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CHAPTER 10COMBINED EFFECTS OF DIESEL FUEL

PROPERTIES / TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS :

1. INVESTIGATION OF DENSITY EFFECTS ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS

1.1. LIGHT DUTY VEHICLE TESTS1.1.1. Fuel Delivery Adjustment.1.1.2. Results

1.1.2.1. The extent to which the density effects on emissions observed in the main programme could be decreased by tuning the engine management system to fuel density.

1.1.2.2. The variation in emissions sensitivity to fuel density under the different engine settings1.1.3. Conclusions

1.2. HEAVY DUTY ENGINE TESTS1.2.1. Results1.2.2. Conclusions

2. INVESTIGATION OF EMISSION TRADE-OFF FOR HD ENGINES.

2.1. FUEL, ENGINE AND COMBINED EFFECTS2.2. TEST RESULTS2.3. CONCLUSIONS

3. FIGURES FROM PAGE 21 TO 57

EPEFE Chapter 10 Ch 10 / P. 1

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1. INVESTIGATION OF DENSITY EFFECTS ON ENGINE PERFORMANCE

AND EMISSIONSIn chapter 5, data were presented confirming that density has a significant impact on vehicle and engine emissions. As part of the EPEFE programme, additional experiments were performed to help explain how this effect is caused. Data are available from three LD vehicles and five HD engines.

1.1. Light Duty Vehicle TestsThe objectives of this experiment were to investigate:

· the extent to which the density effects on emissions observed in the main programme could be decreased by tuning the engine management system to fuel density

· the variation in emissions sensitivity to fuel density under the different engine settingsThe following fuels were used in this part of the programme:

VALUES OF FUEL PROPERTIES INVESTIGATED

Fuel No. Density kg/m3 Poly-aromatics % m/m

Cetane Number T95 °C

EPD1 829.2 1.0 51.0 344EPD2 828.8 7.7 50.2 349EPD3 857.0 1.1 50.0 348EPD4 855.1 7.4 50.3 344

Table 10.1.1

1.1.1. Fuel Delivery Adjustment.In the main EPEFE test programme, 19 vehicles representing 15 models were tested at their reference engine tune on the 11 test fuel matrix. During these tests, no attempt was made to find the optimum conditions for the different fuel qualities. [Engines are normally tuned to the mid range density of market fuels in order to minimise the effect of fuel density variations on emissions.]

In order to investigate further the interactions between engines and fuel density, test work was undertaken on three of the EPEFE vehicles (L, N and R) using the fuels EPD 1-4 which were the ones which best decoupled density from the other EPEFE fuel variables. The engine management systems in these cars were adjusted to take account of the differences in fuel density between the fuels with the objective of preserving the operating conditions (mg/stroke, start-of-injection timing, EGR, etc.) of the reference tunes. [Although the fuels also differed from the standard reference fuel in other important respects apart from density, a full, time consuming engine optimisation on each fuel was not possible within the scope of this experiment]. This was achieved in all cases by adjustments to the engine electronic control unit internal maps; no changes to the engine mechanical systems were made for any car. The emission test work followed exactly the same protocol as the main EPEFE test programme.

Technology does not exist to make on-board adjustments to electronic management systems as a function of fuel density changes.

Ch 10 / P. 2 Chapter 10 EPEFE

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TECHNOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE TEST VEHICLESTechnology Vehicle

L N RDI XIDI X XTurbo X XNA XIntercooler X XClosed loop EGR X X XCatalyst X X XElectronic Control X X X2V X3V X4V X

Table 10.1.2

Vehicle LThe electronic engine management system on this vehicle allows independent adjustment of fuel mass injected, start-of-injection timing and EGR rate as functions of accelerator position and engine speed.

The accelerator position generates a signal of torque demand in terms of fuel mass injected. Separate mappings translate this 'fuel mass' signal to an injection pump volume signal, to a start-of-injection timing mechanism signal and to an EGR rate. Each is optimised on the reference fuel to provide the lowest exhaust emission. The standard injection volume is calibrated on the basis of a fuel density of 0.840 kg/l, the mid range value of reference fuel tolerance of 0.835-0.845 kg/l.

For this vehicle, new engine mappings were generated for the higher and lower density fuels. Each re-mapping or 're-tuning' consisted of adjusting the volume injected as a function of fuel density through the full operating range of the engine in order to maintain the same mass injection as that for the reference condition of 0.840 kg/l density at equivalent accelerator pedal settings. Since the start-of-injection timing and EGR settings are governed by fuel mass delivery, this re-tuning ensured that these parameters were preserved at their optimum settings and did not need independent adjustment.

Fuels EPD1-4 were each tested at least twice at both engine tunes according to the ECE15 + EUDC test cycle, following exactly the same protocol as the main EPEFE test programme, and regulated emissions and CO2 were measured. The same laboratory was used for all of the tests.

Vehicle N The electronic engine management system on this vehicle features state-of-the-art electronic feed-back control of fuel delivery. The system is also optimised on the reference fuel of density 0.840 kg/l,(the mid range value of reference fuel tolerance of 0.835-0.845 kg/l) in order to provide the lowest exhaust emissions.

For this vehicle, a new engine tune was developed for the higher density fuels only (0.86 kg/l) which maintained injection timing, injected mass and EGR rate at the reference (0.84 kg/l) settings.

Fuels EPD1-4 were each tested on the new tune for 0.86 kg/l fuel according to the ECE15+EUDC test cycle following exactly the same protocol as the main EPEFE test programme, and results compared with those from the main programme (0.84kg/l tune). The same laboratory was used for all of the tests.


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Vehicle RThe electronic engine management system on this vehicle was the most-capable presently available for passenger-car use. It has digital electronic control through feed-back systems but uses the same type of mechanisms for raising injection pressure and fuel mass delivery that have been the best available for some time.

For this vehicle, new engine tunes were generated for the higher and lower density fuels which maintained the same mass injection (mg/stroke) as that for the reference condition of 0.840 kg/l density. The electronic system allowed this to be done independently of start-of-injection timing and EGR since the injection volume, injection timing, and EGR are controlled directly by digital electronic instructions from maps of engine speed against mass injected per stroke. The control map for injected volume was thus adjusted to reference fuel conditions for each of the test fuels, without affecting the injection timing or EGR already optimised for reference-fuel conditions.

The tuning process covered the full range of engine operation that is seen during the ECE15+EUDC test cycle. Adjustments achieved common mass delivered, common start-of-injection timing and EGR. (Some small differences in end-of-injection timing could be expected due to the operating principle of the rotary distributor injection pump mechanism. The effect of this is a small shift in the falling-pressure part of the injection mass/timing curve; injecting a slightly different volume but starting at the same point will affect the end-of-injection timing. Since the injection-pressure-rising slope is common, variations in volume inevitably affect the falling slope.)

Fuels EPD1 and 3 only were tested twice at both the high and low density engine tunes, according to the ECE15+EUDC test cycle following exactly the same protocol as the main EPEFE test programme, in addition to baseline tests on the quality check fuel. This experiment was carried out in a different laboratory to the main programme tests.

1.1.2. ResultsThe effect of retuning the electronic management system (EMS) for fuel density was evaluated in two ways:

· the extent to which the density effects on emissions observed in the main programme could be decreased by tuning the engine management system to fuel density .

· the variation in emissions sensitivity to fuel density under the different engine settingsThe results are shown in Table 10.1.4 and in Figures 10.1.1.1. to 10.1.1.5

1.1.2.1. The extent to which the density effects on emissions observed in the main programme could be decreased by tuning the engine management system to fuel density. In this section comparisons are made between fuels after each engine had been tuned to run on the density of each of the fuels used for that test. This gives an indication of the density effect on emissions which remains after engine fuel density adjustments have been made. This evaluation was only done for vehicles L and R since for vehicle N the tuning was limited to the high density fuel.

From Table 10.1.1.2 the remaining difference in emissions between fuel pairs, each measured at its respective density tune can be seen (absolute differences between matched tunes). The results are shown graphically in Fig. 10.1.1.6

REMAINING EMISSIONS DIFFERENCES AFTER TUNING FOR DENSITYFuel Pair Vehicle CO HC NOX PM

3-1 L 26% 45% -8% 22%3-1 R 24% 30% -20% 5%4-2 L 8% 24% 0% 16%

Table 10.1.3Hence:


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· Tuning the electronic management system for density decreased the density effects on emissions, observed in the main programme

· A part of the density effect on emissions is caused by a physical interaction with the fuel management system

· After tuning the engine to fuel density, a part of the density effect remained1.1.2.2. The variation in emissions sensitivity to fuel density under the different engine settingsThe comparison of the emissions generated under the standard tune with those generated under the high and low density tunes show the effect of the engine density adjustments. However, tests with the fuel pairs on the standard setting were conducted only in the main programme and drifts of emissions data were observed over this test phase. For this reason, only differences in absolute levels rather than the levels themselves were considered. This difference in absolute emissions levels from a fuel pair (EPD1-3, EPD2-4) at a particular engine tune was defined as the sensitivity to fuel density. Changes in this sensitivity as a function of the engine tune are considered here.

Sensitivities were generally lower on the 'high' density tune as shown in the table below and in Figures 10.1.1.7.and 10.1.1.8:

EMISSIONS SENSIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNECO Sensitivity * HC Sensitivity * NOX Sensitivity * PM Sensitivity *

Fuels Vehicles

high density tune

ref. density tune

low density tune

high density tune

ref. density tune

low density tune

high density tune

ref. density tune

low density tune

high density tune

ref. density tune

low density tune

3-1 L 0.159 0.233 0.222 0.08 0.104 0.152 -0.097 -0.081 -0.108 0.005 0.017 0.023

4-2 L 0.043 0.188 0.15 0.022 0.087 0.075 -0.058 -0.082 -0.007 0.007 0.017 0.015

3-1 R 0.118 0.167 0.195 0.034 0.066 0.067 -0.047 -0.062 -0.198 0.002 0.002 0.014

3-1 N 0.104 0.144 0.069 0.077 -0.007 -0.011 0.017 0.024

4-2 N 0.074 0.118 0.055 0.066 0.005 -0.003 0.029 0.023

Note : * sensitivity = absolute difference in g/km between fuels

Table 10.1.4.


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From these comparisons it can be seen that:

· Changing from the standard tune to the high density tune substantially reduced the sensitivity for PM, HC and CO. The effect on NOX was more variable.

· Changing from the standard to the low density tune substantially increased the sensitivity for PM and HC: small reductions were observed in some cases while for NOX the sensitivity was severely affected.

· For NOX, no clear trend can be seen across the test vehicles and fuels. It is nevertheless evident that NOX shows the greatest variation in sensitivity between engine tunes.

· For vehicle N only the high density tune was generated, representing only half of the adjustment of the other vehicles and EGR was not kept constant. The 'high' tune showed a lower sensitivity for CO, HC and PM than for the reference fuel tune. PM showed different behaviour between the two fuel pairs and for NOX the levels did not change sufficiently to indicate a clear effect.

Hence:

· Tuning the electronic management system for fuel density has a large effect on emissions

· Tuning the electronic management system for high density fuels substantially reduced the emissions sensitivity to fuel density changes

· Lowest emissions were generally from the low density fuels on the low density tune except for NOX which showed the opposite trend

· At both high and low density tunes the high density fuel gave higher emissions than the low density fuel

1.1.3. Conclusions· The experiment confirmed the effect of density observed in the main programme.· The results indicated that a part of the effect of fuel density on engine emissions is

caused by a physical interaction with the engine management system. Further effects of density were evident after tuning engines to fuel density, but the reasons for these further effects cannot be explained by the available data and may be due to additional interactions with the fuel management system and/or effects on the combustion process in relation with fuel.

· Vehicle sensitivity to density variations can be influenced by the choice of a specific engine tune. Sensitivities were lowest when the engines were set to the high density tune and highest at the low density tune. Minimising fuel density variations would also reduce sensivity to vehicle emissions in relation to density.

· Lowest emissions were generally from the low density fuels when tested on the low density tune, except for NOX which showed the opposite trend.

· Emission from fuels when tested on the specific density tunes were generally lower than on the opposing tunes.

· At both high and low density tunes, emissions from the high density fuels were higher than those from the low density fuels for PM, HC and CO, but the high density fuels gave lower NOX emissions.

· Some differences were seen in the way individual engines/vehicles on fuel pairs responded to the adjustments


EMISSIONS SENSITIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNE (VEHICLE L - FUEL EPD 1-3 - COMPOSITE CYCLE)

Low Density Tune Reference Tune (main programme results)

High Density Tune Absolute Difference

Fuel 1 match

Fuel 3 mismatch

Sensitivity 3-1

Fuel 1 Fuel 3 Sensitivity 3-1

Fuel 1 mismatch

Fuel 3 match

Sensitivity 3-1

(Matched Tunes 3-1)

PM 0.039 0.061 0.023 0.048 0.066 0.017 0.046 0.050 0.005 0.011HC 0.083 0.235 0.152 0.062 0.166 0.104 0.071 0.151 0.080 0.068NOX 0.626 0.518 -0.108 0.64 0.56 -0.081 0.675 0.578 -0.097 -0.048CO 0.492 0.714 0.222 0.41 0.64 0.233 0.506 0.665 0.159 0.173

Note : Emission values quoted in g/kmTable 10.1.1.2A

EMISSIONS SENSITIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNE (VEHICLE L - FUEL EPD 2-4 - COMPOSITE CYCLE)



Fuel 2 match

Fuel 4 mismatch

Sensitivity 4-2


Fuel 2 mismatch

Fuel 4 match

Sensitivity 4-2

(Matched Tunes 4-2)

PM 0.043 0.057 0.015 0.053 0.070 0.017 0.045 0.052 0.007 0.009HC 0.081 0.156 0.075 0.068 0.155 0.087 0.085 0.107 0.022 0.026NOX 0.628 0.622 -0.007 0.68 0.59 -0.082 0.683 0.625 -0.058 0.003CO 0.530 0.679 0.150 0.44 0.63 0.188 0.543 0.587 0.043 0.057

Note : Emission values quoted in g/kmTable 10.1.1.2B

EMISSIONS SENSITIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNE (VEHICLE R - FUEL EPD 1-3 - COMPOSITE CYCLE)



Fuel 1 match

Fuel 3 mismatch

Sensitivity 3-1


Fuel 1 mismatch

Fuel 3 match

Sensitivity 3-1

(Matched Tunes 3-1)

PM 0.074 0.088 0.014 0.052 0.054 0.002 0.076 0.078 0.002 0.004HC 0.125 0.192 0.067 0.137 0.203 0.066 0.144 0.178 0.034 0.053NOX 0.655 0.457 -0.198 0.543 0.481 -0.062 0.571 0.524 -0.047 -0.131CO 0.471 0.666 0.195 0.464 0.631 0.167 0.498 0.616 0.118 0.145

Note : Emission values quoted in g/kmTable 10.1.1.2C

EMISSIONS SENSITIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNE (VEHICLE N - FUEL EPD 1-3 - COMPOSITE CYCLE)


High Density Tune

Fuel 1 match

Fuel 3 mismatch

Sensitivity 3-1


Fuel 1 mismatch

Fuel 3 match

Sensitivity 3-1

PM 0.061 0.085 0.024 0.07 0.087 0.017HC 0.106 0.183 0.077 0.107 0.176 0.069NOX 0.483 0.472 -0.011 0.547 0.540 -0.007CO 0.495 0.638 0.144 0.491 0.595 0.104

Note : Emission values quoted in g/kmTable 10.1.1.2D

EMISSIONS SENSITIVITY TO CHANGES IN FUEL DENSITY/ENGINE TUNE (VEHICLE N - FUEL EPD 2-4 - COMPOSITE CYCLE)


High Density Tune

Fuel 2 match

Fuel 4 mismatch

Sensitivity 4-2


Fuel 2 mismatch

Fuel 4 match

Sensitivity 4-2

PM 0.072 0.095 0.023 0.074 0.103 0.029HC 0.099 0.165 0.066 0.104 0.159 0.055NOX 0.504 0.501 -0.003 0.557 0.562 0.005CO 0.504 0.622 0.118 0.518 0.592 0.074

Note : Emission values quoted in g/kmTable 10.1.1.2E

1.2. Heavy Duty Engine TestsThe main EPEFE test programme (designated Step 1) evaluated the performance of the engines on the EPEFE fuels at standard engine setting with no attempt to optimise the engine to each new fuel. An additional programme (Step 2) was also performed using Fuels EPD1(low density) and EPD3(high density) to investigate more closely the effects of fuel density on engine performance and emissions, and the mechanisms by which these effects occurred. This comprised adjusting the fuel delivery rate to give as closely as possible the same mass fuel delivery as that obtained in the standard tune on the RF73 quality check fuel. Any effects of density on the engine power would therefore be largely cancelled out.

Fuel No. Density kg/m3 Poly-aromatics % m/m Cetane Number T95 deg CEPD1 829.2 1.0 51.0 344EPD3 857.0 1.1 50.0 348

All investigations with heavy duty engines were based on the 13 mode test cycle according to 88/77/EEC (NOX, HC, CO, PM). In addition to these, the weighted fuel consumption (FC) and weighted power were calculated in order to understand further the fuel and engine technology effects. In this chapter, fuel consumption and test power refer to the weighed results of the 13 mode test. It should be noted that the test power so calculated is lower than the rated power of the engines.

A selection of important engine parameters inclusive power for mode 6 and 8 is given in Table 10.1.2.1. The data labelled 'standard adjustment' refer to the Step 1 results, with the higher density fuel producing more power. The data labelled 'delivery adjusted' show the power where the engine was retuned on each test fuel to match fuel delivery as closely as possible. The emission results obtained after following this procedure are shown in Figures10.1.2.1 - 10.1.2.6.

During the course of the experiments it was noted that, for some engines, injection timing was also affected when the fuel was changed, and so a third set of tests was run with the injection timing matched between the two fuels. These data are labelled 'timing adjusted' in Figures10.1.2.1 - 10.1.2.6. In some cases both fuel delivery and timing were adjusted, in others only the timing. Details are given in Table 10.1.2.1.

1.2.1. ResultsFuel Delivery Adjustment

· Fuel injection pumps deliver fuel volumetrically. Adjustment of the injection system to the same mass fuel delivery (mg/injection stroke per litre engine displacement) as RF73 for both fuels EPD1 and EPD3 eliminated the differences in emission levels between the two fuels for some emissions and some engines. Significant differences in emissions remained for engines W and X. (Figures 10.1.2.1 - 10.1.2.6)

· Particulate composition is influenced largely by the individual engines rather than by fuel quality and is not affected by the delivery adjustments (Figures 10.1.2.7).

Timing AdjustmentThe effects of these adjustments can be seen in Figures 10.1.2.1 - 10.1.2.6.

· Differences in injection timing between fuels EPD1 and EPD3 remained for some engines even after adjustment to the same fuel delivery as RF73 quality check fuel. (Figure 10.1.2.8 - example of injection timing over engine load for the intermediate speed of the 13 mode cycle for engine X).

· Both fuels fell on the same timing trade off curve showing that density affects timing and not the combustion process itself. (Figure 10.1.2.9 - example of the NOX / BSFC timing trade off curve for fuels EPD1 and EPD3 for engine X)

1.2.2. Conclusions· Fuel injection systems responded to fuel density in different ways depending on the

fuel injection system layout and technology.· Reducing fuel density gave reductions in engine test power for all engines and

increases in fuel consumption for all except engine Y.· Adjustment of the injection system to the same mass fuel delivery (mg/litre engine

displacement/injection stroke) and injection timing for the low and high density fuels eliminated the differences in emissions between the two fuels. (The only injection parameter which could not be adjusted and therefore remained different between the fuels was injection duration).

· The effect of density on engine performance and emissions (fuels EPD1 and EPD3) is caused by a physical interaction with the fuel injection system which is purely hydraulic in nature.

· There is no evidence of density effects on the combustion process itself.· Only density was investigated in the EPEFE experiment. Other physical fuel

properties(such as viscosity, sound velocity, compressibility) also affect the hydraulic performance of injection systems, but are intercorrelated with density and are not constant between all the EPEFE fuels.

Description of the Fuel Injection SystemsAll the EPEFE engines were pump-line-nozzle systems (unit injector systems were not investigated ) and represented different injection system technologies (distributor type, in line type, in line control sleeve with electronic diesel control (EDC)).

· Distributor type pumps are equipped with only one pump cylinder and a hydraulic injection timing advance control (speed and load dependent). Owing to this particular layout, distributor injection pumps are sensitive to physical fuel properties such as density, viscosity, sound velocity and compressibility. Changes in physical properties affect fuel mass delivery and injection timing as confirmed in this programme.

· In line pumps with a pump cylinder for each engine cylinder are generally less sensitive to hydraulic effects because of the improved fuel flow within the injection pump, although the results from this experiment do show important effects.

· In line pumps with control sleeve and full EDC (electronic diesel control) allow control of injection timing over the entire speed and load range. Closed loop injection timing control systems ( needle lift sensor), as used in engine Y, largely compensate for any timing variations arising from different fuels and therefore minimise hydraulic fuel effects on emissions.

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES DENSITY EXPERIMENT - ENGINE PARAMETERS.Engine V Std. Adjustment Delivery Adjusted Timing Adjusted

EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3rated power (kW) 104,6 110,4 105,2 109,9 106,8 111,1delivery (mg/l cycle) 79,3 83,5 80,9 81 81,1 81,1static timing (deg. CA) 9 9 9 9 9,5 9,2

mode 6 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -3,29 -3,41 -3,1 -3,36 -3,64 -3,66inj. duration (deg CA) 22,37 22,6 22,24 22,68 22,55 22,74delivery (mg/l cycle) 88,4 94 87,8 94,2 90,2 95,7static timing (deg. CA) 9 9 9 9 9,5 9,2

mode 8 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -1,38 -1,4 -1,21 -1,48 -1,75 -1,71inj. duration (deg CA) 25,5 25,02 25,58 24,64 25,21 24,95

Engine W

Std. Adjustment Delivery Adjusted Timing Adjusted

EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3rated power (kW) 78,3 86,1 80 81,7 80,5 81delivery (mg/l cycle) 45,1 47,8 46,025 46,6 46,2 46,25static timing (deg. CA) -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -1,5

mode 6 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -1,81 -3,61 -1,64 -3,24 -2,21 -2,71inj. duration (deg CA) 17,99 18,45 19,94 18,31 18,43 18,34delivery (mg/l cycle) 45,6 50,4 47,75 47,68 47,6 47,85static timing (deg. CA) -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -1,5

mode 8 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -4,11 -4,95 -3,59 -5,26 -4,62 -4,71inj. duration (deg CA) 26,1 27,5 26,8 27 27,18 26,83

Engine X Std. Adjustment Delivery Adjusted Timing AdjustedEPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3

rated power (kW) 157,7 166,2 161,2 161,3 156.6. 165,7delivery (mg/l cycle) 85,6 89,8 87,5 86,7 85,3 89,5static timing (deg. CA) -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -4,6

mode 6 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -1,8 -2,2 -2 -2,5 -1,9 -2inj. duration (deg CA) 20,2 20,7 20,7 20,3 20 20,8delivery (mg/l cycle) 99,6 106,1 101,5 101,2 98,7 105,7static timing (deg. CA) -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -4,6

mode 8 dyn. timing (deg. CA) 1,6 1,3 1,3 1 1,3 1,2inj. duration (deg CA) 24,8 25 25,6 25,4 24,9 25,2

Engine Y Std. Adjustment Delivery Adjusted Timing AdjustedEPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3

rated power (kW) 248 259,7 250,7 253,4delivery (mg/l cycle) 105,65 111,3 107,1 106,88static timing (deg. CA)

mode 6 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -1,3 -1,2 -1,3 -1,3inj. duration (deg CA) 24 24,3 24,4 23,6delivery (mg/l cycle) 88,98 93,88 90,08 90,37static timing (deg. CA)

mode 8 dyn. timing (deg. CA) 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,5inj. duration (deg CA) 31,2 31,3 31,6 30,7

Table 10.1.2.1

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES DENSITY EXPERIMENT - ENGINE PARAMETERS. CONTINUED

Engine Z Std. Adjustment Delivery Adjusted Timing AdjustedEPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3

rated power (kW) 127,12 135,75 130,03 131,77delivery (mg/l cycle) 67,28 71,05 68,9 68,5static timing (deg. CA) 6 6 6 6

mode 6 dyn. timing (deg. CA) -1 -0,5 -1 -0,5inj. duration (deg CA) 19 19,5 19 19,5delivery (mg/l cycle) 68,59 72,17 69,7 70,2static timing (deg. CA) 14 14 14 14

mode 8 dyn. timing (deg. CA) 2 2,5 2 2,5inj. duration (deg CA) 30 29,5 30 29,5

Table 10.1.2.1

2. INVESTIGATION OF EMISSION TRADE-OFF FOR HD ENGINES.The inter-dependence of different emission species as engine settings are altered is well known. Thus, changes which affect one emission cannot be understood without reference to their effects on other emissions and fuel consumption. To study these effects, a further experiment (Step 3) was performed, where the injection timing of the engine was adjusted to a target 2° crank angle either side of the standard setting. In this experiment, the fuel delivery rate remained at standard setting. Results were generated for fuels EPD6, EPD9 and EPD11 to cover the full range of the EPEFE fuel matrix.

Fuel No. Density kg/m3 Poly-aromatics % m/m

Cetane Number T95 °C

EPD6 855.5 7.6 50.2 371EPD9 855.4 8.0 59.1 344EPD11 827.0 0.9 57.1 329

Table 10.2.1

Since NOX emissions represent the greatest challenge for engine calibration, the results have been presented in each case with NOX on the x-axis, and are shown in Figures 10.2.2-10.2.6 for each engine. As in chapter 10.2.1, FC and test power refer to the 13 mode test values.

2.1. Fuel, Engine and combined effectsDuring engine optimisation and combustion development, compromises have to be found between engine emissions and fuel consumption. Although fuel consumption of a truck is a key factor for the truck operator, emission limits also have to be fulfilled. Therefore, engine control parameters are set in such a way that emission targets are achieved (with a safety margin for production) with optimal fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. Based on the trade off curves of the individual engines, optimisation strategies can be applied. This programme investigated the interactions between fuels and engine adjustment settings in an attempt to identify further possibilities for the optimisation of engines and fuels.

Therefore, estimates were made for the differences in emissions and FC between fuel EPD6 (as baseline fuel) and the other two fuels (EPD9 and EPD11) for different settings of engine timing.

Five settings were chosen and are explained in Figure 10.2.1:

1. Fuel effects on standard timing ( A)

2. Engine adjustments (injection timing offset adjustments of +/- 2§ crank angle) (B)

3. Combined fuel/engine effects: same PM level as fuel EPD6 (C)

4. Combined fuel/engine effects: same NOX level as fuel EPD6 (D)

5. Combined fuel/engine effects: same BSFC level as fuel EPD6 (E)

The results with standard timing are equivalent to those reported in chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 since no engine adjustments were carried out.

For the settings "same PM", "same NOX ", and "same FC", the emission-, fuel consumption and test power values were taken from the trade off curves and compared with the data obtained with EPD6 on the standard setting.

The engine adjustments are not necessarily realistic engine settings, but indicate the order of magnitude of injection timing effects compared with fuel effects. Extrapolation beyond the investigated timing range is not possible since the shape of trade off curves may alter significantly

outside the measured range and between individual engines depending on the size, layout and injection technology applied.

2.2. Test ResultsThe effects of the five different settings are shown in Figures.10.2.7 - 10.2.11 and Table 10.2.2 and are summarised below relative to fuel EPD6:

· For the standard setting, fuels EPD9 and EPD11 showed decreases in NOX for all engines and increases in FC for all engines except engine V which showed small decreases.

· From the trade off curves it can be seen that advanced timing decreases mainly fuel consumption, and also PM and CO in most cases, whereas NOX emissions increase.

· Retarding injection timing decreases NOX emissions and increases fuel consumption and CO emissions. Some engines do have also higher PM and HC emissions.

· When injection timing was adjusted such that all three fuels had the same PM level as fuel EPD6, fuels EPD9 and EPD11 showed a larger reduction in NOX in engines V and W relative to the standard setting, but a corresponding increase in FC in engine V. Engines X, Y and Z showed no changes for NOX or FC since PM did not change over the investigated timing range.

· When injection timing was adjusted such that all three fuels had the same NOX level as fuel EPD6, none of the fuels showed significant changes in PM level for any engine relative to the standard setting, but fuel EPD9 showed smaller increases in FC, whereas fuel EPD11 showed decreases.

· When injection timing was adjusted such that all three fuels had the same FC level as fuel EPD6, fuel EPD9 showed increases in NOX for engines X, Y and Z and no change for engines V and W relative to the standard setting whereas fuel EPD11showed smaller decreases in NOX for all engines.

HD ENGINES TIMING EXPERIMENT : SUMMARY OF FUEL AND TIMING EFFECTS 88/77/EEC 13-MODE TEST RESULTS

Emission Set for same Set for same Set for sameEngine Consumption Baseline Standard timing PM level as EPD6 NOX level as EPD6 FC level as EPD6

Power EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6

V NOX g/kWh 6,82 -0,105 -0,67 -0,78 -1,71 SAME SAME -0,13 -0,85

PM g/kWh 0,12 -0,013 -0,025 SAME SAME -0,015 -0,028 -0,014 -0,022

HC g/kWh 0,435 -0,01 0,025 0 0,03 -0,014 -0,04 -0,015 0,028

CO g/kWh 0,67 -0,105 -0,065 -0,038 0,075 -0,12 -0,12 -0,095 -0,032

FC g/kWh 214,7 -0,2 -0,5 3,4 6,5 -0,7 -4,3 SAME SAME

Power kW 110,6 -0,3 -6 -1,6 -9,3 0 -4,4 -0,3 -4,5

W NOX g/kWh 6,726 -0,075 -0,965 -0,14 -1,16 SAME SAME 0 -0,33

PM g/kWh 0,197 0,001 -0,0045 SAME SAME -0,005 -0,03 0 -0,023

HC g/kWh 0,157 0,01 0,0695 0,01 0,07 0,0104 0,073 0,01 0,07

CO g/kWh 0,668 -0,069 0,052 -0,06 0,08 -0,08 -0,03 -0,08 -0,03

FC g/kWh 244,35 0,3 3,65 0,2 3,3 0 -1,8 SAME SAME

Power kW 32,9 0,1 -2,25 0 -2,35 0 -2,2 0 -2

X NOX g/kWh 6,895 -0,13 -0,52 * * SAME SAME 0,27 -0,16

PM g/kWh 0,123 0,017 0,005 SAME SAME 0,017 0,006 0,019 0,007

HC g/kWh 0,105 -0,015 0,03 * * -0,018 0,033 -0,018 0,032

CO g/kWh 0,54 -0,02 0,01 * * -0,028 -0,011 -0,033 0

FC g/kWh 214,6 1,9 1,7 * * 1,3 -0,7 SAME SAMEPower kW 76,5 -0,2 -4,5 * * 0 -4,1 0,28 -4,09

HD ENGINES TIMING EXPERIMENT : SUMMARY OF FUEL AND TIMING EFFECTS : 88/77/EEC 13-MODE TEST RESULTS(CONTINUED)

Emission Set for same Set for same Set for sameEngine Consumption Baseline Standard timing PM level as EPD6 NOX level as EPD6 FC level as EPD6

Power EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6 EPD9-EPD6 EPD11-EPD6

Y NOX g/kWh 6,77 -0,02 -0,31 * * SAME SAME 0,54 -0,11

PM g/kWh 0,067 0 -0,002 SAME SAME 0,002 -0,003 0,006 -0,01

HC g/kWh 0,2 0 0,02 * * 0 0,023 0 0,023

CO g/kWh 0,56 -0,01 -0,01 * * 0 0 0,067 -0,01

FC g/kWh 216,7 2,65 1,6 * * 2,4 -0,8 SAME SAME

Power kW 109,4 -0,8 -6,1 * * -1,67 -4,89 0,4 -5

Z NOX g/kWh 7,055 -0,295 -0,655 * * SAME SAME 0,45 -0,12

PM g/kWh 0,124 -0,003 0,008 SAME SAME -0,005 0,006 -0,05 0,03

HC g/kWh 0,253 -0,024 0,046 * * -0,03 0,03 -0,03 0,035

CO g/kWh 0,493 0,033 0,123 * * 0 0,05 0 0,08

FC g/kWh 225,9 4,6 4 * * 2,5 -0,47 SAME SAME

Power kW 54,5 -1,5 -3,6 * * -0,9 -2,2 -0,4 -2,5Note : - denotes decrease, + denotes increase.

Table 10.2.2

COMPARISON OF DYNAMIC TIMING ADJUSTMENTS AND CHANGES IN FUEL QUALITY FOR THE EPEFE ENGINES.

NOX (g/kWh) PM (g/kWh) BSFC (g/kWh) POWER (kW)Engine change in

EPD6 for a 2oCA timing

adjustment (retard)

difference between

fuels EPD6 and

EPD11.(std. adj.)

change in EPD6 for a

2oCA timing

adjustment (retard)

difference between

fuels EPD6 and

EPD11.(std. adj.)


2oCA timing

adjustment (retard)

difference between

fuels EPD6 and

EPD11.(std. adj.)


2oCA timing

adjustment (retard)

difference between

fuels EPD6 and

EPD11.(std. adj.)

V -0.91 -0.67 +0.002 -0.025 +4.7 -0.5 -2.0 -6.0W -0.924 -0.965 +0.032 -0.0045 +5.7 +3.65 -0.2 -2.25X -0.82 -0.52 +0.001 +0.005 +4.9 +1.7 -1.5 -4.5Y -0.66 -0.31 +0.003 -0.002 +4.0 +1.6 -2.5 -6.1Z -1.31 -0.655 +0.006 +0.008 +12.6 +4.0 -2.7 -3.6

Table.10.2.3

2.3. Conclusions· Emissions, FC and test power for a given engine were influenced by both fuel quality

and engine timing adjustment.· Reductions in emissions could be achieved by either a change in fuel quality, or a

change in engine adjustment, or both. The results show, therefore, that it is necessary to consider fuel properties and engine adjustments in combination in order to arrive at possible further optimisation of emissions. Although the engine adjustments investigated here are not necessarily realistic engine settings, they can nevertheless give an indication of the order of magnitude of injection timing effects compared with fuel effects.

Comparing the changes in emissions and test power (taking fuel EPD6 as the starting point) between firstly a 2 degree change in timing, secondly a change in fuel quality from EPD6 to EPD11 and thirdly the various combined fuel/engine effects (Table.10.2.3 and Figures 10.2.12 - 10.2.15):

· Retarding the injection timing by a target 2 degree crank angle gave significant reductions in NOX, but with corresponding significant increases in PM and FC and a loss in power.

· Changing fuel quality from EPD6 to EPD11 at standard timing adjustment gave smaller reductions in NOX, smaller increases in FC and larger losses in power than the dynamic timing adjustments. PM was reduced for some engines and increased for others.

· As a consequence of the above findings, a careful combined optimisation of engine and fuel technologies can lead to a reduction in emissions (mainly NOX and PM) combined with smaller losses in FC.

VEHICLE L, FUELS EPD 1 - 3, TUNE ON HIGH AND LOW DENSITY FUEL (COMBINED CYCLE EMISSIONS, g/km)

HC, fuels 1 - 3

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

0,250

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km HC tuned on 3 (H)

HC tuned on 1 (L)

NOx, fuels 1 - 3

0,5

0,55

0,6

0,65

0,7

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km NOx tuned on 3 (H)

NOX tuned on 1 (L)

CO, fuels 1 - 3

0,30,350,4

0,450,5

0,550,6

0,650,7

0,75

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km CO tuned on 3 (H)

CO tuned on 1 (L)

PM, fuels 1 - 3

0,03

0,04

0,05

0,06

0,07

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km

PM tuned on 3 (H)

PM tuned on 1 (L)

Figure 10.1.1.1

VEHICLE L, FUELS EPD 2 - 4, TUNE ON HIGH AND LOW DENSITY FUEL (COMBINED CYCLE EMISSIONS, g/km)

HC, fuels 2 - 4

0,040

0,060

0,080

0,100

0,120

0,140

0,160

828,8 855,1density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km HC tuned on 3 (H)

HC tuned on 1 (L)

NOX, fuels 2 - 4

0,580

0,600

0,620

0,640

0,660

0,680

0,700

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km NOx tuned on 3 (H)

NOx tuned on 1 (L)

CO, fuels 2 - 4

0,3000,3500,4000,4500,5000,5500,6000,6500,700

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km CO tuned on 3 (H)

CO tuned on 1 (L)

PM, fuels 2 - 4

0,030

0,035

0,040

0,045

0,050

0,055

0,060

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km PM tuned on 3 (H)

PM tuned on 1 (L)

Figure 10.1.1.2

VEHICLE N, FUELS 1 - 3, TUNE ON HIGH DENSITY FUEL (COMBINED CYCLE EMISSIONS, g/km)

HC, fuels 1 - 3

0,08

0,1

0,12

0,14

0,16

0,18

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km

HC tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

NOx, fuels 1 - 3

0,536

0,538

0,54

0,542

0,544

0,546

0,548

829,2 857density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km

NOx tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

CO, fuels 1 - 3

0,4

0,45

0,5

0,55

0,6

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km

CO tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

PM, fuels 1 - 3

0,050,0550,06

0,0650,07

0,0750,08

0,0850,09

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km

PM tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

Figure 10.1.1.3

VEHICLE N, FUELS 2 - 4, TUNE ON HIGH DENSITY FUEL (COMBINED CYCLE EMISSIONS, g/km)

HC, fuel 2 - 4

0,080,090,1

0,110,120,130,140,150,16

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g

/km

HC tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

NOX, fuels 2 - 4

0,5540,5550,5560,5570,5580,5590,56

0,5610,562

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g

/km

NOx tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

CO, fuels 2 - 4

0,4

0,45

0,5

0,55

0,6

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g

/km

CO tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

PM, fuels 2 - 4

0,06

0,070,08

0,090,1

0,11

828,8 855,1

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g

/km

PM tuned on 3 (H- 0.86)

Figure 10.1.1.4

VEHICLE R, FUELS 1 - 3, TUNE ON HIGH AND LOW DENSITY FUEL (COMBINED CYCLE EMISSIONS, g/km)

NOx, fuels 1 - 3

0,4

0,45

0,5

0,55

0,6

0,65

0,7

829,2 857density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km NOx tuned on 3

NOx tuned on 1

PM, fuels 1 - 3

00,010,020,030,040,050,060,070,080,090,1

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km PM tuned on 3

PM tuned on 1

CO, fuels 1 - 3

00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km CO tuned on 3

CO tuned on 1

HC, fuels 1 - 3

0,05

0,1

0,15

0,2

0,25

829,2 857

density, kg/m3

emis

sion

s, g/

km HC tuned on 3

HC tuned on 1

Figure 10.1.1.5

DIFFERENCE IN EMISSIONS BETWEEN FUEL PAIRS AT THEIR RESPECTIVE TUNES AND STANDARD (REF) SETTING

L, Deltas between tuned and standard setting for fuel 1 and 3

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

0,250

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km

tunedref

L, Deltas between tuned and standard setting for fuel 2 and 4

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km

tunedref

R, Deltas between tuned and standard setting for fuels 1 and 3

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km

tuned

ref

Figure 10.1.1.6

SENSITIVITY TO FUEL DENSITY AT LOW DENSITY, HIGH DENSITY TUNE AND STANDARD (REF) SETTING

L, Deltas between fuels 1 and 3 on each setting

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

0,250

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km low

highref

L, Deltas between fuels 2 and 4 on each setting

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km lowhighref

R, Deltas between fuels 1 and 3 on each setting

0,000

0,050

0,100

0,150

0,200

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s , g

/km

low

highref

Figure 10.1.1.7

SENSITIVITY TO FUEL DENSITY AT HIGH DENSITY TUNE AND STANDARD (REF) SETTING

N, Deltas between fuels 1 and 3 on each setting

00,020,040,060,080,1

0,120,140,16

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s , g

/km

high

ref

N, Deltas between fuels 2 and 4 on each setting

0

0,02

0,04

0,06

0,08

0,1

0,12

PM HC NOx CO

emis

sion

s, g/

km

highref

Figure 10.1.1.8

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULT OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (TEST POWER)

8090

100110120130

Standard adjustment Delivery adjustment Timing adjusted

Tes

t-Po

wer

[kW

]

ENGINE V

20

25

30

35

40


Tes

t-Po

wer

[kW

]

EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3

95 % confidence rangeENGINE W

5060708090

100

Tes

t-Po

wer

[kW

]

ENGINE X


60708090

100110120

Tes

t-Po

wer

[kW

]

ENGINE Y

Standard adjustment Delivery adjustment

203040506070

Tes

t-Po

wer

[kW

]

ENGINE Z 95 % confidence range


Figure 10.1.2.1

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULTS OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (NOX)

55,5

66,5

77,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]ENGINE V


5

5,5

6

6,5

7

7,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE W

EPD1 EPD3EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3


5

5,5

6

6,5

7

7,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE X


5

5,5

6

6,5

7

7,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE Y


5

5,5

6

6,5

7

7,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE Y

Standard adjustment Delivery adjustment5

5,5

6

6,5

7

7,5

NO

x [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE Z95 % confidence range


Figure 10.1.2.2

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULTS OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (PARTICULATES)

0,040,080,120,160,2

PM [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE V


0,04

0,08

0,12

0,16

0,2

PM [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE W

EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3EPD1

EPD3


0,04

0,08

0,12

0,16

0,2

PM [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE X


0,04

0,08

0,12

0,16

0,2

PM [

g/kW

h]

ENGINE Y


ENGINE Z

0,04

0,08

0,12

0,16

0,2

PM [g

/kW

h]

95 % confidence range


Figure 10.1.2.3

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULTS OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (HC)

00,10,20,30,40,50,6

HC

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE V


00,10,20,30,40,50,6

HC

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE W

EPD1 EPD3EPD1 EPD3 EPD1 EPD3


0

0,2

0,4

0,6

HC

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE X


00,10,20,30,40,50,6

HC

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE Y


00,10,20,30,40,50,6

HC

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE Z



Figure 10.1.2.4

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULTS OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (CO)

0,4

0,6

0,8

1

CO

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE V


0,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

CO

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE W



0,4

0,6

0,8

1

CO

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE X


0,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

CO

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE Y


0,40,50,60,70,80,9

1

CO

[g/k

Wh]

ENGINE Z

95 % comfidence range


Figure 10.1.2.5

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - RESULTS OF DENSITY EXPERIMENT (FC)

210212214216218220

FC [g

/kW

h]ENGINE V


230

240

250

260

FC [

g/kW

h]

ENGINE W




210212214216218220

FC [

g/kW

h]

ENGINE X


210212214216218220

FC [g

/kW

h]

ENGINE Y


210

220

230

240

FC [

g/kW

h]

ENGINE Z


Figure 10.1.2.6

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - DENSITY EXPERIMENT - PM COMPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL ENGINES

Engine V

00,020,040,060,080,1

0,120,140,160,180,2

0,22

EPD1 (1) EPD3 (1) EPD1 (2) EPD3 (2)

g/kW

hStandard adjustment Delivery adjustment

Engine W

00,020,040,060,080,10,120,140,160,180,20,22

EPD1 (1) EPD3 (1) EPD1 (2) EPD3 (2)

g/kW

h


Engine X

00,020,040,060,080,1

0,120,140,160,180,2

0,22

EPD1 (1) EPD3 (1) EPD1 (2) EPD3 (2)

g/kW

h


Figure 10.1.2.7

Carbon+

Sulphate

Lube HC

Fuel HC}VOF

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - DENSITY EXPERIMENT - PM COMPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL ENGINES

Engine Y - Steps 1 and 2 PM composition

00,020,040,060,080,1

0,120,140,160,180,2

0,22

EPD1 (1) EPD3 (1) EPD1 (2) EPD3 (2)

g/kW

h

Engine Z - Steps 1 and 2 PM composition

00,020,040,060,080,1

0,120,140,160,180,2

0,22

EPD1 (1) EPD3 (1) EPD1 (2) EPD3 (2)

g/kW

h

Figure 10.1.2.7

Carbon+

Sulphate

Lube HC

Fuel HC}VOF

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - DENSITY EXPERIMENT-INJECTION TIMING OF ENGINE X

Figure 10.1.2.8

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - DENSITY EXPERIMENT-TIMING TRADE-0FF (13 MODE TEST) FOR ENGINE X

Figure 10.1.2.9

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES : TIMING EXPERIMENT EXPLANATIONS

208

210

212

214

216

218

220

222

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Fuel

con

sum

ptio

n [g

/kW

h]

EPD6

EPD9EPD11A

BE

D

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h]

EPD6

EPD9

EPD11A

BC

Figure 10.2.1

A Standard timingB Injection timing +/- 2 deg. crank angleC Same PM-level as EPD6D Same NOX -level as EPD6E Same fuel consumption level as EPD6

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE V

208

210

212

214

216

218

220

222

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

FC [g

/kW

h] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

HC

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE V (CONTINUED)

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

CO

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD11

100

105

110

115

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Pow

er [k

W]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.2

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE W

238240242244246248250252254256258260

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

FC [g

/kW

h] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

HC

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE W (CONTINUED)

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

CO

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

28

30

32

34

36

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Pow

er [k

W]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.3

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE X

208

210

212

214

216

218

220

222

224

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

FC [g

/kW

h] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

HC

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE X (CONTINUED)

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

CO

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

68

70

72

74

76

78

80

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Pow

er [k

W] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.4

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE Y

212

214

216

218

220

222

224

226

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

FC [g

/kW

h] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

HC

[g/k

Wh] EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE Y (CONTINUED)

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

CO

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

100

102

104

106

108

110

112

114

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Pow

er [k

W]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.5

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE Z

215

220

225

230

235

240

245

250

255

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

FC [g

/kW

h]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

PM [g

/kW

h]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11t

0,00

0,10

0,20

0,30

0,40

0,50

0,60

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

HC

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - TIMING EXPERIMENT FOR ENGINE Z (CONTINUED)

0,40

0,50

0,60

0,70

0,80

0,90

1,00

1,10

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

CO

[g/k

Wh]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

46

48

50

52

54

56

58

4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0 7,5 8,0 8,5 9,0

NOx [g/kWh]

Pow

er [k

W]

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.6

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - ENGINE V - SUMMARY OF THE SETTING IMPACT ON NOX, PARTICULATES, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER (BASELINE FUEL EPD 6)

Engine V

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

NO

x, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine V

200

205

210

215

220

225

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

FC, g

/kW

h

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine V

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

PM, g

/kW

h

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine V

90

95

100

105

110

115

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

Pow

er, k

W

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.7

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - ENGINE W - SUMMARY OF THE SETTING IMPACT ON NOX, PARTICULATES, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER (BASELINE FUEL EPD 6)

Engine W

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9St

d tim

ing

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

NO

x, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine W

230

235

240

245

250

255

260

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

FC, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine W

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

PM, g

/kW

h

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine W

25

27

29

31

33

35

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

Pow

er, k

W

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.8

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - ENGINE X - SUMMARY OF THE SETTING IMPACT ON NOX, PARTICULATES, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER (BASELINE FUEL EPD 6)

Engine X

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9St

d tim

ing

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

NO

x, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine X

205

210

215

220

225

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

FC, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine X

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

PM, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine X

65

70

75

80

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

Pow

er, k

W

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.9

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - ENGINE Y - SUMMARY OF THE SETTING IMPACT ON NOX, PARTICULATES, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER (BASELINE FUEL EPD 6)

Engine Y

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9St

d tim

ing

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

NO

x, g

/kW

h EPD6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Y

205

210

215

220

225

230

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

FC, g

/kW

h

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Y

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

PM, g

/kW

h

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Y

95

100

105

110

115

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

Pow

er, k

W

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.10

HEAVY DUTY ENGINES - ENGINE Z - SUMMARY OF THE SETTING IMPACT ON NOX, PARTICULATES, FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER (BASELINE FUEL EPD 6)

Engine Z

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9St

d tim

ing

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

NO

x, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Z

210

215

220

225

230

235

240

245

250

255

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

FC, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Z

0,00

0,05

0,10

0,15

0,20

0,25

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

PM, g

/kW

h EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Engine Z

40

45

50

55

60

Std

timin

g

2° C

Are

tard

ed

2° C

Aad

vanc

ed

sam

e PM

sam

e N

Ox

sam

e B

SFC

Pow

er, k

W

EPD 6

EPD 9

EPD 11

Figure 10.2.11

HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES TIMING EXPERIMENTCOMPARISON OF TIMING ADJUSTMENTS AND FUEL QUALITY EFFECTS

RELATIVE TO EPD6 STANDARD SETTING

Absolute Delta NOx

-1,8

-1,6

-1,4

-1,2

-1

-0,8

-0,6

-0,4

-0,2

0EPD6 2°CA RET EPD11 STD SET EPD11 same NOx EPD11 same PM EPD11 same FC

g/kW

h

Engine V Engine W Engine X Engine Y Engine Z

Absolute Delta PM

-0,05

-0,04

-0,03

-0,02

-0,01

0

0,01

0,02

0,03

0,04EPD6 2°CA RET EPD11 STD SET EPD11 same NOx EPD11 same PM EPD11 same FC

g/kW

h


Figure 10.2.12

HEAVY-DUTY ENGINES TIMING EXPERIMENTCOMPARISON OF TIMING ADJUSTMENTS AND FUEL QUALITY EFFECTS RELATIVE

TO EPD6 STANDARD SETTING

Absolute Delta FC

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12


g/kW

h


Absolute Delta Power

-10

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1


kW


Figure 10.2.13



Percentage Delta NOx

-30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5


perc

enta

ge


Percentage Delta PM

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

EPD62°CARET

EPD11STDSET

EPD11sameNOx

EPD11samePM

EPD11same

FC

perc

enta

ge


Figure 10.2.14



Percentage Delta FC

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5


perc

enta

ge


Percentage Delta Power

-9

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1


perc

enta

ge


Figure 10.2.15

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