey, 2009
E
xte
ns
ion
vis
its
...
A
tte
nd
ex
ten
s...
V
isit
..
.
V
isit
...
T
rain
ed
at
...
S
erv
ice
by
...
A
gri
cu
ltu
ral
...0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
Men WomenPolicy: Agricultural extension for at least 30% of female farmers
Strategy 2: Tailor rural services to gender-specific needs
• “Women’s development package”• Offered by extension agents• Focuses on sheep, goats, poultry, home gardening,
and beekeeping• Inappropriate for many female household heads
• Often earn income by providing weeding services• Often busy with sharecropping arrangements
• Perception bias influences program design
Perception Bias: “Women Don’t Farm”
Satisfaction with agricultural extension(percent of respondents)
HH Heads Spouses0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
VerySat:
92.5
Very Sat:
95.4
Very dissatisfied
Somewhat dissat-isfied
Somewhat satis-fied
Very satisfied
Adoption of new technologies“During the past two years, did you start to use some farming
practice for the first time, such as a new variety, new crop, new input, new cultivation technique, new breed, etc.?”
Heads Spouses0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
10.3 3.5
89.7 96.6 NoYes
Strategy 3: Women in Leadership Positions in User/Service Associations
• All water committees include female members• But: In three of four case study sites, water committee
heads are men• Receive limited technical training• No training on “soft skills:”
• Community mobilization to maintain water systems and pay fees
• Community education and persuasion to use improved sources
• Limited technical and other support from district government
Policy Implications for Ethiopia
• Relatively ambitious directives through quota to reach men and women with extension• Women’s access to extension rates relatively favorably• Pilot innovative strategies (e.g. extension agents working through
women’s associations); Increasing female extension staff• Tailoring services to men’s and women’s needs
• Promising, but perception bias gets in the way of effectiveness• Evaluating agricultural extension services
• High satisfaction rates in spite of low adoption rates• Need for further methodology development, especially if satisfaction
data are to be used for management purposes• Making extension more demand-driven
• Balance better the trade-off between standardization (easier supervision) and local adaptation (services more relevant)
General Conclusions
• What is promising?• Each country had at least one very promising
strategy in place to make rural service provision gender-responsive
• Clear positive effects!• What needs to be done?
• Adjust gender strategies to country-specific challenges• Address general problems of rural service provision, which
differ across countries• Collect gender-disaggregated data on service delivery
outcomes• Find ways to create incentives to reward better
outcomes for women
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