AP European HistoryApril 30 – May 4 2018

Supposedly we will be back on regular schedule on Thursday and Friday (No, I don’t believe it either!) So, this plan assumes that we might not be

We will still likely be a class divided though. Expect a number of review activities this week and next week.

This week's lesson plan is actually 2 weeks long.

MONDAY (Period 1)Unit Test 1930s – WWII

Materials Strategy/FormatTest forms Assessment and Review

This will be a MC and SA format test including these topics

The nature of the USSR under Stalin The social, political, and economic impact of the Great Depression (Britain, France, and Germany) The Nature of Fascism and Nazism (Hitler, Mussolini video questions) The Causes/effects of the Spanish Civil War The weakness of the Weimar Republic and the Nazi dictatorship Rising Fascist aggression (Germany, Italy, and Japan) The events of WWII 1939 - 1945 In the text this is Chapter 26 pp: 885 - 893 plus all of chapter 27

here is a review page that might help you get ready

https://quizlet.com/subject/world-war-two/

HomeworkIn your textbook read pp: 936 - 940 stop at East vs West for Bell worl/Recap

Monday (Period 2) Examine the origins of the Cold War Period (1945 – 1991) [PP-12 | PP-15 | SP-5 | SP-9 | SP-14 | SP-17 |

SP-19 | IS-10

Materials Strategy/FormatPPT and video Lecture and Discussion L.CCR-2,3

Student Skill TypesChronological Reasoning (1, 2, 3)Comp/Context (4,5)Historical Evidence (6,7) Synthesis 8,9

Introduction As you have seen starting with WWI U.S. and European History have really started to blend together. Now

as we enter our last area of discussion, we will see that Europeans were inexorably linked to events in the U.S. The man residing in the White House was not only making policy for his country but to a large degree for Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America as well. We are about to enter a period of history that is very long and often times confusing. The term implies that the major powers never fought i.e. a “hot war.” However, this was not true for the U.S. (Korea and Vietnam). Because of decolonization a new wave of nations arrived on the scene and the bipolarity of the Cold War years attempted to force these new states (and the rest of the world) to choose between domination by the Soviets or the Americans. While that was not the U.S. plan, it became the perception of the younger generation of the late 1950s and 1960s.

In Europe, the specter of war was ever present as Cold War tensions were a scary roller coaster ride. Also, as you have seen, the major imperial powers were now losing their grip. The British saw the independence of India and the creation of a new form of empire, the commonwealth whereby the former colonies were now more like trade partners. For France, the loss of colonies like Algeria and Indochina collapsed the Fourth French Republic. Generally, decolonization for Britain was peaceful but the same was not true for the French.

There is a great tragedy about the Cold War because tensions developed between the Democratic West and the Communist East really before the Second World War ended. Winston Churchill said, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill expressed his belief that world peace was nearer the grasp of statesmen than at any time in history. "It would be a great tragedy," he said, "if they, through inertia or carelessness, let it slip from their grasp. History would never forgive them if it did."

Peace did slip through their grasp. World War II was followed by a Cold War that pitted the United States and its Allies against the Soviet Union and its supporters. It was called a Cold War, but it would flare into violence in Korea and Vietnam and in many smaller conflicts. The period from 1946 to 1991 was punctuated by a series of East-West confrontations over Germany, Poland, Greece, Czechoslovakia, China, Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and many other hot spots

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences The first blush of tensions occurred at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences 1944 – 1945. At the Yalta

Conference meetings between Stalin, FDR, and Churchill tried to organize the war effort but most importantly the post-war world. The dynamic between the three men shaped events. Churchill far more realistically did not trust Stalin and believed that he had plans to occupy Europe himself. FDR while he truly liked Churchill also did not fully trust that Britain was ready to abandon their empire and allow its people to determine their own fate. Stalin did not trust the western powers at all and sought to protect the Soviet Union from capitalist influences. To some degree all three had sound reasons for worry.

In 1945 following Germany’s surrender the Potsdam Meeting was held. FDR had died and Truman replaced him. Churchill while at the initial meeting was defeated in his re-election and was replaced by the new Prime Minister Clement Atlee. Only Stalin remained. Truman did not trust Stalin and tensions were palpable.

One source of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union was the fate of Eastern Europe and especially Poland. The United States was committed to free and democratic elections in Eastern Europe, while the Soviet Union wanted a buffer zone of friendly countries in Eastern Europe to protect it from future attacks from the West. This zone would ultimately exist until 1988-89 against the will of the eastern European states. Even before World War II ended, the Soviet Union had annexed the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and parts of Czechoslovakia, Finland, Poland, and Romania. Albania established a Communist government in 1944, and Yugoslavia formed one in 1945. In 1946, the Soviet Union organized Communist governments in Bulgaria and Romania, and in Hungary and Poland in 1947. Communists took over Czechoslovakia in a coup d'etat in 1948.

Another source of East-West tension was control of nuclear weapons. In 1946, the Soviet Union rejected a U.S. proposal for an international agency to control nuclear energy production and research. The Soviets were convinced that the United States was trying to preserve its monopoly on nuclear weapons.

A third source of conflict was post-war economic development assistance. The United States refused a Soviet request for massive reconstruction loans. In response, the Soviets called for substantial reparations from Germany. The U.S. was against this and of course saw this as one cause of WWI.

The Truman Doctrine So, by 1946 with WWII not even a year old the first shot in the ideological war had begun. Winston

Churchill had been invited to give the commencement address at Westminster College in Missouri, the home state of President Truman. In the speech, Winston Churchill announced that "an iron curtain has descended across" Europe. On one side was the Communist bloc; on the other side were non-Communist nations. This was like a call to arms for the young graduates in the crowd. Sadly, most of these young people would live their whole lives with specter of World War III.

Another cornerstone of action was a telegram from George Kennan. He wrote a 8,000-word telegram from George Kennan, an Embassy official.   This has become known as 'the Long Telegram', and it said exactly what the American government wanted it to. 

 Kennan hated Communism and the Soviet government.   However, he had lived in Moscow since 1933 and knew what he was talking about.   His telegram was re-written as a paper entitled: The Sources of Soviet Conduct, and read by many Americans.   It formed the basis of American policy towards Russia for the next quarter of a century. As an expert on Russian History his views were taken very seriously. To President Truman and many in the State Department believed that Stalin had merely replaced Hitler as a threat to world peace. With this in mind the U.S. made an important policy shift. Isolationism was now dead forever.

By February 1947, Britain informed the United States that it could not longer afford to provide aid to Greece and Turkey. The situation seemed urgent. The Greek monarchy was threatened by Communist guerrilla warfare, and the Soviet Union was seeking to control the Dardenelles in Turkey, a water route to the Mediterranean. The U.S. government feared that the loss of Greece and Turkey to communism would open Western Europe and Africa to Soviet influence. The U.S government also worried that if the Soviet Union gained control over the Eastern Mediterranean, it could stop the flow of Middle Eastern oil. This was the first time in a long history of U.S. fears over oil.

President Truman responded decisively. He asked Congress for $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey. This was an unprecedented amount of foreign aid during peacetime. He also

declared that it was the policy of the United States "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."

Truman's overarching message described two ways of life that were engaged in a life-or-death struggle, one free and the other totalitarian. The United States would help free people to maintain their free institutions and their territorial integrity against movements that sought to impose totalitarian regimes.

The Truman Doctrine committed the United States to providing aid to countries resisting communist aggression or subversion and provided the first step toward what would become known as the Containment Policy This idea was supported by Dean Acheson who became Truman’s Secretary of State in his second term. It was based upon a fairly valid assumption: Communism was like a virus that infected states especially those that were poor. The Containment Policy would adopt two approaches. One approach was military; the other was economic. In 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall who had been the head of the military during WWII proposed a program to funnel American economic aid to Europe. Faced with a rapid growth in the size of Communist parties, especially in France and Italy, the U.S. proposed a program of direct economic aid

The Marshall Plan Marshall a meeting in Paris to discuss the proposal with world leaders. He called on Europeans to

collectively agree on what kind of assistance they needed. Even the Soviet Union was invited to participate in the planning.

The Soviet delegation abruptly quit the summit in Paris to discuss the Marshall offer. When two Soviet satellites--Czechoslovakia and Poland--indicated that they wanted to take part in the Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union said no. The Soviet refusal to participate made it easier to secure congressional passage for the plan. When the Czechoslovakian government was overthrown in a Communist coup, congressional passage was assured.

It is doubtful that the U.S. could now perform such a huge task. The Marshall Plan committed more than 10 percent of the federal budget and almost 3 percent of the United States' gross national product to rebuilding Western Europe. Over the next 40 months, Congress authorized $12.5 billion in aid to restore Western Europe's economic health and to halt the spread of communism. Marshall's plan actually cost the United States very little, since it was largely paid for by European purchases of American coal, agricultural crops, and machinery

The First Chance for World War III: Berlin 1949 The Soviet Union was now set to challenge the will of the Allied powers. At the end of the war Berlin was

divided into zones of control as agreed upon at Yalta. There was supposed to be free movement between all sectors. In 1947, the United States, British, French, and Soviet officials met in Moscow to discuss the future of Germany. The participants were unable to agree about whether to end the occupation of Germany or to reunify the country. The conference's failure led the Western Allies to unify their German occupation zones in June 1948 and to establish West Germany.

Berlin Blockade Outraged by Western plans to create an independent West Germany, Soviet forces imposed a blockade

cutting off rail, highway, and water traffic between West Germany and West Berlin. A day later, an airlift began called Operation Vittles. Transport planes began flying in food and supplies for West Berlin's two million residents. By September, the airlift was carrying 4,500 tons of supplies a day. Over the next 11 months, 277,000 flights brought in 2.5 million tons of supplies until the Soviet Union lifted the blockade.

Why would the Soviets not shoot down the planes? First, they were unarmed and second, Truman very publicly deployed nuclear capable B-29 bombers to Britain, easy flying range to Moscow or Leningrad.

NATO In April 1949, a month before the Soviet Union lifted the Berlin Blockade, the United States, Canada,

Iceland and nine European nations formed NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Member states pledged mutual assistance against an armed attack and cooperation in military training and strategic planning.

The U.S. stationed troops in Western Europe, assuring its Allies that it would use its nuclear deterrent to protect Western Europeans against a Soviet attack. The admission of West Germany into NATO in 1955

led the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites to form a competing military alliance called the Warsaw Pact. To a degree, the world was now bipolar as it had been just before WWI. It would largely stay this way until the 1970s when Nixon and Kissinger went to China and developed closer relations.

The Arms Race In September 1949, President Truman announced that the Soviet Union had successfully detonated an

atomic bomb. Four months later, President Truman advised the Atomic Energy Commission to proceed with the development of a hydrogen bomb.

U.S. government officials had predicted that it would take the Soviet Union as long as a decade to develop an atomic bomb. The speed with which the Soviets produced a bomb led to charges that development of the device was a product of Soviet espionage. The United States set off its first hydrogen bomb in 1953, and the Soviet Union tested its first bomb in 1955.

HomeworkLook over the notes on the early COLD WAR and read pp: 940 – 944 (Stop at Western Renaissance)Quiz Wednesday Bring Textbook on Wednesday also

TUESDAY (Period 1) Examine the origins of the Cold War Period (1945 – 1991) [PP-12 | PP-15 | SP-5 | SP-9 | SP-14 | SP-17 |

SP-19 | IS-10

Materials Strategy/FormatPPT and video Lecture and Discussion L.CCR-2,3

Student Skill TypesChronological Reasoning (1, 2, 3)Comp/Context (4,5)Historical Evidence (6,7) Synthesis 8,9

Introduction As you have seen starting with WWI U.S. and European History have really started to blend together. Now

as we enter our last area of discussion, we will see that Europeans were inexorably linked to events in the U.S. The man residing in the White House was not only making policy for his country but to a large degree for Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America as well. We are about to enter a period of history that is very long and often times confusing. The term implies that the major powers never fought i.e. a “hot war.” However this was not true for the U.S. (Korea and Vietnam). Because of decolonization a new wave of nations arrived on the scene and the bipolarity of the Cold War years attempted to force these new states (and the rest of the world) to choose between domination by the Soviets or the Americans. While that was not the U.S. plan, it became the perception of the younger generation of the late 1950s and 1960s.

In Europe the specter of war was ever present as Cold War tensions were a scary roller coaster ride. Also as you have seen, the major imperial powers were now losing their grip. The British saw the independence of India and the creation of a new form of empire, the commonwealth whereby the former colonies were now more like trade partners. For France the lose of colonies like Algeria and Indochina collapsed the Fourth French Republic. Generally decolonization for Britain was peaceful but the same was not true for the French.

There is a great tragedy about the Cold War because tensions developed between the Democratic West and the Communist East really before the Second World War ended. Winston Churchill said, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill expressed his belief that world peace was nearer the grasp of statesmen than at any time in history. "It would be a great tragedy," he said, "if they, through inertia or carelessness, let it slip from their grasp. History would never forgive them if it did."

Peace did slip through their grasp. World War II was followed by a Cold War that pitted the United States and its Allies against the Soviet Union and its supporters. It was called a Cold War, but it would flare into violence in Korea and Vietnam and in many smaller conflicts. The period from 1946 to 1991 was punctuated by a series of East-West confrontations over Germany, Poland, Greece, Czechoslovakia, China, Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and many other hot spots

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences The first blush of tensions occurred at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences 1944 – 1945. At the Yalta

Conference meetings between Stalin, FDR, and Churchill tried to organize the war effort but most importantly the post-war world. The dynamic between the three men shaped events. Churchill far more realistically did not trust Stalin and believed that he had plans to occupy Europe himself. FDR while he truly liked Churchill also did not fully trust that Britain was ready to abandon their empire and allow its people to determine their own fate. Stalin did not trust the western powers at all and sought to protect the Soviet Union from capitalist influences. To some degree all three had sound reasons for worry.

In 1945 following Germany’s surrender the Potsdam Meeting was held. FDR had died and Truman replaced him. Churchill while at the initial meeting was defeated in his re-election and was replaced by the new Prime Minister Clement Atlee. Only Stalin remained. Truman did not trust Stalin and tensions were palpable.

One source of conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union was the fate of Eastern Europe and especially Poland. The United States was committed to free and democratic elections in Eastern Europe, while the Soviet Union wanted a buffer zone of friendly countries in Eastern Europe to protect it from future attacks from the West. This zone would ultimately exist until 1988-89 against the will of the eastern European states. Even before World War II ended, the Soviet Union had annexed the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and parts of Czechoslovakia, Finland, Poland, and Romania. Albania established a Communist government in 1944, and Yugoslavia formed one in 1945. In 1946, the Soviet Union organized Communist governments in Bulgaria and Romania, and in Hungary and Poland in 1947. Communists took over Czechoslovakia in a coup d'etat in 1948.

Another source of East-West tension was control of nuclear weapons. In 1946, the Soviet Union rejected a U.S. proposal for an international agency to control nuclear energy production and research. The Soviets were convinced that the United States was trying to preserve its monopoly on nuclear weapons.

A third source of conflict was post-war economic development assistance. The United States refused a Soviet request for massive reconstruction loans. In response, the Soviets called for substantial reparations from Germany. The U.S. was against this and of course saw this as one cause of WWI.

The Truman Doctrine So, by 1946 with WWII not even a year old the first shot in the ideological war had begun. Winston

Churchill had been invited to give the commencement address at Westminster College in Missouri, the home state of President Truman. In the speech Winston Churchill announced that "an iron curtain has descended across" Europe. On one side was the Communist bloc; on the other side were non-Communist nations. This was like a call to arms for the young graduates in the crowd. Sadly most of these young people would live their whole lives with specter of World War III.

Another cornerstone of action was a telegram from George Kennan. He wrote a 8,000-word telegram from George Kennan, an Embassy official.   This has become known as 'the Long Telegram', and it said exactly what the American government wanted it to. 

 Kennan hated Communism and the Soviet government.   However, he had lived in Moscow since 1933 and knew what he was talking about.   His telegram was re-written as a paper entitled: The Sources of Soviet Conduct, and read by many Americans.   It formed the basis of American policy towards Russia for the next quarter of a century. As an expert on Russian History his views were taken very seriously. To President Truman and many in the State Department believed that Stalin had merely replaced Hitler as a threat to world peace. With this in mind the U.S. made an important policy shift. Isolationism was now dead forever.

By February 1947, Britain informed the United States that it could not longer afford to provide aid to Greece and Turkey. The situation seemed urgent. The Greek monarchy was threatened by Communist guerrilla warfare, and the Soviet Union was seeking to control the Dardenelles in Turkey, a water route to the Mediterranean. The U.S. government feared that the loss of Greece and Turkey to communism would

open Western Europe and Africa to Soviet influence. The U.S government also worried that if the Soviet Union gained control over the Eastern Mediterranean, it could stop the flow of Middle Eastern oil. This was the first time in a long history of U.S. fears over oil.

President Truman responded decisively. He asked Congress for $400 million in economic and military aid for Greece and Turkey. This was an unprecedented amount of foreign aid during peacetime. He also declared that it was the policy of the United States "to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."

Truman's overarching message described two ways of life that were engaged in a life-or-death struggle, one free and the other totalitarian. The United States would help free people to maintain their free institutions and their territorial integrity against movements that sought to impose totalitarian regimes.

The Truman Doctrine committed the United States to providing aid to countries resisting communist aggression or subversion and provided the first step toward what would become known as the Containment Policy This idea was supported by Dean Acheson who became Truman’s Secretary of State in his second term. It was based upon a fairly valid assumption: Communism was like a virus that infected states especially those that were poor. The Containment Policy would adopt two approaches. One approach was military; the other was economic. In 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall who had been the head of the military during WWII proposed a program to funnel American economic aid to Europe. Faced with a rapid growth in the size of Communist parties, especially in France and Italy, the U.S. proposed a program of direct economic aid

The Marshall Plan Marshall a meeting in Paris to discuss the proposal with world leaders. He called on Europeans to

collectively agree on what kind of assistance they needed. Even the Soviet Union was invited to participate in the planning.

The Soviet delegation abruptly quit the summit in Paris to discuss the Marshall offer. When two Soviet satellites--Czechoslovakia and Poland--indicated that they wanted to take part in the Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union said no. The Soviet refusal to participate made it easier to secure congressional passage for the plan. When the Czechoslovakian government was overthrown in a Communist coup, congressional passage was assured.

It is doubtful that the U.S. could now perform such a huge task. The Marshall Plan committed more than 10 percent of the federal budget and almost 3 percent of the United States' gross national product to rebuilding Western Europe. Over the next 40 months, Congress authorized $12.5 billion in aid to restore Western Europe's economic health and to halt the spread of communism. Marshall's plan actually cost the United States very little, since it was largely paid for by European purchases of American coal, agricultural crops, and machinery

The First Chance for World War III: Berlin 1949 The Soviet Union was now set to challenge the will of the Allied powers. At the end of the war Berlin was

divided into zones of control as agreed upon at Yalta. There was supposed to be free movement between all sectors. In 1947, the United States, British, French, and Soviet officials met in Moscow to discuss the future of Germany. The participants were unable to agree about whether to end the occupation of Germany or to reunify the country. The conference's failure led the Western Allies to unify their German occupation zones in June 1948 and to establish West Germany.

Berlin Blockade Outraged by Western plans to create an independent West Germany, Soviet forces imposed a blockade

cutting off rail, highway, and water traffic between West Germany and West Berlin. A day later, an airlift began called Operation Vittles. Transport planes began flying in food and supplies for West Berlin's two million residents. By September, the airlift was carrying 4,500 tons of supplies a day. Over the next 11 months, 277,000 flights brought in 2.5 million tons of supplies until the Soviet Union lifted the blockade.

Why would the Soviets not shoot down the planes? First, they were unarmed and second, Truman very publicly deployed nuclear capable B-29 bombers to Britain, easy flying range to Moscow or Leningrad.

NATO

In April 1949, a month before the Soviet Union lifted the Berlin Blockade, the United States, Canada, Iceland and nine European nations formed NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Member states pledged mutual assistance against an armed attack and cooperation in military training and strategic planning.

The U.S. stationed troops in Western Europe, assuring its Allies that it would use its nuclear deterrent to protect Western Europeans against a Soviet attack. The admission of West Germany into NATO in 1955 led the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites to form a competing military alliance called the Warsaw Pact. To a degree, the world was now bipolar as it had been just before WWI. It would largely stay this way until the 1970s when Nixon and Kissinger went to China and developed closer relations.

The Arms Race In September 1949, President Truman announced that the Soviet Union had successfully detonated an

atomic bomb. Four months later, President Truman advised the Atomic Energy Commission to proceed with the development of a hydrogen bomb.

U.S. government officials had predicted that it would take the Soviet Union as long as a decade to develop an atomic bomb. The speed with which the Soviets produced a bomb led to charges that development of the device was a product of Soviet espionage. The United States set off its first hydrogen bomb in 1953, and the Soviet Union tested its first bomb in 1955.

HomeworkLook over the notes on the early COLD WAR and read pp: 940– 944 (Stop at Big Science)quiz THURSDAY Also bring the textbook on Thursday

WEDNESDAY (Period 2) (Textbook Today) Quiz on the early Cold War Period 1945 - 1953 Analysis of sources on the post-war economic and political structure in post WWII Europe

Materials Strategy/FormatQuiz form and text based questions Assessment and Close-text reading assignment

InstructionsFirst Hour we will take the quiz on the early Cold War Period. This will be a document based quiz but of course you still hopefully studied key terms, people, and events so that you can answer the context questions.

Second Hour: Using your textbook as source we will answer a few guided questions on post-WWII political and economic structure in Europe. This will carry us roughly through pages 944-948 stopping at Developments in the Soviet Union

HomeworkRead pp: 948 - 956 (Stopping at the end of Empire) for bell work/recap questions (potentially on Thursday if we are not on bloc schedule but on Friday if we do stay on bloc

THURSDAY (Period 1) Textbook Today Quiz on the early Cold War Period 1945 - 1953 Analysis of sources on the post-war economic and political structure in post WWII Europe

Materials Strategy/FormatQuiz form and text based questions Assessment and Close-text reading assignment

InstructionsFirst Hour we will take the quiz on the early Cold War Period. This will be a document based quiz but of course you still hopefully studied key terms, people, and events so that you can answer the context questions.

Second Hour: Using your textbook as source we will answer a few guided questions on post-WWII political and economic structure in Europe. This will carry us roughly through pages 944-948 stopping at Developments in the Soviet Union

HomeworkRead pp: 948 - 956 (Stopping at the end of Empire) for bell work/recap questions (potentially on Thursday if we are not on bloc schedule but on Monday if we do stay on bloc

FRIDAY - MONDAY (Since I am still not sure if we will be on bloc) Bell/Recap work from yesterday's notes and reading Examine events of the Cold War 1950s – 1963SP-19 | IS-10[PP-12 | PP-15 | SP-5 | SP-9 | SP-14

Materials Strategy/FormatPPT and video Lecture and Discussion L.CCR-2,3

Student Skill TypesChronological Reasoning (1, 2, 3)Comp/Context (4,5)Historical Evidence (6,7) Synthesis 8,9

Introduction Last week we saw the earliest phase of the Cold War develop from the wartime Yalta and Potsdam

conferences. You should be very familiar with the following terms:Truman Doctrine, Containment, The Marshall Plan, "The Iron Curtain", Berlin Crisis of 1949, NATO, and the Warsaw Pact. Additionally you should know the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats/Labour Party

As you saw in the reading section, in March 1953, Joseph Stalin, who had ruled the Soviet Union since 1928, died at the age of 73. Nikita Khrushchev then became first secretary of the Communist Party. Stalin's death led to a temporary thaw in Cold War tensions. In 1955, Austria regained its sovereignty and became an independent, neutral nation after the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. The next year, Khrushchev in the “Secret Speech” denounced Stalin and his policies at the 20th Communist Party conference. After a summit between President Eisenhower and the new Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Geneva, the Soviets announced plans to reduce its armed forces by more than 600,000 troops. In early 1956, Khrushchev called for "peaceful coexistence" between the East and West. This was sometimes called the “spirit of Geneva.” Ike even took it a step further suggesting a policy called “open skies” that would allow over flights by inspectors to monitor weapons programs. As it turns out Ike decided to do this unilaterally (See the U-2 incident). The thaw was all too brief.

Escalation and Danger Return

By 1956 the world was again on the brink of war in several locations. In Europe, Polish workers rioted to protest economic conditions under the Communist regime. Poles also demanded removal of Soviet officers from the Polish army. More than a hundred demonstrators were killed as authorities moved to suppress the riots. Worse still in Hungary, university students expressed solidarity with the Polish rebels. More than 100,000 workers and students demanded a democratic government and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. Sixteen Soviet divisions and 2,000 tanks crushed the Hungarian revolution after Hungary's Premier Imre Nagy promised Hungarians free elections and an end to one-party rule and denounced the Warsaw Pact. Soviet authorities feared that their intermediate ballistic missiles could only reach targets in Southern Europe if launched from bases in Hungary. Some 200,000 Hungarians fled the country after the suppression of the uprising. Pressure was intense upon Eisenhower to act militarily but ultimately the U.S. did nothing of substance. The policy of brinkmanship at least in Europe was a dead issue.

In the Middle East the specter of war for oil began. The U.S. had long maintained good relations with Saudi Arabia giving them a 50-50 split on all profits. In Iran the British (BP) controlled 90% of oil revenue. When a new prime minister was elected, Muhammad Mossadegh, he nationalized the oil industry. Britain had already sought a joint intervention with the Truman Administration who refused. However, Secretary of State Dulles and his brother Allen Dulles head of the CIA were convinced that Mossadegh was a secret communist. They launched Operation Ajax along with the British intelligence. Mossadegh was overthrown ironically with the help of the same Muslim clerics who today condemn U.S. involvement in Iranian affairs.

A much more dangerous situation occurred during the Suez Crisis in 1956. In 1956, the Suez Canal became the focus of a major world conflict. The canal represents the only direct means of travel from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean, making it vital to the flow of trade between Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. Normally, free passage was granted to all who used the canal, but Britain and France desired control of it, not only for commercial shipping, but also for colonial interests. The Egyptian government had just been taken over by General Gamal Abdel Nasser, who felt the canal should be under Egyptian control. Further exacerbating tensions was the fact that he made a statement that Israeli shipping would be disallowed. The United States and Britain had promised to give aid to Egypt in the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the Nile. This aid was retracted however, and in retaliation Nasser nationalized the canal. He intended to use the funds raised from the operation of the canal to pay for the Dam. When the U.S. would not allow funding for the Aswan Dam through the IMF (International Monetary Fund) Nassar turned to the Soviets for help.

Angry British and French politicians joined forces with Israel, a long time enemy of Egypt, in an attack against Nasser. The Israeli army marched toward the canal on October 29, 1956. Britain and France reinforced the Israelis, and the joint effort defeated the Egyptian army quickly. Within ten days, British and French forces had completely occupied the Suez region. Egypt responded by sinking 40 ships in the canal, blocking all passage. The Soviet Union indicated that they may use military aid to Nassar and even implied attacking Britain itself. The United Nations sought to resolve the conflict and pressured the two European powers to back down. The rest of the world shunned Britain and France for their actions in the crisis, and soon the UN salvage team moved in to clear the canal. Britain and France backed down, and control of the canal was given back to Egypt in March 1957. The Egyptian government was allowed to maintain control of the canal as long as they permitted all vessels of all nations’ free passage through it. The U.S. temporarily gained some credit in the Middle East because they came out against both the Israelis and the imperial powers Britain and France (both of whom were members of NATO).

The U-2 Incident and Eisenhower’s Parting Advice in 1960 Anxious to avoid a surprise nuclear attack, President Eisenhower was growing increasingly nervous over

rapid Soviet technological achievements. By 1954, the Soviets had demonstrated a hydrogen bomb as well as the means to deliver it with their long-range jet-powered bomber. Could a Soviet ICBM be far behind?

Urged on by his advisors in the National Science Foundation, Eisenhower could not wait another five or six years for the advent of photographic spy satellites to settle the “bomber gap” and other national security issues. He needed answers about Soviet intentions and technological capabilities right now. Moreover, since, typical intelligence tradecraft was ineffective against the communist bloc, and no other means were readily available, a high-flying reconnaissance plane was Eisenhower’s only hope. What the President needed in the era before spy satellites was a good aircraft. Thus, the U-2 project was born.

In a highly secretive program final performance design specifications would allow the U-2 to sustain 2.5gs with a maximum speed of Mach 0.8 or 460 knots at a service altitude of 70,600 feet with an absolute maximum altitude of 73,000 carrying a payload of 450 lbs (pilot, fuel, and cameras).It was believed that the So, in the early summer of 1955, Lockheed chose deserted Groom Lake (later known as Area 51) in Southern Nevada as the U2 flight testing site. It was believed that the Soviets could not shot down this plane. But, on the morning of May 1, 1960, CIA pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down. He had been on a top secret mission: to over fly and photograph denied territory from his U2 spy plane deep inside Russia. His fate and that of the entire U2 program remained a mystery for days. Then Powers was put on TV in the Soviet Union as a spy. He was not executed and was secretly exchanged for captured Soviet spies. But the incident intensified the Cold War for the next President.

JFK and the Cold WarThe Berlin Crisis of 1961

In early 1960 JFK meet with Soviet Premiere Khrushchev in Geneva early in his Presidency and it did not go well. We now know that that JFK was in terrible pain from a back problem and was on meds that kept him pretty messed up. The Soviet leader got the impression that he was a weak leader. This may have stimulated the Soviet decision to press the western powers on the issue of Berlin.

During the 1950s a steady outflow of refugees from the Soviet occupation zone to the West consisted primarily of young people of working age. By 1950 some 1.6 million had migrated to the western zones. Between 1950 and 1961, the refugee flow continued at a rate of 100,000 to 200,000 annually. Workers were attracted by the economic opportunities open to them in West Germany, and in the early 1950s, they and their families formed the majority of emigrants. By the late 1950s, a growing proportion of those leaving were professional people and students whose skills were sorely needed for internal development. In 1959 about 144,000 persons fled; in 1960 the figure rose to 199,000; and in the first seven months of 1961, about 207,000 left the country.

In November 1958, Soviet Premier Khrushchev issued an ultimatum giving the Western powers six months to agree to withdraw from Berlin and make it a free, demilitarized city. At the end of that period, Khrushchev declared, the Soviet Union would turn over to East Germany complete control of all lines of communication with West Berlin; the western powers then would have access to West Berlin only by permission of the East German government. The United States, Great Britain, and France replied to this ultimatum by firmly asserting their determination to remain in West Berlin and to maintain their legal right of free access to that city.

In 1959 the Soviet Union withdrew its deadline and instead met with the Western powers in a Big Four foreign ministers' conference. Although the three-month-long sessions failed to reach any important agreements, they did open the door to further negotiations and led to Premier Khrushchev's visit to the United States in September of 1959. At the end of this visit, Khrushchev and President Eisenhower stated jointly that the most important issue in the world was general disarmament and that the problem of Berlin and "all outstanding international questions should be settled, not by the application of force, but by peaceful means through negotiations."

The communist Eastern German government pushed the Soviets to act. During the spring and early summer, the East German regime procured and stockpiled building materials for the erection of the Berlin Wall. Although this extensive activity was widely known, few outside the small circle of Soviet and East German planners believed that East Germany would be sealed off. Approximately 32,000 combat and engineer troops were used in building the Wall. Once their efforts were completed, the Border Police assumed the functions of manning and improving the barrier. The Soviet Army was present to discourage interference by the West and presumably to assist in the event of large-scale riots.

As the confrontation over Berlin escalated, on 25 July President Kennedy requested an increase in the Army's total authorized strength from 875,000 to approximately 1 million men, along with increase of 29,000 and 63,000 men in the active duty strength of the Navy and the Air Force. Additionally, he ordered that draft calls be doubled, and asked the Congress for authority to order to active duty certain ready reserve units and individual reservists. He also requested new funds to identify and mark space in existing structures that could be used for fall-out shelters in case of attack, to stock those shelters with food, water, first-aid kits and other minimum essentials for survival, and to improve air-raid warning and fallout detection systems.

In the end however, JFK’s reaction did not stop the Berlin Wall from going up. Kennedy went to Berlin and made his famous speech (“Eich bin ein Berliner”). Though intending this final phrase to mean "I am a Berliner," in one of the memorably humorous footnotes to Cold War history, Kennedy's words would be more accurately translated as "I am a donut" since a "Berliner" is a popular German pastry. The U.S. did pledge once again to defend West Berlin and the West Germany as millions more in aid were allocated.

ConclusionWhile the Cuban Missile Crisis was more an American History issue, in reality it was global in scope because if it had ended in war, there can be little doubt that a nuclear exchange would have resulted.The Cuban Missile Crisis

While it might be seen as more of a US History event, the crisis was a global event because it could have plunged the world into nuclear holocaust. The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. The United States armed forces were at their highest state of readiness ever and Soviet field commanders in Cuba were prepared to use battlefield nuclear weapons to defend the island if it was invaded. Luckily, thanks to the bravery of two men, President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev, war was averted.

In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missiles were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe but U.S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba would double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union.

Meanwhile, Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack by the U.S. Ever since the failed Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro felt a second attack was inevitable. Consequently, he approved of Khrushchev's plan to place missiles on the island. In the summer of 1962 the Soviet Union worked quickly and secretly to build its missile installations in Cuba.

the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. Early the next day, President John Kennedy was informed of the missile installations. Kennedy immediately organized the EX-COMM, a group of his twelve most important advisors to handle the crisis. After seven days of guarded and intense debate within the upper echelons of government, Kennedy concluded to impose a naval quarantine around Cuba. He wished to prevent the arrival of more Soviet offensive weapons on the island. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discovery of the missile installations to the public and his decision to quarantine the island. He also proclaimed that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union and demanded that the Soviets remove all of their offensive weapons from Cuba.

During the public phase of the Crisis, tensions began to build on both sides. Kennedy eventually ordered low-level reconnaissance missions once every two hours. On the 25th Kennedy pulled the quarantine line back and raised military readiness to DEFCON 2. Then on the 26th EX-COMM heard from Khrushchev in an impassioned letter. He proposed removing Soviet missiles and personnel if the U.S. would guarantee not to invade Cuba. October 27 was the worst day of the crisis. A U-2 was shot down over Cuba and EX-COMM received a second letter from Khrushchev demanding the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey in exchange for Soviet missiles in Cuba. Attorney General Robert Kennedy suggested ignoring the second letter and contacted Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin to tell him of the U.S. agreement with the first.

Tensions finally began to ease on October 28 when Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the Soviet Union, expressing his trust that the United States would not invade Cuba. Further negotiations were held to implement the October 28 agreement, including a United States demand that Soviet light bombers be removed from Cuba, and specifying the exact form and conditions of United States assurances not to invade Cuba.

Weekend HomeworkOn Monday Next week We will have an open notes optional quiz based upon the following sections

Cold War Tensions Thaw pp: 972 - 975 The Helsinki Accords Source 29.1 Counter-culture pp: 975 - 978 Student Revolts 979 - 981 BE AWARE THAT IF YOU USE TYPED NOTES THEY MUST BE PRINTED. NO COMPUTERS

WILL BE ALLOWED. YOU MAY WANT TO SIMPLY WRITE BY HAND ANY NOTES THAT YOU WANT TO USE

MONDAY-TUESDAY (May 7th and May 8th) Quiz on Weekend Reading section (This will be timed and at the end of Monday notes) Examine the process of decolonization in the post war period

Materials Strategy/FormatPPT and Video Lecture-discussion/docs assessment

Introduction Is perhaps a paradox that while the western powers were on the winning side of the war, it destroyed their

empires. While WWI is often called the killer of empires, WWII represented the death blow to western European empires. Much of the reason for imperial collapse was economics (the parent could no longer support the children). There was also a distinct socio-cultural factor: the colonial powers no longer seemed so powerful to their subjects. Finally, the two superpowers denied colonialism (though we know some level of so-called neo-imperialism resulted during the Cold War).

For Britain decolonization was less painful (other than the Suez War in 1956). The Atlantic Charter of 1941 and UN Charter 1945 essentially committed Britain to self-determination. Additionally, the commonwealth system economically replaced their traditional empire. For powers such as Belgium and Holland imperialism was a dead issue. The Japanese had taken control during the war of Indonesia and colonies in Southeast Asia and, following the war, there was little that they could do to grab the colonies back again. Perhaps the least graceful imperial power was France. While most European powers were decolonizing, you might say that they attempted to recolonize! French attempts to regain control led to violence in Algeria and French Indochina (Vietnam).

Today and tomorrow we will handle decolonization first in Asia and then in Africa.

Decolonization in Asia. Independence of India and Pakistan

One might argue that Britain was losing control of India before WWI because there was a major disconnect between events and actual policies. While there was a consensus that Indian policy was above party politics, in practice it became embroiled in the vicissitudes of Westminster. Successive viceroys in India and secretaries of state in London were appointed on a party basis, having little or no direct experience of Indian conditions and they strove to serve two masters. Edwin Montagu was the first serving secretary of state to visit India on a fact-finding mission in 1917-1918. However, in true British tradition, they also chose to elaborate sophisticated and intellectual arguments to justify and explain their rule.

The foundation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 as an all India, secular political party, is widely regarded as a key turning point in formalizing opposition to the Raj. It developed from its elite intellectual middle-class confines, and a moderate, loyalist agenda, to become by the inter-war years, a mass organization. It was an organization which, despite the tremendous diversity of the sub-continent, was remarkable in achieving broad consensus over the decades. There was also a split within Congress between those who believed that violence was a justifiable weapon in the fight against imperial oppression (whose most iconic figure was Subhas Chandra Bose, who went on to form the Indian National Army), and those who stressed non-violence.

The towering figure in this latter group was Mahatma Gandhi, who introduced a seismic new idiom of opposition in the shape of non-violent non-cooperation or 'satyagraha' (meaning 'truth' or 'soul' force'). Gandhi oversaw three major nationwide movements which achieved varying degrees of success in 1920-1922, 1930-1934 and in 1942. These mobilized the masses on the one hand, while provoking the authorities into draconian repression. Much to Gandhi's distress, self-restraint among supporters often gave way to violence.

The British Raj unraveled quickly in the 1940s, perhaps surprising after the empire in the east had so recently survived its greatest challenge in the shape of Japanese expansionism. The pressure from the rising tide of nationalism made running the empire politically and economically very challenging and increasingly not cost effective. The actual timing of independence owed a great deal to World War Two and the demands it put on the British government and people.

The Labour party led by Clement Atlee had a tradition of supporting Indian claims for self-rule, and was elected to power in 1945 after a debilitating war which had reduced Britain to her knees. Furthermore, with US foreign policy pressuring the end of western subjugation and imperialism, it seemed only a matter of time before India gained its freedom.

The Partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 The growth of Muslim separatism from the late 19th century and the rise of communal violence from the

1920s to the virulent outbreaks of 1946-1947, were major contributory factors in the timing and shape of independence. Muslims, as a religious community, comprised only 20% of the population and represented great diversity in economic, social and political terms. From the late 19th century, some of its political elites in northern India felt increasingly threatened by British devolution of power, which by the logic of numbers would mean the dominance of the majority Hindu community.

Muhammad Jinnah made the demand for Pakistan into its rallying cry. The ensuing communal violence, especially after Jinnah declared 'Direct Action Day' in August 1946, put pressure on the British government and Congress to accede to his demands for a separate homeland for Muslims. The arrival of Lord Louis Mountbatten as India's last viceroy in March 1947, brought with it an agenda to transfer power as quickly and efficiently as possible. The resulting negotiations saw the deadline for British withdrawal brought forward from June 1948 to August 1947.

Contemporaries and subsequent historians have criticized this haste as a major contributory factor in the chaos that accompanied partition. Mass migration occurred across the new boundaries as well as an estimated loss of a million lives in the communal bloodbaths involving Hindus, Muslims and also Sikhs in the Punjab. The final irony must remain that the creation of Pakistan as a land for Muslims nevertheless left a sizeable number of Muslims in an independent India making it the largest minority in a non-Muslim state.

The Nehru-Gandhi-Khan dynasty ranged from 1947, when Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister, until his grandson, Rajiv (Khan) Gandhi, was assassinated during office in 1991. Nehru ruled until his sudden death in 1964, helping the newly independent country with reasonable, nationalistic thoughts. He was able to help the nation in many ways, including achieving independence, which he referred to as the “Torch of freedom” which “lighted up the darkness that surrounded us.” Nehru tried to help the economy of India by calling for lowering of poverty levels, proper use of resources, increased foreign economic aid, and much more. He also developed a foreign policy called the Non-Aligned Movement, which was articulated by India’s refusal to form any alliance or prevent and alliance with foreign countries. This policy controlled India’s fate in the Cold War, as it obtained a mutual respect and non-aggression with the United States and the Soviet Union.  His unexpected death was very unfortunate for India, because he had proved a great leader of his people. After Nehru’s death, his daughter, Indira Gandhi who he had much political influence over, became prime minister in 1966. Indira Gandhi was a gifted international leader who helped the country in many different ways including: the win against Pakistan, increasing the strength of the military and economy, the anti-racist ideas in India, contributions to world peace, better education for Indian citizens, and nuclear powers. Although Indira Gandhi did struggle while trying to reduce poverty in India. She believed women should be sterilized, reducing pregnancies, and many people disagreed with this law. This led to Gandhi losing her spot as prime minister in 1977. Though, Gandhi accepted the loss without protesting. Gandhi was reelected in 1980, and was excited to be back in office. Though, Gandhi faced a dilemma with Sikh, a powerful religious and political group, who wanted to break away from India and become independent. Gandhi was against this plan and tension rose in India against these rebels. In 1984, Gandhi’s Sikh security guards assassinated her shortly after she ordered troops to attack one of their sacred places, the golden temple. The guards did this as revenge. After, Gandhi’s unfortunate death, her son Rajiv (Khan) Gandhi was asked to take his mothers spot as prime minister. Rajiv did not originally plan to get involved in politics, but he stepped in after the crisis. Rajiv Gandhi did an excellent job keeping the country together. He wanted to be less involved in violence and decided to abolish many of his mother’s socialist guidelines for economic liberalization and free enterprise. In 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a terrorist, which ended the dynasty. All in all, the Nehru-Khan-Gandhi dynasty had an important impact on India. The family influenced the military, economic, and political decisions for 44 years. 

Synthesis Point: Kashmir

To this day tensions between India and Pakistan exist over this disputed area. The Kashmir dispute dates from 1947. The partition of the Indian sub-continent along religious lines led to the formation of India and Pakistan. However, there remained the problem of over 650 states, run by princes, existing within the two newly independent countries. In theory, these princely states had the option of deciding which country to join, or of remaining independent. In practice, the restive population of each province proved decisive.

The people had been fighting for freedom from British rule, and with their struggle about to bear fruit they were not willing to let the princes fill the vacuum.

Since 1947 Pakistan and India have fought three wars over control of the region and this is particularly scary as both have nuclear weapons. As late as 1999 violence in the region has threatened all-out war.

Independence for Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia and Singapore Ceylon (later Sri Lanka) obtained their independence soon after India but, in Malaysia, the situation was

more complex. Until 1858, India was administered by the East India Company (a private joint-stock company distinct from the British Crown). Ceylon was captured by the Madras Presidency officers of the Company,

Burma was never really part of "India" (the cultural-geographical sub-continental area). It became a part of British India after the Company, perturbed by the Burmese conquest of Manipur and Assam on its frontiers, defeated the Burmese king. Burma was a huge province. Although influenced by India, it was culturally, linguistically and ethnically different from the rest of India. Unlike Manipur, it was not a Hindu-ruled princely state. Unlike the present-day Mizoram and Nagaland, it was not a district of the Assam province.In addition, Burma was seen as a drain on the finances of the British Indian Government. The crime rate was higher in Burma. The defense of Burma's frontiers cost a lot of money. Economically, it wasn't as attractive as India. Besides, separating Burma from India made political sense, since the independence movement was relatively less active in Burma.

As a multi-racial and cultural nation, Malaysia’s long struggle for independence following World War II depended on multiple factors. During the war, Malaysia, along with the Philippines, was occupied by the Japanese Army. Following the war, Britain regained control of the territory, but was amidst the struggle for independence by the local communist groups. The hegemonic country declared a State of Emergency

following the struggle for independence, which also continued when the independence was granted. The first glimpse of the Cold War in southeast Asia revealed itself in Malaysia Right after the Federation of Malaysia was established in 1948 with a British supervisor, there was a widespread guerilla warfare against the government. These guerilla fighting groups were mostly made up of Chinese and North Vietnamese communist irregulars. When the Malaysian government successfully fought back, the guerilla fighters attempted to sabotage the society economically, by targeting one of their major items of trade. Rubber

plantations were destroyed, and workers were killed. The fighting and activity eventually died down, and the Malay federation gained autonomy.

In 1959 Britain granted Singapore a large degree of self-rule. Lee Kuan Yew, leader of the People’s Action Party, became prime minister after a landslide election victory. Singapore’s new leadership thought the island’s interests would be best served by uniting with the neighboring Federation of Malaya, a confection of sultanates which had recently shrugged off British rule. Singapore joined the federation in 1963, which from then on was called Malaysia. However, because of racial tensions Singapore was actually expelled from the Malaysian Federation becoming independent in 1965.

Independence for Indonesia

When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, the East Indies nationalists seized the opportunity to throw off the colonial yoke of the Dutch and proclaim the independent state of Indonesia which the Japanese had promised them. Neither Communism nor Islam much appealed to the nationalists, who were led by Achmed Sukarno and Muhammad Hatta. Sukarno, the son of a school-teacher and Theosophist, had little time for religion or ideology and believed himself a man of destiny. He had been imprisoned and exiled by the Dutch. So had Hatta, a Sumatran with a Rotterdam University degree in economics. Both had collaborated with the Japanese and helped to organize a Japanese-backed Indonesian army.

In 1949 Indonesian nationalist started a rebellion against Dutch control. Equipped with Japanese weapons, the nationalists waged an armed struggle against the Dutch, who had powerful economic reasons for recovering the East Indies and believed that most Indonesians wanted them to return. Dutch forces made substantial headway in Java and Sumatra, but there was fierce criticism in the United Nations, and the United States pressed for a negotiated solution. Eventually a conference of 120 delegates assembled at The Hague in August 1949 under the chairmanship of the Dutch prime minister, Willem Drees. The nationalist delegates were skillfully led by Hatta. On November 2nd, after ten weeks of haggling, the conference reached an agreement which transferred Dutch sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia, with Queen Juliana of the Netherlands as titular head of a new Netherlands-Indonesian Union, Sukarno as Indonesian president and Hatta as prime minister.

Independence for Vietnam (French Indochina) With the Allied victory in 1945, Japanese forces withdrew from Vietnam, leaving the French-educated

Emperor Bao Dai in control of an independent Vietnam. Led by Vo Nguyen Giap, Viet Minh forces seized the northern city of Hanoi and declared a Democratic State of Vietnam (known commonly as North Vietnam) with Ho Chi Minh as president. Bao Dai abdicated in favor of the revolution, but French military troops gained control of southern Vietnam, including Saigon, and Chiang Kai-Shek’s Chinese forces moved into the north according to the terms of an Allied agreement. Ho Chi Minh began negotiations with the French in efforts to achieve a Chinese withdrawal as well as eventual French recognition of Vietnam’s independence and reunification of North and South Vietnam. But in October 1946, a French cruiser opened fire on the town of Haiphong after a clash between French and Vietnamese soldiers. Despite Ho’s best efforts to maintain peace, his more militant followers called for war, which broke out that December.

During the First Indochina War, the French returned Bao Dai to power and set up the state of Vietnam (South Vietnam) in July 1949, with Saigon as its capital. Armed conflict between the two states continued until a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu ended in French defeat by Viet Minh forces. The subsequent treaty

negotiations at Geneva (at which Ho was represented by his associate Pham Van Dong) partitioned Indochina and called for elections for reunification in 1956. Of course this discussion continues with U.S. support for Diem leading to the Vietnam War.

Korea in the 1940s-1950s I decided not to give much details here on the Korean War because Korea had actually never been a

European colony and had in fact been under the control of Japan who had annexed it in 1919. However, not unlike the rest of the discussion, WWII resulted in the Japanese expulsion. Kim il Sung had been propped up in the North by the Soviets (and later communist China) while Syngman Rhee in the South was supported by the U.S. In 1950 the North invaded across the UN mandated 38th parallel leading to war. The fighting ended in 1953 with an armistice but, as you know tensions still exist.

Decolonization in Africa Not unlike events in Asia, WWII certainly had an impact on control of Africa. Harold MacMillan, British

Prime Minister, helped begin decolonization. There was no one process of decolonization. In some areas, it was peaceful, and orderly. In many others, independence was achieved only after a protracted revolution. A few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others were ruled by dictators or military juntas for decades, or endured long civil wars. Some European governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies; others contested decolonization militarily. The process of decolonization coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, and with the early development of the new United Nations. Decolonization was often affected by superpowers competition, and had a definite impact on the evolution of that competition. It also significantly changed the pattern of international relations in a more general sense.

The newly independent nations that emerged in the 1950s and the 1960s became an important factor in changing the balance of power within the United Nations. In 1946, there were 35 member states in the United Nations; as the newly independent nations of the “third world” joined the organization, by 1970 membership had swelled to 127. These new member states had a few characteristics in common; they were non-white, with developing economies, facing internal problems that were the result of their colonial past, which sometimes put them at odds with European countries and made them suspicious of European-style governmental structures, political ideas, and economic institutions. These countries also became vocal advocates of continuing decolonization, with the result that the UN Assembly was often ahead of the Security Council on issues of self-governance and decolonization. The new nations pushed the UN toward accepting resolutions for independence for colonial states and creating a special committee on colonialism, demonstrating that even though some nations continued to struggle for independence, in the eyes of the international community, the colonial era was ending.

The Suez Crisis of 1956 One of the earliest examples of decolonization leading to war and superpower involvement was the Suez

War of 1956. On October 29, 1956, Israeli armed forces pushed into Egypt toward the Suez Canal after Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal in July of that same year, initiating the Suez Crisis. The Israelis soon were joined by French and British forces.

Behind schedule, but ultimately successful, the British and French troops took control of the area around the Suez Canal. However, their hesitation had given the Soviet Union–also confronted with a growing crisis in Hungary–time to respond. The Soviets, eager to exploit Arab nationalism and gain a foothold in the Middle East, supplied arms from Czechoslovakia to the Egyptian government beginning in 1955, and eventually helped Egypt construct the Aswan Dam on the Nile River after the United States refused to support the project.

The Soviets railed against the invasion and threatened to rain down nuclear missiles on Western Europe if the Israeli-French-British force did not withdraw. The response of President Dwight Eisenhower’s administration was measured. It warned the Soviets that reckless talk of nuclear conflict would only make matters worse, and cautioned Khrushchev to refrain from direct intervention in the conflict. However, Eisenhower also issued stern warnings to the French, British and Israelis to give up their campaign and withdraw from Egyptian soil. Eisenhower was upset with the British, in particular, for not keeping the United States informed about their intentions. The United States threatened all three nations with economic

sanctions if they persisted in their attack. The threats did their work. The British and French forces withdrew by December; Israel finally bowed to U.S. pressure in March 1957.In the aftermath of the Suez Crisis, Britain and France found their influence as world powers weakened.

Independence Movements in Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria In the early 1950s an independence bid was sought which devolved into guerrilla warfare. By 1955

amnesty was offered to Tunisia's guerrillas and autonomy for Tunisia, with French control over foreign affairs. But with a the rivalry between the Habib Bourguiba group and a more radical group, the French relented and on 20 March 1956 gave Tunisia complete independence. Bourguiba became president of a “National Constituent Assembly” and was designated Prime Minister.

Morocco in 1955 the French faced rising violence, and there was the demand that the French allow the return of Sultan Mohammed V. In late 1955 Sultan Mohammed was back in power and winning a gradual restoration of Moroccan independence within a framework of French-Moroccan interdependence. The Sultan agreed to institute reforms that would transform Morocco into a constitutional monarchy with a democratic form of government. In February 1956, Morocco acquired limited home rule, and on March 2nd France and Morocco signed an agreement giving Morocco complete independence

The situation with Algeria became even more complex. The FLN, the Algerian guerrillas tightened its organization and began focusing on terrorism in the cities, mainly Algiers. Their stronghold in Algiers was the thickly populated Casbah, described by some as a slum. European settlers tried terror of their own. On August 10 they blew up an apartment building in the Casbah, killing at least fifty Algerians. The FLN retaliated with bombings at popular European hangouts.

By 1 January 1957 the French had 308,000 soldiers in Algeria. On 28 January 1957 the UN was scheduled to debate the Algerian question, and for that day the FLN scheduled a one-week Muslim work stoppage in Algiers. France's General Massu broke the strike, forcing Muslims back to work and breaking in the storefronts of recalcitrant shopkeepers. That year General Massu broke the FLN's network in Algiers. There were check points in the streets, but that was mainly show for reassuring settlers that something was being done. More significant actions were patrols from door to door during the day and night, the rounding up of suspects and questioning who was collecting funds for the FLN in the neighborhood

Military success was not producing political success. The FLN was able to continue its terrorism, killing persons here and there. The war was becoming a matter of which side would wear down the other first. A good bet would have been that the nationalism of the Algerian people, enhanced and broadened by the actions of France's military, would win against the European minority in Algeria and their rightist French supporters. The political right saw the matter in terms of military victory or surrender to terrorism, and they feared a political solution. An interesting aspect of the growing war in Algeria was that there was a number of leftist French supported the FLN.

The tensions over decolonization and French defeats in that effort are a major factor in the collapse of the 4th French Republic (1946-1958). On 1 June 1958 the lower house of parliament (the National Assembly) named de Gaulle prime minister and granted him wide emergency powers, including the right to prepare a new constitution to be submitted to a popular referendum. In September 1958 the new constitution, providing for a presidential system, was overwhelmingly adopted by 83 percent of the electorate. In December de Gaulle was elected president of the France's new Fifth Republic by a 78 percent of France's electoral college.

By 1960, de Gaulle believed it was time for France to end its control of Algeria. In January he dismissed General Massu. Massu was a hero to the European settlers, and they erected barricades in the center of their part of Algiers. French gendarmes ordered the settlers to disperse, and the settlers killed 14 gendarmes and wounded 123, while six settlers died and 26 were wounded.

In the summer of 1960 de Gaulle spoke of Algeria as being Algerian (Algérie algérienne). In his New Year greeting to his fellow French he spoke again of Algeria as belonging to the Algerians. In April 1961 France's army commanders in Algeria revolted. A "Secret Army Organization" was created that was intent on keeping Algeria as French, and an attempt was made to assassinate de Gaulle. In 1962 a popular referendum supported an end of French control.

Decolonization in Central Africa Kenya gained its independence from Britain with Jomo Kenyatta as the country’s first Prime Minister. The

Union Jack was replaced by the black, red and green flag of the new nation. This followed the first all inclusive elections on 27 May 1963. A year later Kenya was declared a Republic. The campaign for independence in Kenya dates back to the 1940s before Kenyatta became the leader of the Kenya African Union (KAU) in 1947 and birth of the Mau Mau rebel movement. In 1952 in response to the Mau Mau rebellion, the government declared a state of emergency which lasted for eight years. During the state of emergency a number of Mau Mau operatives, including Kenyatta and Achieng Aneko were arrested. In 1953, Kenyatta was charged with leading the Mau Mau rebellion and sentenced to seven years in prison.

During the British rule several aspects of the Nigerian life were established. Christianity, Western education and the English language spread during the period. But, by the middle of the 20th century, the shrinking British Empire and the growing demand for independence in Africa led to Nigeria’s Freedom on October 1, 1960. In 1963, Nigeria became a Federal Republic and Nnamdi Azikiwe was sworn in as its first President

The Congo Free State as it existed under Leopold II is largely known to history for its brutal exploitation of the native Congolese population and the mass death that resulted. Under Leopold II there were virtually no laws or restrictions protecting the native Congolese and their lands. The peoples of the Congo River basin were forced to work as porters, miners, rubber-tappers, woodcutters, and railway builders for European interests. Because there was little oversight and no form of organized government control, Europeans were free to adopt brutal policies of kidnapping, mutilation, robbery, and murder to extract desired labor and resources from the local population.

The harvesting of rubber was a particularly arduous task. Rubber was in great demand in Europe for use in the manufacture of bicycle and automobile tires. But, how could Europeans with limited resources and manpower force large numbers of local peoples to harvest rubber deep in the jungles of Africa? A colonial army called the force publique (public force) was created largely from local Africans and a handful of Belgian officers in order to marshal labor, quell revolts, and enforce the collection of rubber and ivory.

Of course the fall of Belgium to the Nazis had direct impact on the Congo. This brought particular attention because of yellow cake uranium, the best in the world for nuclear weapons development. During the war tons were evacuated to the U.S. to keep it from the Nazis. Following the war there was a wave of white Belgian immigration. This thriving community shared a disability common to African colonies. There is a yawning difference between living standards and job opportunities for whites and blacks. But the Belgian Congo also has a special weakness of its own, resulting from the paternalism of Brussels. There is a complete absence of any developing political structure. With mounting violence in the colony, and with the December elections invalid because of widespread boycotts, the Belgian government invites ninety-six delegates from the main Congolese parties to a conference in Brussels in January 1960. Lumumba, Kasavubu and Tshombe are among those who attend. The Belgians suggest a four-year transition to independence, but the Congolese refuse to wait. By the end of the conference Belgium has accepted a completely impractical dash to the starting line. The Belgian Congo will become an independent nation in less than six months, on 30 June 1960.

South Africa After WWII the imperial powers were under strong international pressure to decolonize. In Southern

Africa, however, the transfer of power to an African majority was greatly complicated by the presence of entrenched white settlers. By 1956 the policy known as apartheid took shape. Controls over African labour mobility were tightened, and the color bar in employment was extended. From 1959 chiefly authorities in the rural reserves (renamed “Bantu homelands” or Bantustans) were given increased powers and granted limited self-government, though they remained subject to white control. Ethnic and racial distinctions among whites, Africans, Colored's, and Indians were more strictly defined and policed. Although Coloureds and Indians were subordinated to white rule and humiliated by racial discrimination, they nevertheless were privileged in comparison with Africans.

Black opposition to the system was lead by the ANC (African National Congress) In 1959 the organizations was banned after demonstrations against the pass laws in March 1960 at Sharpeville, in which police killed at least 67 and injured more than 180 African protestors, triggering massive protests. Increasingly draconian security legislation, the banning, exile, and imprisonment of leaders including Nelson Mandela. Next to how the Cold War ended I am surprised looking back at the sweep of events. By 1994 the apartheid system was over. ANC wins first

non-racial elections. Mandela becomes president, Government of National Unity formed, Commonwealth membership restored

HomeworkLook over class notes, web-notes, and text reading pp: 956 - 963 for quiz tomorrow

WEDNESDAY Assessment on decolonization process in Asia and Africa

Materials Strategy/Formatdoc based quiz forms Assessment and review

Instructions Today's quiz is a review of the decolonization process that occurred post WWII. The quiz will be document

based and will take most of the period. Some of these sources will be on your last test (take home)

HomeworkIndependent study

THURSDAY Examine the end of the Cold War 1980-1991 [INT-

6 | PP-1 | PP-4 | PP-5 | SP-10 | IS-3 | IS-7 | IS-8 | IS-10]

MaterialsNotes-documents (Tuesday)

Introduction As we left off last week the 1970s saw some major

changes in the Cold War. The Nixon Administration was able to drive a wedge in the communist bloc exploiting Soviet-Chinese tensions. Nixon's visit to China was followed up by the first real move in arms control between the U.S. and Soviet Union (though the main agreements were signed by Ford after Nixon's resignation).a. The ABM treaty 1972: The ABM Treaty thus enshrined as strategic doctrine the principle of deterrence through threat of retaliation also known as MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction). Since neither side was free to deploy unlimited defenses against the strategic ballistic missiles of the other, each nation sought to deter any outright attack by the other through its ability to threaten overwhelming retaliation against an attack with its own nuclear-armed strategic ballistic missiles. The Interim Agreement and the ABM Treaty were bilateral agreements applicable only to U.S. and Soviet strategic ballistic missiles and ABM systems. While the Soviets were worried about U.K. and French strategic nuclear forces, and both the Soviet Union and the United States had reason to be concerned about Chinese nuclear forces, these forces were not limited by either agreement

b. SALT 1: the first series of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, extended from November 1969 to May 1972. During that period the United States and the Soviet Union negotiated the first agreements to place limits and restraints on some of their central and most important armaments. In a Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems, they moved to end an emerging competition in defensive systems that threatened to spur offensive competition to still greater heights. In an Interim Agreement on Certain Measures With Respect to the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, the two nations took the first steps to check the rivalry in their most powerful land- and submarine-based offensive nuclear weapons. Also involved in the discussion was the "throw weight" of MIRVS (multiple independent reentry vehicles). These were multiple warheads on single missiles.

c. Helsinki Accords 1975: It was an attempt to secure common acceptance of the post-World War II status quo in Europe, including the division of Germany. The accords, signed by all the countries of Europe

(except Albania) as well as the U.S. and Canada, were nonbinding and lacked treaty status. They were sought by the Soviet Union to gain implicit recognition of its postwar hegemony in eastern Europe. In return, the U.S. and its western European allies pressed for respect for human rights and cooperation in economic, scientific, and other humanitarian areas.

It seemed that there was major thawing in the Cold War but in 1980 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. While this was not really a Euro event, it reenergized the conservatives in Europe because of Soviet violations of human rights in their attempted occupation. Also, the wasted money and lives became a major source of trouble leading to the fall of communism.

The Rise of Gorbachev In 1982, 75-year-old Soviet party leader Leonid Brezhnev died. Growing stagnation, corruption,

and a huge military buildup had marked his regime. Initially, the post-Brezhnev era seemed to offer little change in U.S.-Soviet relations. KGB leader Yuri Andropov succeeded Brezhnev, but died after only 15 months in power. Another Brezhnev loyalist, Konstantin Chernenko, who died just a year later, replaced him. In 1985, Soviet party leadership passed to Mikhail S. Gorbachev, a 54-year-old agricultural specialist with little formal experience in foreign affairs. Gorbachev pledged to continue the policies of his predecessors.

Within weeks, however, Gorbachev called for sweeping political liberalization (glasnost) and economic reform (perestroika). He allowed wider freedom of press, assembly, travel, and religion. He persuaded the Communist party leadership to end its monopoly on power; created the Soviet Union's first working legislature; allowed the first nationwide competitive elections in 1989; and freed hundreds of political prisoners. In an effort to boost the sagging Soviet economy, he legalized small private business cooperatives, relaxed laws prohibiting land ownership, and approved foreign investment within the Soviet Union.

In foreign affairs, Gorbachev completely reshaped world politics. He cut the Soviet defense budget, withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe, allowed a unified Germany to become a member of NATO, and agreed with the United States to destroy short-range and medium-range nuclear weapons. Most dramatically, Gorbachev actively promoted the democratization of former satellite nations in Eastern Europe. For his accomplishments in defusing Cold War tensions, he was awarded the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize

The Collapse of Communism For 40 years, Communist Party leaders in Eastern Europe had ruled confidently. Each year their

countries fell further behind the West; yet, they remained secure in the knowledge that the Soviet Union, backed by the Red Army, would always send in the tanks when the forces for change became too great. But they had not bargained on a liberal Soviet leader like Mikhail Gorbachev.

As Gorbachev moved toward reform within the Soviet Union and détente with the West, he pushed the conservative regimes of Eastern Europe outside his protective umbrella. By the end of 1989, the Berlin Wall had been smashed. All across Eastern Europe, citizens took to the streets, overthrowing 40 years of Communist rule. Like a series of falling dominos, Communist parties in Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria fell from power.

Gorbachev, who had wanted to reform communism, may not have anticipated the swift swing toward democracy in Eastern Europe. Nor had he fully foreseen the impact that democracy in Eastern Europe would have on the Soviet Union. By 1990, leaders of several Soviet republics began to demand independence or greater autonomy within the Soviet Union.

Gorbachev had to balance the growing demand for radical political change within the Soviet Union with the demand by Communist hardliners. The hardliners demanded that he contain the new democratic currents and turn back the clock. Faced with dangerous political opposition from the right and the left and with economic failure throughout the Soviet Union, Gorbachev tried to satisfy everyone and, in the process, satisfied no one.

In 1990, following the example of Eastern Europe, the three Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia announced their independence, and other Soviet republics demanded greater sovereignty. Nine of the 15 Soviet republics agreed to sign a new union treaty, granting far greater freedom and autonomy to individual republics. This created the brief Commonwealth of Independent States.

The 1991 Russian RevolutionBut in August 1991, before the treaty could be signed, conservative Communists tried to oust Gorbachev in a coup d'etat. Boris Yeltsin, the President of the Russian Republic, and his supporters defeated the coup, undermining support for the Communist Party. Gorbachev fell from power. The Soviet Union ended its existence in December 25, 1991

HomeworkRead the following article on the Brexit vote. You will have what amounts to "bell work" on the reading. You will see them at the bottom of tomorrow's guided question on the video.https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/apr/28/leave-campaign-economists-for-brexit-report

Tomorrow we will do a video with questions. Here is the link to the video if you'd like to view it in advance.The video is about the formation of the European Union. Much of the video (and associated questions) will be review by now.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRwZyDTdCAc

FRIDAY Examine the key issues and events that led to the creation of the European Union and Britain's vote to

leave.

Materials Strategy/Formatvideo clip and PPT discussion

Introduction and Instructions Today in class we will view a video with questions involving the creation of the EU. At the end of the

questions are 3-4 based upon last night's article on the Brexit Vote. The precursor to the European Union was established after World War II in the late 1940s in an effort to

unite the countries of Europe and end the period of wars between neighboring countries. These nations began to officially unite in 1949 with the Council of Europe. In 1950 the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community expanded the cooperation. The six nations involved in this initial treaty were Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Today these countries are referred to as the "founding members."

During the 1950s Cold War tensions between Eastern and Western Europe showed the need for further European unification. In order to do this, the Treaty of Rome was signed on March 25, 1957, thus creating the European Economic Community and allowing people and products to move throughout Europe. Throughout the decades' additional countries joined the community.

In order to further unify Europe, the Single European Act was signed in 1987 with the aim of eventually creating a "single market" for trade. Europe was further unified in 1989 with the elimination of the boundary between Eastern and Western Europe - the infamous Berlin Wall.

Throughout the 1990s, the "single market" idea allowed easier trade, more citizen interaction on issues such as the environment and security, and easier travel through the different countries.

Even though the countries of Europe had various treaties in place prior to the early 1990s, this time is generally recognized as the period when the modern day the European Union arose due to the Treaty of Maastricht on the European Union which was signed on February 7, 1992, and put into action on

November 1, 1993.The Treaty of Maastricht identified five goals designed to unify Europe in more ways than just economically. The goals are:1) To strengthen the democratic governing of participating nations.2) To improve the efficiency of the nations.3) To establish an economic and financial unification.4) To develop the "Community social dimension."5) To establish a security policy for involved nations.

In order to reach these goals, the Treaty of Maastricht has various policies dealing with issues such as industry, education, and youth. In addition, the Treaty put a single European currency, the Euro, in the works to establish fiscal unification in 1999. In 2004 and 2007, the EU expanded, bringing the total number of member states as of 2008 to 27. However, recently there has been alarm at the functioning of the EU. This seems to have accelerated with the debt crisis that erupted in Greece. The 2016 Brexit vote and threats by Marine Le Pen's right wing party in France has created great strain on the future of the body.

HomeworkOkay, here comes your last test (take home) It will be posted on the class website. See the testing schedule below ( I assume that some of you will be out various days next week). The test is due Monday May 7th. As far as major content goes we really only have one more subject: The genocide and ethic wars surrounding the breakup of Yugoslavia.Nearly all of the assignments next week are review. I realize also that some seniors may be missing class for exams. So, we will have to work around that.

AP Test Schedule: Week 1

Test Date Morning Exams (8 a.m.) Afternoon Exams (12 noon)

May 7, 2018

Chemistry Spanish Literature and Culture Psychology

May 8, 2018

Seminar Spanish Language and Culture

Art History Physics 1: Algebra-Based

May 9, 2018

English Literature and Composition Japanese Language and Culture Physics 2: Algebra-Based

May 10, 2018

United States Government and Politics Chinese Language and Culture Environmental Science

May 11, 2018

German Language and Culture United States History Computer Science Principles

Studio Art 5/11/18 is also the Deadline for AP Coordinators to submit digital portfolios and for 2-D Design

and Drawing students to assemble physical portfolios.

AP Test Schedule: Week 2

Test Date Morning Exams (8 a.m.) Afternoon Exams (12 noon) Afternoon Exams (2 p.m.)

May 14, 2018

Biology Music Theory Physics C: Mechanics Physics C: Electricity

and Magnetism

May 15, 2018

Calculus AB Calculus BC

French Language and Culture

Computer Science A

May 16, 2018

English Language and Composition

Italian Language and Culture

Macroeconomics

May 17, 2018

Comparative Government and Politics

World History Statistics

May 18, 2018

Human Geography Microeconomics

European History Latin