army - fm5 412 - project managment

*FM 5-412

Field ManualNo. 5-412

HEADQUARTERSDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

Washington , DC, 13 June 1994

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

*This publication supersedes FM 5-333, 17 February 1987.

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FM 5-412 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

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PROJECT MANAGER FM 5-412

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FM 5-412 PROJECT MANAGER

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PREFACEField Manual (FM) 5-412 is intended for useas a training guide and reference text for en-gineer personnel responsible for planning,scheduling, and controlling construction pro-jects in the theater of operations (TO). Itprovides planning and management tech-niques to be applied when planning andscheduling a construction project. Thismanual also provides techniques and proce-dures for estimating material, equipment,personnel, and time requirements for projectcompletion.

The proponent of this publication is theUnited States Army Engineer School(USAES). Send comments and recommenda-tions on Department of the Army (DA) Form2028 (Recommended Changes to Publica-tions and Blank Forms) directly to Comman-dant, US Army Engineer School, ATTN:ATSE-T-PD-P, Fort Leonard Wood, MO65473-6650.

Unless this publication states otherwise,masculine nouns and pronouns do not referexclusively to men.

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PROJECT MANAGEMENT FM 5-412

MISSION OF ARMY ENGINEER

PROJECT MANAGEMENT C H A P T E R 1

MANAGEMENT THEORY

Management definitions are as varied as theauthors who write books about the subject.A good definition states that management is“the process of getting things done throughpeople.” Project management may be de-fined more specifically as “the process of co-ordinating the skill and labor of personnelusing machines and materials to form thematerials into a desired structure. "Projectconstruction operations include planning,designing facilities, procuring materials andequipment, and supervising construction.An important Army management principlestates that "continual improvement in sys-tems, methods, and use of resources is re-quired for continuous effectiveness in opera-tions." In most large nontactical Army or-ganizations, management engineering staffshelp commanders and line operators designnew ways to work faster, cheaper, and bet-ter.

PRINCIPLES DERIVED FROMEXPERIENCE

Management principles have been developedfrom experience and serve as a basis formanaging human and material resources.They do not furnish definite formulas or so-lutions to all management problems, norare they infallible laws; they are only guide-lines for action. Effective managementshould encompass--

Clearly defined policies understood bythose who are to carry them out.

Subdivision of work, systematicallyplanned and programmed.

Specific assignment of tasks and an as-surance that subordinates clearly under -stand the tasks.

Adequate allocation of resources.

Delegation of authority equal to thelevel of responsibility.

Clear authority relationships.

Unity of command and purpose through-out an organization.

Effective and qualified leadership ateach echelon.

Continuous accountability for use of re-sources and production results.

Effective coordination of all individualand group efforts.

DIFFERENCES FROM CIVILIANPRACTICES

In a TO, construction, repair, rehabilitation,.and maintenance of facilities differ consider-ably from civilian practices. Although theengineering principles involved are un-changed, in combat area operations the fac-tors of time, personnel, materials, and en-emy action impose a great range of prob-lems. This requires modification of con-struction methods and concentration of ef-fort. Engineers in a TO nor really do notbuild permanent facilities.

The variety of construction in the military,often done on an expedited or "crash" basis,creates challenging management problems.

Mission of Army Engineer Project Management 1-1


In fact, each project is unique in its loca-tion, weather conditions, climate, soil, andpossible enemy action. Standard designsare used, but they must be adapted to eachparticular site. Construction materials areoften less uniform than those used in themanufacturing industries. Management un-der these conditions involves unusual prob-lems.

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS INPROJECT MANAGEMENT

Make assumptions based on facts.Weather predictions are based on pastweather data. Policies for observing na-tional holidays are expected to continue.These are basic facts and forecast data thatmay affect the future.

The effect of climate on construction opera-tions is so great that the evaluation of thisitem alone can be as important as all otherfactors combined. If the planner fails toconsider weather, more time may be lost be-cause of bad weather than would be neededto finish all the work in favorable weather.The planner must evaluate each type ofwork to be done in relation to the weatherconditions expected during construction.For example, for road and airfield work, itmay be better to do all the clearing andstripping before starting subgrade and sub-base operations. This may be done only ifit is certain that there will be little or norain during clearing and stripping, beforeadequate drainage can be provided. Evalu-ating weather lets the planner determinehow much time to allow for weather delays.

Find and examine alternative courses ofaction. Construction in a TO requiresspeed, economy, and flexibility.

Speed. Speed is fundamental to all activi-ties in a TO and is especially important tothe engineer. Recognizing the importanceof speed, the Corps of Engineers has devel-oped and adopted certain policies and prac-tices to help expedite project construction.

Standardization. For hospitals, depots,and shelters, standard designs are usedin active TOs to save time in design andconstruction. Standard designs presentthe simplest method of using standardmaterials to build acceptable installa-tions. In building, they permit produc-tion-line methods in the prefabricationof construction members. They are de-signed to reduce the variety of materialsrequired, ensure uniformity and stand-ards, simplify procedures, and minimizecosts. Standard designs increase the ef-ficiency of working parties that can re-peat erection procedures until they be-come almost mechanical. Stand-ardization of construction is especiallyimportant in time of war.

Simplicity. Construction must be sim-ple during war because of personnel,material, and time shortages. The avail-able labor uses the simplest methodsand materials to complete installationsin the shortest time.

Necessities and life expectancy. Mili-tary engineering in the TO is concernedwith only the bare necessities and tem-porary facilities. Adequate provisionsare made for safety, but they are not aselaborate as in civilian practice. For ex-ample, local green timbers are oftenused to construct wharves or pile-bentbridges, even though marine borers willrapidly destroy the timbers. By thetime that happens, the focus of militaryeffort may have changed. Sanitary facili-ties may consist of nothing more thanpit latrines. Using valuable time foranything more permanent is not justi-fied. In short, quality is sacrificed forspeed and economy.

Construction and repairs in a TO con-tribute to the sustainment and effi-ciency of field armies. In an activetheater, only essential constructionwork and development of installationsand facilities are performed. The qual-ity of construction does not exceedstandards established by the theatercommander. Modified emergency con-struction and the use of permanent

1-2 Mission of Army Engineer Project Management


materials (tile, stucco, concrete, andsteel) are authorized only in the follow-ing situations:

Such work is required by an agree-ment with the government of thecountry in which the facilities areto be located. Prior approval ofHeadquarters, DA is also required.

Materials nor really used in emer-gency construction are not avail-able or cannot be made availablein time to meet schedules. How-ever, permanent construction mate-rials are available or can be madeavailable in time to meet sched-ules, at no increase in total cost.When permanent materials areused, the interior and exterior fin-ishes of structures must be inkeeping with emergency construc-tion standards. The permanencyof any structure should be consis-tent with miliary needs at the time.

Phase construction. Construction invarious phases provides for the rapidcompletion and use of parts of buildingsor installations before the entire projectis completed. Specialized crews or work-ing parties, such as fabricating, founda-tion, plumbing, and roofing crews, maybe organized. Each crew performs aspecific task and moves on to the nextsite. Large building projects, such ashospitals, depots, and permanent can-tonment areas, are suitable for this typeof construction.

Another system of phase constructioninvolves the refinement and evolutionof an installation. Construction of adepot will serve as an illustration. In-itially, storage is provided in struc-tural frame buildings with footingsand roof cladding, but without wallcladding. Later, concrete floors andsidings may be provided, and develop-ment may progress in phases until thefacilities are adequate.

Both systems are used and have thesame objective: to have the using serv-

ice occupy the first building while thesecond building is being constructed.Phase construction is usually less effi-cient, but this is offset by the maxi-mum use of facilities at the earliestpossible time.

Existing facilities. The use of exist-ing facilities contributes greatly to theessential element of speed. The advan-tages often influence the point of attackin military operations.

Economy. Equipment, personnel, and mate-rials must be used effectively and effi-ciently, since these resources are limited.

Flexibility. A military construction programmust be flexible. The ever-changing situ-ation in military construction requires thatconstruction in all stages be adaptable tonew conditions. To meet this requirement,standard plans are a part of the Army Fa-cilities Components System (AFCS) and arefound in the four technical manuals (TM) de-scribed on the following page. The AFCSprovides logistical and engineering datawhich is organized, coded, and published toassist in planning and executing TO con-struction. The system determines person-nel and material requirements as well asthe cost, weight, and volume of materialsneeded for construction.

The AFCS provides construction planningdata for --

Contingency, base development, con-struction, and logistical planners by pre-senting a flexible planning tool for TOconstruction and construction supportmissions.

Construction units for various utilities,structures, facilities, installations, andconstruction tasks required by theArmy and Air Force in support of mili-tary missions in a TO.

Logistical commands and supply agen-cies in requisitioning, identifying items,costing, and other related supply func-tions.



The AFCS consists of a series of four DATMs. They are—

TM 5-301, Army Facilities ComponentsSystem--Planning. This manual, whichis generally used by military planners,contains installation, facility, and pre-packaged expendable contingency sup-ply (PECS) summaries. The TM 5-301series is published in four volumes,each addressing a separate climaticzone. The summaries appearing in thefour volumes include cost, shippingweight, volume, and man-hours re-quired for construction.

- TM 5-301-1 (Temperate) covers geo-graphical areas where mean an-nual temperatures are between+30° and +70° Fahrenheit (F).

– TM 5-301-2 (Tropical) covers geo-graphical areas where the mean an-nual temperatures are higher than+70° F.

– TM 5-301-3 (Frigid) covers geo-graphical areas where the mean an-nual temperatures are lower than+30° F.

– TM 5-301-4 (Desert) covers geo-graphical areas which are arid andwithout vegetation.

TM 5-302, Army Facilities ComponentsSystem: Design. This five-volume man-ual contains site and utility plans forthe installation, construction drawings,and construction detail drawings for thefacilities. New designs are added andobsolete designs are revised as requiredto meet the construction needs of theArmy. Drawings stamped “Under Revi-sion, Do Not Use” should not be usedfor construction or planning purposes.However, drawings stamped “Under Re-

vision" may be used for planning pur-poses.

TM 5-303, Army Facilities ComponentsSystem--Logistic Data and Bills of Materi-als. This manual is generally used byplanners, builders, and suppliers inidentifying items contained in the billsof materials.

TM 5-304, Army Facilities ComponentsSystem User Guide. This manual ex-plains how to use the system.

Evaluate the alternatives. Variouscourses of action are compared in terms ofpersonnel, material, equipment, and time.This is often difficult because the typicalplanning problem is filled with uncertaintiesand intangible factors.

Select the course of action. Planning isnot yet complete just by accomplishing theabove steps. Derivative plans must be de-veloped to support the basic plan. Thisplan should include all aspects of the pro-ject involving administration and logistics.These include, but are not limited to, thefollowing:

Moving onto the jobsite.

Bringing in supplies and equipment.

Locating supply, assembly, work, din-ing, living, and administrative areas.

Obtaining and using natural resources.

Performing daily routine chores.

Providing area security in a tactical envi-ronment.

Planning for inclement weather.

Providing for adequate construction sitedrainage.



MILITARY CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The functions of the military constructionmanager are universal, although they maydiffer in details from one activity to an-other. These functions should not be con-fused with operating tasks such as account-ing, engineering, or procurement. Themanagerial functions are planning, organiz-ing, staffing, directing, and controlling.Each of these is aimed toward accomplish-ing the objective of the unit. To implementthese functions, the manager must under-stand the objectives, plans, and policies ofsuperiors.

THE PLANNING FUNCTIONPlanning means laying out something in ad-vance. Planning creates an orderly se-quence of events, defines the principles tobe followed in carrying them out, and de-scribes the ultimate disposition of the re-sults. It serves the manager by pointingout the things to be done, their sequence,how long each task should take, and who isresponsible for what.

Goal. The goal of planning is to minimizeresource expenses for a given task. Plan-ning aims at producing an even flow ofequipment, materials, and labor and ensur-ing coordinated effort. Effective planning re-quires continually checking on events sothat the manager can make forecasts andrevise plans to maintain the proper coursetoward the objective.

Much of the manager’s job will be charac-terized by his plans. If the plans are de-tailed and workable, and if the managerhas the authority to undertake them andunderstands what is expected, he will re-quire little of his superior’s time.

In military construction, the planning phaseshould be divided into two stages: prelimi-nary planning and detailed planning. Theseare discussed more fully in Chapter 2.

Preliminary planning gives the engineer unitcommander a quick overview of the assigned

task and the capacity of the constructingunit to accomplish the tasks. It serves as aguide to the detailed planning which fol-lows. preliminary planning includes a pre-liminary estimate and procurement of criti-cal items.

Detailed planning provides a schedule forthe entire construction project and developsan accurate estimate of the materials, labor,and equipment to do each of the subtasksor activities. It includes detailed estimat-ing, scheduling, procurement, and construc-tion plant layout, as well as a review ofdrawings and specifications.

Steps. Planning involves selecting objec-tives, policies, procedures, and programs.The core of the manager’s job in planning ismaking quality decisions based on investiga-tion and analysis rather than on snap judg-ment.

Establish the objective. The objective pro-vides the key for what to do, where to placeemphasis, and how to accomplish the objec-tive.

Engineer construction functions in the TOare the design, construction, repair, rehabili-tation, and maintenance of structures.These include roads, bridges, inland water-ways, ports, industrial facilities, logistic sup-port facilities, storage and maintenance ar-eas, protective emplacements, hospitals,camps, training areas, housing, administra-tive space, and utilities. Other functionsare the design, construction, and rehabilita-tion of railroads, airfields, and heliports.

The construction directive. The manage-ment process starts with the receipt of adirective which is an order to construct, re-habilitate, or maintain a facility. The direc-tive should include a description of theproject with plans and specifications. Re-gardless of the form of the directive or theamount of detail, the construction directive(Figure 1-1, page 1-6) should discuss itemsessential for the success of the project.



These items, along with comments for plan-ning considerations, are as follows:

Mission. The mission will state the exact as-signment with all necessary details andmay include an implied mission.

Typically, combat battalion (heavy) missionsinclude:

Construction or rehabilitation of lines ofcommunication (LOC), bridges, forwardtactical and cargo airfields, and heli-ports.General construction of buildings, struc-tures, and related facilities.Limited reconstruction of railroads, rail-road bridges, and ports.Limited bituminous paving.Minor protective construction.

When supported by attachments of special-ized personnel and equipment, engineercombat battalion (heavy) missions include:

Large-scale bituminous and portland ce-ment paving operations.Large-scale quarrying and crushing op-erations.Major railroad and railroad bridge recon-struction.Major port rehabilitation.Major protective construction.Pipeline and storage-tank construction.Fixed and tactical bridges.

Corps combat engineer battalion missionsinclude:

Construction, repair, and maintenanceof roads, fords, culverts, landing strips,heliports, command posts, supply instal-lations, buildings, structures, and re-lated facilities.Preparation and removal of obstacles, toinclude minefields.Construction and placement of decep-tive devices and technical assistance incamouflage operations.

Site preparation for air defense artilleryunits.Construction of defensive installations.Engagement in river-crossing opera-tions, to include assault crossing oftroops and construction of tactical raftsand bridges.

Each engineer command, brigade, group,and battalion is authorized a staff to assistthe commander. The composition of thesestaffs and the duties of the staff membersvary with the type of organization, its mis-sion, and its echelon of command. Gener-ally, engineer staffs at group or higher eche-lons perform as planners, designers, advi-sors, supervisors, inspectors, and coordina-tors. At battalion level, the staff membersare operators, Staff members supervise theimplementation of the plans of the higherheadquarters. For example, upon receipt ofa task directive from brigade, the groupstaff designs the project, plans and assignsthe tasks, and directs the battalions (whichare the operating units) to perform the tasks.

For additional information on engineer unitcapabilities, see TM 5-304.

Location. This may be a definite location,or the directive may require the manager toselect a site in a general area.

A site investigation should be made of theselected site or general area. The manageruses this information to determine how theenvironment will affect the project. A siteinvestigation should provide answers to thefollowing questions:

What are the terrain features of the pro-posed site? Is it hilly, flat, wooded,swampy, or desert? How will the ter-rain features affect the project?

What are the existing drainage charac-teristics? Is the site well drained?What effort will be needed to keep itdrained before, during, and after con-struction?

What problems will be involved in acces-sibility? What effort will be required to



permit travel to, from, and within thesite?

What is the type of soil? What will theunit need to do to prepare for vehicletraffic and construction? How much ad-ditional work will the unit have to do tocomplete the project?

What are the existing facilities (build-ings, roads, or utilities) that the unitcould use?

What are the natural resources locatednear the job site, such as timber, water,aggregate, or borrow materials? Howfar away are they? How many are there?

What weather conditions are expectedfor the project’s duration?

What is the enemy situation? What arethe good and bad points of defendingthe site? What improvements must bemade?

Time. Time determines the start and finishof the project. If the manager is responsiblefor planning and estimating, he should bethe one to estimate project duration.

Extreme accuracy is not required, as pre-cise calculations are delayed until the de-tailed planning stage. Approximate rates ofproduction, based on the unit’s experience,are usually accurate enough. Where this in-formation is unavailable, published rates incivilian or military texts, tempered by theplanner’s knowledge of existing conditions,are good substitutes.

The quantity takeoff uses available equip-ment and personnel to calculate the time re-quired for each item. This time will be in-creased if the soldiers are inexperiencedand require on-site training. The total timefor the project is the sum of the times ofthe subtasks less the time when two ormore work items will be done concurrently.See Chapter 2 for detailed planning proce-dures to more accurately predict the overallproject time.

Personnel. The manager should alreadyknow what personnel are available. This

item of the construction directive tells whatadditional personnel are available, ifneeded.

Despite the mechanization of modern war-fare, battles are still won and territory isstill occupied by soldiers. For this reason,highest priorities on personnel go to unitsin contact with the enemy. In a combatsupport role, the engineers have the prob-lem of accomplishing construction quicklywith limited personnel. Labor conservationis important. Every engineer must functionat peak efficiency for long hours. Assign-ments must be carefully planned and coordi-nated. Projects must be well organized andsupervised. Personnel must be well caredfor and carefully allocated.

A unit’s personnel must be considered onlyin terms of “construction strength. ” Theproject manager must use the number ofsoldiers actually available to work on thejob for his calculations. In the current com-bat heavy battalion table of organizationand equipment (TOE 5-115H), only about50 percent of a full-strength unit is produc-tive in the construction effort. This figureshould be used for planning purposes onlywhen more exact data are not available.The project manager must also consider ifthe project requires large numbers of per-sonnel with particular skills (for example,plumbers or electricians).

The manager should consider the trainingof the personnel available for the construc-tion effort. A full-strength battalion withmany inadequately trained personnel will re-sult in low construction output. The abilityand number of supervisors (not included asproductive personnel) affects the construc-tion capability of a unit as well. A shortageof competent supervisory personnel will re-duce the construction effectiveness of aunit, even though the productive personnelare adequate in number and ability. Theproject manager may also want to considercontract construction as an option (See Fig-ure 1-2 for issues concerning contract con-struction.)

Equipment. The manager needs to knowwhat equipment is on hand and what



additional equipment is available, if needed,to accomplish the mission. He also mustdetermine if the available resources will al-low the constructing unit to do the job.

Due to the destructiveness of opposingforces, normal peacetime construction equip-ment cannot handle the requirements ofwartime operations, regardless of the loca-tion. The economical use of equipment re-sources is essential.

The status of a unit’s construction equip-ment, particularly heavy equipment, is animportant factor in determining the abilityto do a job. The planner must consider theaverage deadline rates for items of equip-ment and then judge whether the rates willbe maintained, improved, or worsened dur-ing a particular job.

Critical Equipment. Depending on the typeof job, certain items of equipment will becritical because they will govern the overallprogress. For example, earth-moving equip-ment is critical for road and airfield work.Woodworking sets are essential for woodframe structures.

Distribution. The planner should tenta-tively assign the critical equipment to thevarious construction operations. Assign-ment will depend on the amount of equip-ment on hand, deadline rates, and quantityand type of work to be done. For example,in assigning dozers and scrapers to cut andfill operations, the quantities of earthworkand the haul distances will determine howmany of the available dozers will be as-signed to the scrapers and how many willbe used for dozing.

Priority. This gives a single priority for theentire project or separate priorities for differ-ent stages of a project.

Prioritizing helps to determine how muchengineer effort will be devoted to a singletask. While detailed priority systems arenormally the concern of lower-echelon com-mands, all levels of command, beginningwith the theater commander, will frequently

issue directives to serve as guidelines. Pri-ority ratings are usually listed for items asfirst, second, third, fourth, and so on. If apriority rating contains several items thatmight be worked on concurrently, theseitems are numbered consecutively to showtheir relative standing. For example, a thea-ter Army commander might list the follow-ing priorities:

First priority: Initial beach landing anddocking facilities

Second priority: Hospital facilities

Third priority: Wharves and docks

NOTE: Details, such as which of the hospi-tal facilities shall be constructed first, areleft to the discretion of the local command-ers. This conforms to the principle of de-centralization, which permits maximum op-erational freedom to subordinates. The dis-persion of forces in a TO requires that engi-neer authority be decentralized. The engi-neer in charge of operations at a particularlocality must have authority equal to his re-sponsibilities.

Reports. Required reports (for control pur-poses) should be listed and included in theunit standing operating procedure (SOP).

NOTE: For more information on reporting,see the CONTROLLING FUNCTION sectiondescribed later in this chapter.

Materials. The construction directive is theauthority for requisitioning materials. Thisitem addresses the lead time necessary forprocurement, location, and delivery.

During the preliminary planning stage, theplanner should keep notes on items thatmay be critical to the job. These criticalitems may be readily identified when usingthe network analysis system (see Chapter 2).Critical items may be materials, equip-ment, or soldiers with particular skills.Their availability may be important becausethey are needed immediately for the job, be-cause they are not available locally, or



because a long-lead item for procurementmay be required. The manager shouldstudy the entire job and the notes and thenidentify such critical items. The managercan then take action to ensure that theitems will be on hand when required.

If necessary, the responsible leadershipmust organize an overseas wartime construc-tion program to execute the required workin the time allotted and with a minimum ofshipped-in tonnage. Local resources mustbe used, but these are often limited. Engi-neer battalions normally have no authorityfor direct, local procurement, so senior engi-neer headquarters or other military or gov-ernment organizations must provide materi-als. This imposes upon the Army the prob-lems of coordination, purchase, and deliv-ery. These materials are normally procuredin the United States and may require long-lead times.

Special Instructions. This item gives any ad-ditional information concerning the project,including instructions for coordinating withthe using agency.

THE ORGANIZING FUNCTIONThe organizing function determines the ac-tivities required to complete the project,counts and groups these activities, assignsthe groups, and delegates authority to com-plete them. Sometimes all this is called or-ganization structure. The organization struc-ture is a tool for accomplishing the project’sobjectives. It establishes authority relation-ships and provides for structural coordina-tion. Therefore, organizing is the estab-lishment of the structural relationships bywhich an enterprise is bound together andthe framework in which individual effortsare coordinated.

The power of decision granted to or as-sumed by the supervisor or manager isauthority. When the number of people in-volved in a project exceeds the span thatone person can control, the manager mustdelegate authority. The delegation of author-ity is key to effective organization.

An officer making decisions also assumes re-sponsibility and must answer for the resultsof his decisions. Wherever authority is cre-ated, responsibility is created. Althoughauthority may be delegated and divided, re-sponsibility cannot be delegated or divided.No responsible officer can afford to delegateauthority without designing a system of con-trol to safeguard the responsibilities.

A manager may delegate the authority to ac-complish a service, and a subordinate inturn may delegate a portion of the authorityreceived, but these superiors do not delegateany of their responsibility. No supervisorloses responsibility by assigning a task toanother person.

THE STAFFING FUNCTIONStaffing is finding the right person for thejob. Although the modern armed forcesplace much emphasis on the effective use ofmechanized equipment, the military effort de-pends on the training, assigning, and super-vising of people who use this equipment.Often the engineers have construction prob-lems due to limited trained personnel. Solu-tions to these problems require planningand coordination of personnel assignments.

THE DIRECTING FUNCTIONThe management function of directing in-volves guiding and supervising subordinatesto improve work methods. Open LOC in or-ganizations are maintained in vertical andhorizontal directions. While assignments oftasks make organization possible, directingadds a personal relationship. Directing em-braces the practical problems in gettingpersonnel to work as a team to accomplishthe unit objective. Basically, it concernsmanaging human behavior and taking ac-tion that will improve performance.

The commander must have a thoroughknowledge of the organization’s structure, theinterrelation of activities and personnel, andthe capabilities of the unit. In addition, themilitary manager must be able to lead theorganization to accomplish its mission.



The manager can create the best conditionsfor superior effort by making certain subor-dinates understand the unit mission andtheir particular roles in it. People who"know the reason why" are better motivated.A good leader makes it a point to explain tothe troops the reasons for undertaking aparticular mission.

The terms manager and leader are not syn-onymous. The manager coordinates activityby executing managerial functions and ac-complishes missions through people. (SeeFigure 1-3.)

THE CONTROLLING FUNCTIONControl is a continuing process of adjustingthe operation to the situation in order to ac-complish the desired objective. The managermust measure and correct activities in or-der to compel events to conform to plans.For effective control, the manager must bein constant touch with the operations to besure they are proceeding on course and onschedule. Most of the construction control

problem involves processing large volumesof technical information.

The manager must be sure that the plansare clear, complete, and integrated. Thenthe necessary authority must be given tothe person responsible for a task.

Because of the many changes and situ-ations that may arise on different projects,a control system must be broad enough tocope with all possibilities. Regardless ofthe circumstances, control depends uponthe communication of information, both forgathering data and for implementing the de-sired corrective action. To provide effectivecontrol, communication of information mustbe--

Timely. In order to be meaningful, themanager must receive and distributethe information used for controlling in atimely manner. Information should be“forward looking.” Focus attention onactions that will cause activities to oc-cur as scheduled, instead of adjustingfor events in the past.



Accurate. Pinpoint and then truthfully corrective action, by virtue of bothreport the information necessary for con- authority to do so and technical knowl-trol. edge of the project.

Valid. Information is valid when its con- Economical. Collect only the informa-tent represents a situation as it actually tion required for effective control, thusexists. Present this information in ap- minimizing the personnel, time, andpropriate and useful units of measure. money needed to perform the control

function.Routed properly. Make informationused in controlling directly available to The controlling function as part of the en-the person who can take or recommend tire project management process is shown

in Figure 1-4.



EXECUTION

The execution phase begins with the actual uses supervision, inspections, and progressstart of construction, although some pro- reports. Any changes in project plans andcurement actions may already have taken specifications made after construction hasplace. To ensure compliance with the begun involve replanning and rescheduling.schedule and with the project plans andspecifications, the engineer unit commander



PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

PROCESSES C H A P T E R 2

SYSTEMS

Engineers must manage engineer tasks,whether the task is a rear-area construc-tion job, such as a supply depot, or a for-ward-area combat engineer task, such as aminefield. They must use a combination ofpersonnel, materials, and equipment to ac-complish the mission. Task completion isaffected by available time and resources,the tactical situation, weather, and terrainconditions.

MANAGEMENT

These factors affect both construction plan-ning and combat planning. How well theengineer leader accomplishes a task de-pends in large part on his ability to plan,schedule, and control resources within aconstrained environment. This chapter de-scribes the basic elements of systems thatwill aid the manager in accomplishing themission.

GANTT CHART METHOD

An excellent means of project planning andcontrol is the Gantt or bar chart (Figure 2-1,page 2-2). Used primarily for smaller pro-jects, it is simple, concise, and easy to pre-pare. The major disadvantage of this man-agement tool is that the user must have adetailed knowledge of the particular projectand of construction techniques. Problemsmay occur if the project manager is sud-denly replaced. The replacement manageris left with a document in which all the rela-tionships are not readily apparent.

Other disadvantages of planning with aGantt chart are--

The critical pathning and control

CRITICAL

PURPOSEmethod (CPM) is a plan-technique that overcomes

the disadvantages of using only a Gantt

It does not clearly show the detailed

sequence of the activities.

It does not show which activities arecritical or potentially critical to the suc-cessful, timely completion of the mis-sion.

It does not show the precise effect of adelay or failure to complete an activityon time.

In an emergency, a project’s delay maylead to incorrectly expediting noncriticalactivities.

PATH METHOD

easily understood picture of the project.With this additional information, it is easierto plan, schedule, and control the project.Used together, the Gantt chart and the logicnetwork provide the manager all the critical

chart and provides an accurate, timely, and information needed to accomplish the task.

Planning and Scheduling Processes 2-1


The CPM requires a formal, detailed investi-gation into all identifiable tasks that makeup a project. This means that the managermust visualize the project from start to fin-ish and must estimate time and resource re-quirements for each task.

CPM network. Knowledge of CPM results ina better understanding of the criticality ofthe tasks in relation to the total project sothat the squad can be better prepared ortrained to accomplish these tasks.

Uses. The CPM can be used to accomplishconstruction and combat tasks at any levelof management from the engineer squad tothe engineer brigade. A squad leader needsto have a basic knowledge of CPM for twoprimary reasons.

Engineer tasks. As a member of a largerwork element, the squad leader will be re-sponsible for assigned tasks within the

Combat tasks. A squad may be attached toa maneuver element if required by the tacti-cal situation. Therefore, the squad leaderbecomes an independent manager of person-nel, material, and equipment and must nowplan, schedule, and control these assets.Normally, a formal portrayal of the CPMwould not be required, but the basis forCPM becomes a valuable tool for the squadleader in accomplishing his combat tasks.

2-2 Planning and Scheduling Processes


Advantages. The CPM --

Reduces the risk of overlooking essen-tial tasks and provides a blueprint forlong-range planning and coordination ofthe project.Gives a clear picture of the logical rela-tionships between activities in a project.This is especially helpful if a new man-ager needs to take over the project.Focuses the manager’s attention byidentifying the critical tasks.Generates information about the projectso that the manager can make rationaland timely decisions if complications de-velop during the project.Enables the manager to easily deter-mine what resources he will need to ac-complish the project and when these re-sources should be made available.Allows the manager to quickly deter-mine what additional resources he willneed if the project must be completedearlier than originally planned.Provides feedback on a finished projectthat lets the manager improve tech-niques and assure the best use of re-sources on future projects.

Limitations. The CPM is not a cure-all forengineer problems. It does not make deci-sions for the manager, nor can it contributeanything tangible to the actual construc-tion. The CPM should be used to assist themanager in planning, scheduling, and con-trolling the project.

PRELIMINARY PLANNINGThe first step in planning is to find out allthe essential information concerning theproject. Most of this information can be ob-tained from the construction directive pub-lished by the next higher headquarters forthe company or battalion actually perform-ing the construction. If the information is

not there, the manager should ask for it.At the platoon and squad levels, tasking isnormally accomplished by oral orders. Af-ter gathering information, the managershould conduct a thorough site investiga-tion, then check with the customer to en-sure that the final facility, as planned, willsatisfy the needs. For more information onpreliminary planning, see Chapter 1.

DETAILED PLANNINGThe manager must study plans and specifi-cations carefully, construct the project men-tally, and break it down into its componentparts. Each component is termed an activ-ity: a resource-consuming element of theoverall job which has a definable beginningand ending.

Developing an activities list is the first stepin developing a CPM, and the step thatmost easily frustrates many managers.Breaking down a construction project intoactivities and placing these activities in alogical sequence requires skill and experi-ence. Once the process of mentally con-structing the project has begun, however,the activities can come to mind easily. TheCPM planner must consult with the con-struction supervisor to get the requireddata, and may gather valuable assistancefrom experienced noncommissioned officers(NCOs) in planning the project and develop-ing estimates. Appendix A is a checklistcontaining work elements or tasks for vari-ous construction jobs.

The number and detail of the activities onthe list will vary from job to job and will de-pend upon the intended use of the CPM net-work and the experience of the managers.Use Figures 2-2 through 2-5, page 2-4, forthe following example: Someone, some-where, gets an idea for a project, preparesan activities list, and delegates these activi-ties to subordinates (Figure 2-2).



The next subordinate unit then also pre-pares an activities list and delegates theseactivities to its subordinates (Figure 2-4).

The subordinate unit then prepares an activi- The next subordinate unit, in turn, preparesties list and delegates these activities to its an activities list and may or may not dele-subordinates (Figure 2-3). gate further for each activity (Figure 2-5).


PROJECT MANAGEMENT 5 - 4 1 2

The bottom line, however, is that the higher-echelon levels need not list each and everylittle possible activity (such as placing traf-fic signs) when it receives the “big picture”mission. Activities should be only as spe-cific as is consistent with the level of super-vision.

Keep in mind that the activities list onlystates what is to be done. It will not con-sider how the activities will be accom-plished, in what order the activities will beperformed, or how long it will take to com-plete each activity. All that is necessary atthis point is to list what work must be doneto complete the mission. The other prob-blems will be addressed later, one at a time.

The following guidelines offer some assis-tance, but should not be regarded as strictrules:

Break the assigned job into separate op-erations, or activities, to complete thejob successfully. The number and de-tail of these tasks will vary from job tojob.

Include a description of the work to beperformed within each activity.

Do not consider time, labor, order ofconstruction, material, or equipment.Break the project into its componentparts only.

Check the activities list for complete-ness and accuracy.

LOGIC DIAGRAMOne of the most important features of theCPM is the logic diagram. The logic dia-gram graphically portrays the relationshipbetween a project’s many activities. Thisbenefits the manager by providing a tool touse in eliminating many problems thatmight arise during the construction phaseof the project. Before the diagram can bedrawn up, however, the project must firstbe constructed both mentally and on paperto determine the activities’ relationships.The manager does this be asking the follow-

ing questions for each activity on the activ-ity list

Can this activity start at the beginningof the project? (Start)

Which activities must be finished beforethis one begins? (Precedence)

Which activities may either start or fin-ish at the same time this one does?(Concurrence)

Which activities cannot begin until thisone is finished? (Succession)

Which activities may start when a por-tion of another activity is complete?(Lag/Lead)

One way to determine these relationships isto make one column to the right of the ac-tivities list titled "Proceeded Immediately By(PIB)". Under this column, for each activ-ity, list all other activity numbers (or lettersor symbols) which must immediately pre-cede the activity in question. If the activitycan begin at the very beginning of the en-tire project, write "None."

Example: You are given the mission to builda 40’ x 40’ x 8“ concrete pad and construct a12-foot-wide, 1,000-yard-long gravel road-way leading to it. From your mental and pa-per construction of the project, you might de-cide that the activities for constructing theroadway are: to clear the roadway, acquirethe gravel, prepare the subgrade/ subbase,and lay the gravel. For the pad, your tasksmight be: to clear the site, acquire gravel,prepare foundation, prepare forms, placeforms, mix and pour concrete, cure concrete,and remove forms. (Obviously, these activi-ties have been simplified to provide clarityfor the example. An actual activities listwould likely be much more detailed.)

Assuming that all resources are immedi-ately available (except the gravel whichmust be acquired), four of the activities(A,B,C, and G listed below) can begin imme-diately and "None" will be noted in their"PIB" column. Preparation of the pad



foundation (activity D) cannot begin untilthe pad site has been cleared (activity A), soA will be placed under activity D’s “PIB” col-umn. Since both activities F and I requiregravel (activity F because gravel is a compo-nent of concrete), then their “PIB” columnswill list activity C. By continuing in thissame manner, the activities list and PIB re-sults that you develop might look like Table2-1.

NOTE: Remember to mark only those itemsthat immediately precede the activity inquestion. For example, even though activ-ity B precedes activity F, it does not imme-diately precede it; activity B immediatelyprecedes activity E which in turn immedi-ately precedes activity F.

Now that we have the necessary activity re-lationships needed to develop the logic dia-gram, we must determine which format oflogic diagraming we are going to use.Whereas the activity-on-the-arrow format oflogic diagraming used to be a popularmethod, the current standard for both mili-

2-6

tary and civilian managers is the activity-on-the-node format, or "precedence diagram-ming." The two basic logic symbols on theprecedence diagram are the node and theprecedence arrow.

Nodes. A node is simply a parallelogramwhich represents an activity, and each activ-ity on the activities list is represented by anode on the logic diagram. The node is ofa standard shape and format, and containsall the necessary information for the activ-ity. It represents a period of time equal tothe activity duration. Each node includesthe activity’s number, duration, required re-sources, early and late start times, andearly and late finish times (Figure 2-6). Re-quired resources information and activityduration times are taken from the ActivityEstimate Sheet which is completed duringresource estimating (see Chapter 3). Devel-opment of activity numbers and start/finishtimes will be discussed later.

Start and finish nodes are normally repre-sented by a circle or oval. These kinds ofnodes have no duration and are known asmilestones. Milestones can also be used atother points in the network to represent acheckpoint, a major accomplishment, or adeliverable result.

Precedence arrows. The precedence arrow(or simply “arrow”) shows the order se-quence and relationship between activities(such as what activities must precede andmay follow another activity). The configura-

Planning and Scheduling Processes


tion of the diagram’s nodes and arrows isthe result of the PIB list (or the answers tothe five questions that were previouslyasked of each activity). The logic behindthe diagram is such that an activity cannotbegin until all activities that send an arrowto it are complete.

Using the previous example, the following isa logic diagram to show the relationship be-tween the project’s activities (Figure 2-7).First, all activities that can begin at thestart of the project (activities not reliantupon the completion of any other activity be-fore it can begin) will come directly fromthe START node (activities A, B, C, and G).Since activity D cannot begin until activityA is complete (activity D is “preceded imme-diately by” only activity A), an arrow will bedrawn from activity A to activity D. Sinceactivity H cannot begin until both activitiesD and G are complete (activity H is “pre-ceded immediately by” D and G), activity Hmust receive an arrow from both activitiesD and G. Since neither activity F nor activ-ity I may begin until activity C is complete,

may run concurrently (such as activities Fand I), then they will both receive an arrowfrom a preceding activity yet have no ar-rows connecting their own nodes, Finally,all activities that do not have a succeedingactivity will go directly to the FINISH node(activities F and K).

Development of the actual diagram is oftenthrough trial and error. It is best to form arough draft which satisfies some of thelogic criteria, and then modify the diagramto meet the remaining criteria. Begin withthose activities which have “None” underthe PIB column. They will stem directlyfrom the START node. Then, after each ofthese starting activities, place the activitieswhich immediately follows it. These follow-on activities are the ones which list thestarting activities in the PIB column. Con-tinue using this same methodology until allactivities have been diagramed. Finally,connect all the dangling activities to theFINISH node, and check and modify the dia-gram to ensure none of the logic criteriahave been violated.

an arrow will be drawnboth activities F and I.

from activity C toIf two activities



ACTIVITY NODE NUMBERINGOnce the logic diagram has been con-structed, each activity, or node, is given anumber for identification on the diagram.Two rules exist for activity node numbering:1) every activity node number must be dif-ferent, and 2) the activity node number atthe head of the logic arrow must be greaterthan the number at the tail of the arrow.Otherwise, any number may be chosen forthe activity node number. As you will dis-cover later, numbering the activities reducesconfusion on a diagram and is very usefulduring resource scheduling.

The activity node numbers are placed in theupper middle sector of the node (see Figure2-6, page 2-6) and normally use incrementsof five or ten. This allows room for addi-tional activity nodes to be inserted later, ifnecessary. Once the activities are num-bered, they may be referred by either theirnames or their numbers. In this manual,activity names will frequently be designatedby letters, as is shown in Table 2-1, page 2-6,

and in Figure 2-7, page 2-7, but the nodewill receive a number once it has beenplaced in a logic diagram.

Figure 2-8 shows a circular deadlock and aviolation of both diagram logic and number-ing rules. The logic error stems from theendless “loop” created by the arrow connect-ing activity 20 with activity 10. This dia-gram suggests that 10 is reliant upon 20which is reliant upon 15 which is reliantupon 10. This illogical diagram also vio-lates numbering rules, since activity 20, atthe tail of the arrow, is not less than activ-ity 10, which is at the head. Activity num-bering rules help prevent this kind of error,which is difficult to discover in a large net-work.

ACTIVITY DURATION AND RESOURCESThe logic network is constructed without re-gard to how long an activity will last orwhether all required resources are avail-able. It simply displays the relationships



between activities, provides project under-standing, and improves communications.

Once the network has been drawn and activ-ity numbers are in place, the managerplaces activity duration and resource re-quirements in each activity node. The dura-tion is placed in the center sector of thenode, and the resources are placed in thelower middle sector (Figure 2-6, page 2-6).The manager determines these times and re-sources using the estimating procedure dis-cussed in Chapter 3. This procedure is rec-ommended as a standard because it is flex-ible and lends itself to full documentation.

If an activity has too many resources tolist easily in the space provided in thenode, use a code to refer to the necessaryresources or list the resources for each ac-tivity as shown in Table 2-2.

Estimating is the lifeblood of the CPM timeanalysis. Estimating data (durations andcrew sizes) forms the basis for calculatingearly and late event times and critical activi-ties, tabulating activity times, and schedul-ing. Thus, output of CPM time analysiscan be no better than the estimating input.If an estimate changes because of new infor-mation or experience, the estimator mustuse the new data to update the time analy-

sis. A time analysis based on outdated esti-mates is useless.

ACTIVITY START AND FINISH TIMESThe next step in the CPM process is to cal-culate the earliest and latest times at whichthe activities can occur without violatingthe network logic or increasing the project’soverall duration. This provides the man-ager with a time frame for each activity.Within each time frame the activity must becompleted or else other activities become de-layed or the entire project is delayed. Fromthis exercise, the manager will be able toeasily identify which tasks must be criti-cally managed to ensure the project’s dura-tion is minimized. Naturally, an event can-not begin until all events previous to it (ar-rows leading to it in the logic diagram) arecompleted. The event-time numbers shownin the corners of activity nodes representthe end of the time period. Thus, a startor finish time of day five would mean theend of the fifth day (or the beginning of thesixth day).

Table 2-2 activities list shows not only thePIB, but also the new node numbers (replac-ing activity letters), the duration of each ac-tivity (in days), and the estimated resources(from tables and personal experience; seeChapter 3).



The managermation in alltivity nodes:

is now able to fill in the infor -three center squares of his ac-the node number (increments

of 5-or 10, in increasing order), duration(usually defined to be in hours, days, orweeks), and resources needed. (See Figure2-6, page 2-6).

Early start /early finish. The early starttimes are positioned in the upper left cornerof the activity nodes. These are the earliesttimes the activity events may start logically.Since the beginning activities (in the aboveexample, activities 5, 10, 15, and 35) are atthe start of the project, the earliest timethat these events may start is zero (the endof day zero or the beginning of day one).Add the duration of each activity (center ofthe node) to the early start time to computethe early finish time, positioned in the up-per right corner of the activity node (Figure2-9). The early finish time is the earliesttime the activity event may finish, if indeedthe duration estimate is accurate.

Following the precedence arrows within thelogic diagram, the next activity’s early starttime (at the head of an arrow) is the sameas the previous activity’s early finish time(at the tail of an arrow). Do not regard thenode’s bottom left and right corners at thistime. To determine an activity’s early starttime when more than one arrow head leadsinto its node, choose the largest early fin-ish time of all activities at the arrows’ tails(Figure 2- 10). Logically, an activity cannotbegin until all preceding activities are com-plete.

Using this same systematic process, con-tinue working through the entire logic dia-gram, computing all early start and earlyfinish times. This computational movementthrough the logic diagram is known as theforward pass. At the finish node, the over-all duration for the project will be the larg-est early finish time of all activity nodesleading into the finish node. In the exam-ple on the next page, the project durationwill be fourteen days, as determined by thesequence of construction and the time dura-tion on each activity, culminating in theearly finish time at node 55 of fourteendays (Figure 2- 11).

Example: Node 30 has two arrows leadinginto it, from nodes 15 and 25. To determinethe early start time of node 30, use thelarger of the two early finish times of node15 (6) and node 25 (5). In this case, 6would be the appropriate early start time fornode 30.

Late finish/late start. The late finishtimes are positioned in the lower right cor-ner of the activity nodes. These are the lat-est times the activity events may finish with-out delaying the entire project. Since thelast activities (in the above example, activi-ties 30 and 55) are both at the end of thefourteen-day project, the latest time thatboth these events can finish is the projectduration’s finish, or the end of day four-teen. The number fourteen, then, should beput in the lower right corner of both


F M 5 - 4 1 2 PROJECT MANAGEMENT

nodes. Subtract the duration of each activ-ity (center of the node) from its late finishtime to compute the late start time, posi-tioned in the lower left corner of the activ-ity node (Figure 2-12). The late start timeis the latest time the activity event maystart without delaying the entire project, ifindeed the duration estimate is accurate.

Following the precedence arrows backwardwithin the logic diagram (right to left), theprevious activity’s late finish time (at thetail of an arrow) is the same as the next ac-tivity’s late start time (at the head of an ar-row). Do not regard the early start andearly finish times within the nodes at thistime. To determine an activity’s late finishtime when more than one arrow tail leadsaway from its node, choose the smallestlate start time of all activities at the arrows’heads (Figure 2-13). Logically, an activitymust finish before all follow-on activitiesmay begin.

Figure 2-13. Retrieving the smallest latestart time

Using this same systematic process, con-tinue working backward through the entirelogic diagram (against the arrows), comput-ing all late finish and late start times. Thiscomputational movement back through thelogic diagram is known as the backwardpass. Back near the start node, at leastone of the late start times of an activitycoming from the start node must be zero.In the above example, the late start time ofnode 15 is zero (Figure 2-11, page 2- 11).

Example: Node 15 has two arrows leadingfrom it, to nodes 30 and 45. To determinethe late finish time of node 15, consider thesmaller of the two late start times of node30 (12) and node 45 (6). In this case, 6would be the appropriate late finish time fornode 15.

FLOAT CRITICAL ACTIVITIES, AND THECRITICAL PATH

A critical activity can be determined fromthe logic network by applying the followingrules:

Rule 1. The early start (ES) time for aparticular activity is the same as the latestart (LS) time.Rule 2. The early finish (EF) time for aparticular activity is the same as the latefinish (LF) time.Rule 3. The ES or LS added to the dura-tion of the activity results in the EF or LF.

In the above example, nodes 15, 45, 50,and 55 meet the three listed rules, thusmaking them critical activities. A critical ac-tivity, if delayed by any amount of time, willdelay the entire project’s completion by thesame amount of time. Critical activities,when linked together, will always form apath along arrows from the start node tothe finish node, called a critical path. Alogic arrow between two critical activitiesusually forms the critical path, but not al-ways; the path between two critical activi-ties is critical only when the EF of a criticalactivity is equal to the ES of the followingcritical activity. If it is not, the criticalpath branches off to another critical activitybefore linking back up. The critical path



may indeed branch out or come back to-gether at any point, but there will alwaysbe one or more critical paths. All criticalpaths must be continuous; any critical paththat does not start at the start node andend at the finish node indicates a logic mis-take. Critical paths are indicated on thelogic diagram by some method such as dou-ble lines, bold lines, or highlighted color(see Figure 2-11, page 2- 11). Any activitynode not on the critical path will containsome float. Float is extra time available tocomplete an activity beyond the activity’s ac-tual duration, such as having six days avail-able to do four days worth of work. It isthe scheduling leeway. Naturally, all activi-ties on the critical path will not have anyfloat.

Total float. Total float (TF) is the entireamount of time that an activity may be de-layed without delaying the project’s esti-mated completion time. Total float for anactivity is determined by the equationTF = LS - ES or TF = LF - EF.

Both equations will yield the same answerif the manager has properly computed theLS, ES, LF, and EF. Total float consists ofthe sum of interfering float (IF) and freefloat (FF): TF = IF + FF.

Interfering float. Interfering float is timeavailable to delay an activity without delay-ing the entire project’s estimated completiontime, but delaying an activity into interfer-ing float will delay the start of one or moreother noncritical activities later in the pro-ject. Interfering float for an activity is deter-mined by the equation IF = LF - (ES of fol-lowing activity).

In the logic network, if more than one activ-ity logically follows the activity in question,choose the smallest ES of the choices forthe above equation.

Free float. Free float is also time availableto delay an activity without delaying the pro-ject’s estimated completion time and with-out delaying the start of any other activityin the project. Free float for an activity isdetermined by the equation FF = TF - IF.

Example: Activity 25 is not on the criticalpath, so it must haue float. Total floatwould be 7 (LS-ES or LF-EF). Interfer-ing float would be 6 (LF of node 25- ES ofnode 30). Free float would be 1 (TF-IF).

SCHEDULINGThe manager is now able to construct an ac-tivity schedule, known as an early startschedule. This schedule, when coupledwith a logic diagram, graphically shows allnecessary planning information for the man-ager. The first step is to list all activities innumerical order. After each activity, notein parentheses all immediately dependentactivities, or those activities that are con-nected with an arrow. For example, sinceactivities 30 and 45 cannot begin until activ-ity 15 is complete, annotate activity 15 inthe schedule like this: 15 (30,45). If an ac-tivity leads into the finish node, put an “F”in the parentheses after the activity num-ber, or just list the activity number with noparentheses.

The next step is to mark on the schedulethe time frame for each activity duringwhich each activity may be performed with-out delaying the project or violating any ofthe diagram sequence relationships.

Consider node 40 in Figure 2-11. The ESshows that the earliest this activity can be-gin is the end of day three (or the begin-ning of day four). Thus, the beginning ofday four to the end of day six (as deter-mined from the LF) is the available timespan in which to complete this activity. Be-cause of the nature of the logic diagram,this activity cannot be scheduled earlier,since activity 20 must be completed first.It cannot be scheduled later, for that woulddelay the entire project. As a reminder toschedule the right bracket at the beginning(morning) of the following day, use “ES + 1”and “LF” as brackets (Figure 2-14, page 2-14).

Once the brackets are placed correctly, thenext step is to make a trial schedule, sched-uling each activity as soon as possiblewithin the time frame, or flush with the leftbracket. To schedule a particular activity,



place the number of each kind of resource ing float is marked to a point, and the re-inside each box along the activity line. Do maining blank boxes within the bracketsnot exceed the activity’s duration; stop at are free float. Some activities have all freethe end of the early finish time day. The re- float (activity 40), and some have all inter-maining boxes within the brackets- are leftblank for now and will become either freeor interfering float.

Example: Activity 40 requires two squadsfor one day for maximum efficiency. Toshow this activity scheduled as soon as pos-sible, place the number 2 (number of squads)in the first box only within the brackets (du-ration) as shown in Figure 2-15.

Scheduling all the activities as soon as pos-sible yields the early start schedule asshown in Figure 2-16. For clarity, only thesquads which are necessary for each activ-ity are shown. All activities are scheduledto begin at their ES times.

The “Xs” on the right end of some of thebracketed activities denote days of interfer-ing float. To figure these IF days, use theformulas given earlier to compute total, in-terfering, and free float. For those activitiesthat have interfering float, begin at theright bracket and work to the left, placingan “X” in each box for each day of interfer-ing float. For activities 25 and 35, interfer-

fering float (activity 10). All noncritical ac-tivities that are followed immediately by thefinish node in the logic diagram will alwayshave all free float (activity 30).

To double check proper placement of the in-terfering float “Xs”, consider the numbers inparentheses after the activity numbers onthe schedule. If a dependent (follow-on) ac-tivity is scheduled to begin before the endbracket of the activity in question, thenthat activity will have interfering float start-ing at the day of the beginning of the de-pendent activity. For example, activity35(40) begins on day 1 and the following ac-tivity, activity 40(45), begins on day 4.Therefore, days 4 and 5 of activity 35(40)will be interfering float, because if activity35(40) is delayed past day three, it will de-lay activity 40(45 ). Remember, however,that this will not yet delay the entire dura-tion of the project, because activity 40(45)can be delayed into free float for two daysbefore it bumps into the right bracket, andbecomes “critical”. If, hypothetically, activ-ity 40(45 ) were delayed into interfering float



also, it would subsequently delay some orall of its follow-on activities, and so on.

In cases where many different kinds of re-sources are necessary for an activity suchas activity 15, managers may choose to useseveral lines contained within one set of tallbrackets, as shown in Figure 2-17, page2-16, and use each line for a different typeof resource. For example, “5T” represents a5-ton truck, “SL” represents a scoop loader,and “SQ” represents a squad. This isknown as a multiple-resource schedule.When summing resources by the time pe-riod across the bottom of the early startschedule, remember to sum for each differ-ent kind of resource.

As can be determined from the multiple-re-source schedule, summed resources oftenexceed available amounts for a given day,and activities must be delayed (into floatwhenever possible) to spread the resources’use across the time frame of the project.

See Appendix B for the systematic proce-dure to constrain resources and for a sam-ple problem.

REDUCTION OF THE PROJECTIf the CPM indicates that the project’s dura-tion exceeds what higher headquarters gaveas a completion date, the manager shouldexamine the logic diagram’s critical path tofind activity durations which may be short-ened. This is known as expediting, com-pressing, or crashing the project. Keep inmind, however, that to shorten the projectduration, managers must focus on criticalactivities only on the critical path. Shorten-ing a noncritical activity will not shortenthe project duration. However, increasingthe allocation of resources to activitieswhich fall on the critical path may reducethe duration of the project. Additionalequipment and personnel can be committedor the same equipment and personnel can beused for longer hours. Normally, a moderately



extended workday is the most economicaland productive solution. Managers mayalso choose to work double shifts or workon weekends. When expediting activities,however, consider the long-term effects onsafety, morale, and equipment use and asubsequent decrease in efficiency.

Materials. Committing additional materialsmay also reduce a project’s duration. Forexample, using individual sets of forms inconstructing concrete slabs is faster thanreusing forms. A construction agencymight expedite material deliveries by provid-ing its own transportation. After a criticalpath activity is reduced by one time unit,the logic diagram must be checked to deter-mine whether or not additional paths havebecome critical, such as those activitiesthat previously had only one day of float.

Cost. If the estimates used in the CPM net-work reflect the most efficient methods ofconstruction, crashing the project to finishbefore the determined duration will alwayscost money. In order to reduce project du-ration, the estimator must first identify howmuch each activity can be reduced in timeand how much this reduction will cost.Then, through successive reductions in theduration of the critical path(s), the projectis expedited at the least additional cost.

Redefined logic. The manager should re-view all the activities on the critical path toexamine if a situation exists where a pre-ferred logic relationship is perhaps not abso-lutely necessary. There are two ways thelogic can be redefined:

1. Move activities within the logic diagram.This is a technique that could be usedwhen the manager finds that two sequentialactivities could actually be done concur-rently. For example, if it will take anotherhour before the small emplacement excava-tor (SEE) shows up to dig a fighting posi-tion, soldiers with hand tools can actuallystart early and let the SEE finish upon itsarrival.

2. Introduce a lag factor for an activitythat does not have to be entirely completedbefore a following activity can be started.For example, although a road must be

compacted before it can be paved, all 10kilometers of the road need not be com-pacted before the paving can begin on theareas already compacted. A 25 percent lagfactor may be introduced, such that pavingcan begin once 25 percent of the compact-ing is complete. In Figure 2-18, page 2-18,the addition of a 25% lag factor shows howit reduces the duration from 24 to 15 timeperiods.

The formula to figure the ES of a node afterthe lag factor on the forward pass is:

(Duration of activity x % lag) + ES =ES of following actiuity

The formula to figure the LF of a node be-fore the lag factor on the backward pass is:

[Duration of previous activity x (l-% lag)] + LS=LF of previous activity

USE OF THE COMPUTEREngineering skill is required to break a pro-ject down into an activities list, constructPIB relationships, and estimate activity du-rations and crew sizes. Once these stepsare complete, the rest of the CPM (includingthe logic relationships and diagram, nodetimes, and scheduling) can be done by com-puter. With further estimating data, projectexpediting can also be done by computer.The computer is significantly faster thanmanual computations for time analysis ofnetworks with many activities. CPM updat-ing, reporting, and war-gaming are alsomuch easier by computer. Before undertak-ing the CPM, investigate the availability of acomputer with CPM programs.

An automated version of the AFCS, calledTheater Construction Management System(TCMS), is available. This package includesall AFCS drawings and bills of materials, la-bor and equipment estimates, constructiondirectives, and an automated drafting pro-gram. Additionally, TCMS provides a linkfor all this data and capability to an auto-mated project-management software program,



allowing planners greater flexibility and ca- the Huntsville, Alabama, division of thepability than ever before. For more informa- Corps of Engineers.tion on TCMS, contact the AFCS section of



ACTIVITY ESTIMATES C H A P T E R 3

IMPORTANCE OF DETAILED ESTIMATES

One of the most important steps in plan-ning a project is estimating activity dura-tions. Carelessly made estimates may leadto failure to meet completion dates. Theymay cause uneconomical use of personnel,materials, time, and equipment and theymay seriously jeopardize a tactical or strate-gic situation. preliminary estimates yieldapproximate data for planning purposes.

They are not exact for tasks of any largesize or complexity. More accurate, detailedestimates are vital to the successful plan-ning and execution of a mission. Succeed-ing steps in detailed planning depend uponvalid estimates. For these reasons, the mili-tary project manager must be a good estima-tor and must have competent estimators inthe organization.

THE ESTIMATING PROCESS

Estimating procedures are designed to yieldvarious results. Initially, these results takethe form of material requirements or bills ofmaterials (BOM) and equipment/personnelrequirements. Ultimately, the manager canderive an estimate of the time needed to ac-complish each of the tasks in a project.The following paragraphs detail a sequentialprocedure to aid the estimator:

MATERIALS ESTIMATESStep 1. Work items. Determine the workitems. These should agree with the CPM ac-tivities list, except where a more detailedbreakdown is required for accuracy andcompleteness.

Step 2. Materials. Determine the materi-als required for a given work item. Studythe plans and specifications in detail to en-sure that all necessary materials are in-cluded.

Step 3. Quantities. Calculate the quan-tity of each item of material needed in the

Step 4. Waste factors. Apply a waste fac-tor, if appropriate, to each of the materialsrequired. The waste factor should reflectconditions at the work site, intended use ofthe material, and skill level of the troopsworking with the material. Include spillage,breakage, cutting waste, and spoilage in thewaste factor. Typical waste factors are inAppendix C. Investigate any unusuallyhigh waste factor to determine if any actioncan be taken to reduce it.

Step 5. Total material requirement.Combine the originally calculated quantityand the allowance for waste to give the to-tal material required.

Step 6. Bill of materials. Draw up a con-solidated BOM by combining like materialsfrom all the work items to obtain a grand to-tal for each type of material needed. ThisBOM should contain all the materials neces-sary to complete the job. The BOM is sub-mitted through the appropriate supply chan-nels for procurement.

work item.

Activity Estimates 3-1


EQUIPMENT/PERSONNEL ESTIMATESStep 1. Work items. List the work items tobe estimated. In most cases, these will bethe work items used in the material estimate,although additional activities which requireworkers or equipment without expending ma-terials may be added.

Step 2. Available resources and methods.Consider available resources and methods ofconstruction, to decide how to accomplishthe work component. Describe the method ofconstruction, including sketches (as re-quired), to provide guidance for the supervi-sor. If the method of construction is differentfrom the method the work rate is basedupon, adjust the actual work rate for this dif-ference.

Step 3. Material usage. From the materialestimate, determine the quantity of materialthat will be handled. This material estimateusually includes a waste factor. However,since the purpose here is to apply a workrate to the quantity of material handled, accu-racy in determining how much of the mate-rial will be used at the specified work rate isimportant. For example, if the work rate forsetting forms is given in terms of linear feetof formwork per unit of time and if extraform material has been ordered as waste, theextra form material should be omitted fromthis calculation. The amount of forms to beset is determined by the configuration of theconcrete structure rather than by the quan-tity of material ordered. Even if the waste al-lowance is used, it most likely will be used toreplace broken, rotten, or lost wood and thusnot add to the linear feet of formwork actu-ally set.

Step 4. Work rate. Select a work rate ap-propriate for the work item being estimated.Chapters 6 through 17 provide estimating ta-bles for various construction tasks. Esti-mates given in these chapters are based onunits deployed as combat support service orcategory III units and therefore should be ad-justed for operation in other categories. (SeeArmy Regulation (AR) 570-2 for additional in-formation.) TM 5-304 provides an indicator

of adjustments to estimates for the environ-mental factor. If the information in thesetables is inadequate, consult other sourcessuch as other Army manuals, civilian texts,experience, and unit records. An accuratework rate is the heart of a good estimate.

Step 5. Labor. Calculate the standard effortrequired to accomplish the work item. Ifthe work rate has been given in the usualform of man-hours (the amount of effort pro-duced by one person working for one hour)or man-days per unit of quantity, multiplythe quantity from Step 3 by the work rateto get the total man-hours or man-days forthe task. When a work rate is presented inany other form, the planner should first con-vert to effort per unit of quantity.

Quantity x Work Rate = Standard Effort

Step 6. Efficiency factor. Decide whetherthe unit or organization can operate at thework rate given. If the work rate used inthe estimate has been taken from a stand-ard source, expect variations in local condi-tions. To compensate for this, apply an effi-ciency factor. This factor is a measure ofthe effectiveness of the troops in their situ-ation compared to the standard conditionsused in the estimating reference source. Itis most commonly given as a percentage.

Step 7. Total labor hours. Divide thestandard effort computed in Step 5 by thework-force efficiency to find “troop effort.”Thus, if the standard effort originally calcu-lated was 60 man-hours and the unit oper-ates at 80 percent efficiency, the unit willhave to expend 75 man-hours to completethe task.

Standard Effort/Efficiency = Troop Effort

Step 8. Project duration. Divide the totaleffort by the crew size to obtain the dura-tion. The crew must be capable of operat-ing at the efficiency used in the estimate.If not, the efficiency factor must be read-justed, changing the troop effort and affect-ing the duration.

Troop Effort/Crew Size = Duration

3-2 Activity Estimates


WORK-SHEET ESTIMATES

Figure 3-1 shows a sample format for esti- shown requires the excavation of a rectangu-mating work sheets based on the guidance lar ditch 60 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 4given in this chapter. While the format feet deep. The work is to be done by hand;shown is not standard, it can be helpful as construction troops are in good condition,a guideline for estimating material, man- operating at 90 percent efficiency.hours, and equipment. The situation

OPTIMUM LUMBER LENGTH CALCULATIONS

Lumber is ordered by standard commercial lengths should be ordered. For example, iflengths. The lengths available in engineerdepots range from 8 to 20 feet, in 2-foot in-crements. Always try to order the shorter 8-foot, 10-foot, and 12-foot standard lengthsmost commonly used in the military.

Length calculation. In many parts of a TObuilding, it is obvious what commercial

the joists and girders are 10 feet, 0 incheslong, 10-foot commercial lengths are obvi-ously needed. There are places in the build-ing, however, where it is not quite as evi-dent what length should be ordered. Themanager must then calculate the most eco-nomical standard length for the least waste.The procedure for this is as follows:

Activity Estimates 3-3

FM 5-412

Number pieces/standard lengths. Calcu-late the number of pieces per standardlength for each of the three standardlengths (8, 10, 12). If this number is notan integer, round down.

Number standard lengths required. Findthe number of standard lengths re-quired for each of the three alternatives.If this number is not an integer, roundup.

Total linear feet required. Calculate thetotal linear feet required for each of thethree standard lengths and use theleast.

linear feet =one standard length (ft) x number of standard lengths

Sample problem. 50 pieces of 2- by 4-inchlumber, 27 inches long, are required. Findthe most economical length and the numberof pieces to be ordered. There are threestandard lengths which can be ordered:8-foot, 10-foot, or 12-foot. The followinganalysis examines each:

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Number pieces/standard length.

8 feet = 96 inches --- 96/27 = 3+10 feet = 120 inches --- 120/27 = 4+12 feet = 144 inches --- 144/27 = 5+

Thus, from each 96-inch length, we couldget 3 pieces; from each 120-inch length, 4pieces; and from each 144-inch length, 5pieces.

Number standard lengths required.

8 feet--- 50/3 = 16+10 feet --- 50/4 = 12+12 feet --- 50/5 = 10

Total linear feet required.

8 feet --- 17 x 8 feet = 136 linear feet10 feet --- 13 x 10 feet = 130 linear feet12 feet --- 10 x 12 feet = 120 linear feet

Clearly, 12-foot standard lengths result inthe minimum amount of lumber required,and 10 of these 12-foot lengths should beordered.

3-4 Activity Estimates


EFFICIENT SITE LAYOUT C H A P T E R 4

PRINCIPLES

IMPORTANCESite layout is the arrangement of the facili-ties and personnel required to carry out aproject. It is one of the most importantphases of construction engineering. The ob-jective is to plan the physical arrangementof the site so that the construction processis carried out as efficiently as possible.This means minimum movement of materi-als, equipment, and personnel, and mini-mum processing time for any individualitem.

This chapter presents three approaches tothe site layout --systems analysis, time-mo-tion studies, and methods engineering. Thethree approaches can be used separately orin combinations to gain efficiency in thesite arrangement of any construction pro-ject. However, site layout analysis is essen-tial for batch plants, quarries, borrow pits,prefabrication yards, and materials han-dling areas.

RESPONSIBILITIESBy custom, the first-line supervisor is re-sponsible for efficient site layout. However,this supervisor is often too involved in theday-to-day operation of the project to beable to step back and look at the overall ar-rangement of the site. Also, the supervisormay have a routine way of doing a jobwhich may not be the most efficient for aparticular construction environment. Battal-ion and company operations officers are inthe best position to provide site layoutanalysis for construction projects under

their control. This analysis should be madeavailable to the construction unit both inthe project planning phase and during con-struction.

INFLUENCING FACTORSMany factors will influence site layout.Four important considerations are: re-quired facilities, topography, project size,and construction aids.

Required facilities. The manager shouldmake a list of all facilities necessary to sup-port the work site. This list should includein-place equipment, storage areas, mainte-nance areas, motor pools, first-aid stations,latrines, dining facilities, water points, billet-ing areas, work areas, control centers, andsecurity positions. Since the effort requiredto plan and construct the site must be de-ducted from the total construction effort,the site should be the absolute minimum re-quired for efficiency.

Topography. Two identical constructionprojects may have entirely different physicalconfigurations because of differing topog-raphical conditions. The manager must in-corporate the eight site factors listed inChapter 1 into any site layout analysis.The following examples show how site fac-tors influence site layout:

Existing facilities. Existing facilities, suchas utility lines or buildings, may determinethe location of critical items.

Efficient Site Layout 4-1


Terrain. Terrain will be a major factor inthe layout of horizontal construction. If pos-sible, locate borrow pits and quarries sothat the grade favors the load (empty, goinguphill; full, going downhill).

Drainage. Drainage is a crucial element inany layout. Design the site so that normalrunoff will not halt construction or transpor-tation. Providing adequate drainage may in-volve considerable construction effort. Thesupervisor must decide at what point thecost of additional drainage structures be-comes greater than the risk of flooding.

Project size. The site for construction ofone TO building will look very differentfrom the site for construction of 50 build-ings. The larger the job, the greater the op-portunity to take advantage of specializa-tion. The longer the construction unitplans to remain on a project site, thegreater the initial effort in preparing thesite. For example, it would not be economi-cal to upgrade a haul road to a borrow pitto be used for only a few days. However, itwould be economical if this pit is to beused for several weeks. The constructionsite is generally not included in the plansand specifications of the project.

Construction aids. Any device or appara-tus installed to facilitate construction is aconstruction aid. Loading traps and jigs ortemplates for timber or steel fabrication aretypical. To be practical, a construction aidmust save more time than is required to es-tablish and remove it. For example, sup-pose a troop camp is being built usingstandard TO construction and involving thefabrication of 2,180 identical roof trusses.A decision must be reached as to how thetruss will be made -- prefabricated at a cen-tral mill or cut and assembled individuallyat each building. Each truss will take anestimated 1.5 man-hours to build at a cen-tral mill and 1.0 man-hours to build indi-vidually at the building site. The timesaved is 2,180 x 0.5, or 1,090 man-hours.If fewer than 1,090 man-hours are neededto set up and dismantle the central truss-fabricating mill, its construction is justified.If more hours are required, its construction

is not justified. An aid that is efficient onone job is not necessarily efficient on an-other.

PREFABRICATION

Modern prefabrication techniques may haveseveral advantages over on-site construc-tion: factory assembly, interchangeabilityof components, and labor savings. Someprefabrication is used in most construction.It ranges from the use of precut structuralparts and fastenings to off-site assembly ofbuilding sections. How much prefabricationis practical depends upon several factors.The manager must consider site conven-ience, climate, centralized management,scale and physical nature of the project,and program flexibility. Within each ofthese areas, however, there are variations.For that reason, labor savings and esti-mates of other advantages of prefabricationcannot be precisely calculated. However, theestimator should have a good under-standing of the advantages of prefabricationin order to decide when its use would bepractical.

Factory assembly. Working in factories re-duces loss of time due to bad weather andother physical hazards. Quality control iseasier through the use of more complex ma-chinery and concentrated facilities. Storagesecurity allows greater quantities of materi-als to be ordered and assembled in lots.Working conditions are usually better thanthose in the field and the resulting moralemay increase efficiency.

Disadvantages of factory assembly are theneed to construct the factory and any diffi-culty in making last-minute changes at theconstruction site. Also, transportationcosts are doubled if raw materials musttravel to a distant factory before they areready for the construction site.

Component interchangeability. With inter-changeable components, many types ofstructures can be built from the same com-ponents, but design flexibility is limited.Structural components may be either precutpieces, frames, sheathed panels, or finished

4-2 Efficient Site Layout


building sections. Partial assemblies maybe stored for future needs. Larger parts re-duce fitting errors at the site and simplifyscheduling, since fewer steps are involvedin final construction. However, savings maybe offset by greater difficulty in joining sec-tions and higher transportation costs forthese fragile units. Interchangeability re-quires modular coordination, and it often re-quires greater skill to assure precision insubsequent fitting.

Labor savings. The major reasons for pre-fabricated construction are reduced con-struction time and use of general instead ofskilled labor. Designs involving platformconstruction, panel, and/or modular compo-

nents allow for maximum utilization of pre-fabrication. Establishing a prefabricationyard requires highly skilled personnel andmay involve several days of effort, but effi-cient layout and organization of personnelwill offset this work. Laying out the yardto minimize the distances that materialshave to be carried will have a tremendouseffect on the duration of the project. Onceinto the prefabrication process, most of thework can be accomplished by general laboror local personnel. The degree of substitu-tion is dependent on breaking the operationdown into simple and repetitive motions,At the building site, the use of prefabri-cated components will also greatly reducethe effort involved in erection.

METHODS

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS approach. This method consists of the fol-

The first approach which could be used inlowing steps (see Table 4-1 for the systemsanalysis work sheet):

a layout problem is the systems analysis



Step 1. List the design factors to be consid-ered for the layout. Assign a weight toeach factor depending on its importance tothe project.

Step 2. Obtain a large-scale map of thesite (1: 1,000 or larger). It should show con-tours, natural resources, and existing facili-ties.

Step 3. List the facilities required for theproject. For each facility, make a cutout tothe same scale as the map.

Step 4. Place the cutouts on the map inseveral different feasible configurations.There is no set number of arrangementswhich must be considered, but taking threeto five arrangements to start is a good ruleof thumb.

Step 5. For each configuration, assign anumber evaluation for each design factorbased on the configuration’s relativestrengths and weaknesses. For example,one configuration may be best for drainage(+5 on the scale in Table 4-1, page 4-3),but weak on traffic flow (-2). Another con-figuration may have opposite ratings.

Step 6. Multiply factor weights by theevaluations and sum scores for each con-figuration. Using the configuration with thehighest total, try to improve the total bymaking minor location changes.

This systems analysis approach does noteliminate engineering judgment. Listingand weighing design factors require experi-ence and engineering skill, as does theevaluation of the various site configura-tions. However, systems analysis does pro-vide a framework for discussion. Using sys-tems analysis, site layout analysts can atleast agree on the points on which they dis-agreed. Systems analysis allows the plan-ner to focus on specific problem areas, togather more data if necessary, and finally,to make a decision based on analysis ratherthan on intuition.

TIME-MOTION STUDIESOnce a project is under way, one of the mostvaluable pieces of equipment to the site lay-out analyst is the stopwatch. For any repeti-tive process, the analyst asks the question,“Can it be done better?” Thus, time-motionimprovements increase efficiency by savingtime and effort. Time-motion studies areeasy to do, although it takes ingenuity to seechanges which would improve routine proc-esses.

First, the analyst finds a job that is beingdone over and over again. This could be acrane shovel operation, a haul, a paving op-eration, the assembly of a wall panel, or astandard maintenance procedure. Then, theanalyst times the job, noting lost time due todelays of excessive movements from oneplace to another. Finally, the analyst sug-gests ways to eliminate delays or excess move-ments, and then retirees the new procedure.

Time-motion studies can result in increasedefficiency through such specific improve-ments as reducing the swing angle of a craneshovel, eliminating the backing up of dumptrucks, coordinating the pusher-dozer withthe scraper, coordinating one apprentice withseveral bricklayers, and rearranging storageareas to reduce average movement distances.

METHODS ENGINEERINGMethods engineering enables the planner tomake a step-by-step approach, analyzing andrecording every detail involved. At the sametime, the planner is able to sketch a layoutplan that incorporates and conforms to theprocess as it is developed. When it is time toplace this plan into operation, the personcharged with setting up the site will know ex-actly what to do. Furthermore, after the op-eration is under way, the entire processshould be analyzed in detail to determinewhether further refinements can be made.

Charts and diagrams. Three charts or dia-grams have been developed which simplifythe planning process. They are commonlycalled flow diagrams, flow process charts,and layout plans, each designed for a



specific purpose. The flow diagram enablesthe planner to plot the flow of materialsthrough the site. On the flow processchart, the planner details the processing ofeach type of material, indicating what takesplace, the time required, and how far thematerial must be moved. The machinesused are each considered in the same wayas the workers. The layout plan shows theplacement of equipment and materials to doa particular job.

Standard symbols. Standard symbols, ap-proved by the American Society of Mechani-cal Engineers (ASME), are used to identifywhat is to occur in each step of a process(Figure 4-1). These steps are operations,transportation, inspections, delays, and stor-age. Identifying process steps in this man-ner helps the planner determine unneces-sary steps and physical changes in materi-als.

FLOW DIAGRAM - THE FIRST STEPThe flow diagram follows the flow of materi-

overall project. First, the planner deter-mines the operational details of the job byconsidering the major steps required toprocess the various materials into the fin-ished product. The objective is to deter-mine an overall processing system with theleast number of major steps, delays, andmovements of material. This is the purposeof the flow diagram. When completed, thediagram will show the flow of materialsthrough the plant as they are processedinto the finished product.

Preparation. In preparing this diagram,the planner first lists all the major steps insuccessive order down the left side of theform. Next, the planner details what takesplace by drawing the appropriate symbols(Figure 4-1) within each major step andthen connecting all symbols by a single flowline.

Examples.

Flow diagram using one saw. Figure 4-2,page 4-6, shows a complete flow diagram in

als through a sequence of operations. It which only one power saw is used for cut-helps the planner visualize and analyze the ting the members needed to fabricate the

truss shown in Figure 4-3, page 4-7. The



material must be stacked topredetermined number have

one side until abeen cut. Then

the angle of the saw blade must be adjustedto make the seat cut. A careful study of thevarious cuts that must be made for eachmember of the truss will show that all mem-bers except the lower chord splice requiretwo separate saw setups to make the neces-sary cuts at the angles required. It is obvi-ous that one saw is not adequate, and a bet-ter method must be found.

Flow diagram using two saws. Placing twopower saws in the flow diagram (Figure 4-4,page 4-8) is a more workable solution. Incomparing Figures 4-2 and 4-4, notice thatthe operations, storage and delays, andtransportation have each been reduced innumber Also notice that neither of these

flow diagrams indicates how far the move-ments are, how long it takes for each step,or how many workers are required to per-form the various steps. This information isgiven on the flow process chart.

FLOW PROCESS CHART - THE SECONDSTEP

Use the flow process chart to analyze the de-tails of the operation. As the second step,the chart is a tabulation of the chronologi-cal sequence of the details of each processin the flow diagram (first step, page 4-5).In addition, the flow process chart includesthe time needed to accomplish each detailand the distances that materials are trans-ported.



Preparation. A flow process chart, Depart-ment of Defense (DD) Form 1723, providesa standard for process charting. The proc-ess of cutting rafters (Figure 4-5, page 4-10), using two saws and based on the flowdiagram (Figure 4-4), will serve as an exam-ple.

NOTE: If DD Form 1723 is not available,use a blank sheet and follow the formatshown in Figure 4-5.

Complete the data in the upper left corneron the form, being specific in regard to theidentification of the process to be charted,the person or material being traced throughthe process, and the places or times thatthe process begins and ends.

List each detail of the process in brief narra-tive form in the left column (details ofmethod) on the chart. This listing is devel-oped from the flow, and details should beplotted in the sequence plotted therein.

In the column of symbols, trace the processby connecting, with a penciled line, the sym-bols which are appropriate to each step.

Enter in the distance column, where appro-priate, how far the item will be moved.

In the quantity column, show the numberof items being processed during each par-ticular detail.Opposite each detail in the time column, en-ter how long each step should take; thetime factor should be stated under thenotes column.

Enter the total number of actions includedby each type of activity in the summary boxin the upper right corner of the form.

NOTE: Use the flow process chart to detaileither the movement of materials or themovement of workers through a process sys-tem. Do not detail the movements of bothon the same form because it will confusethe user.Analysis. Other columns are for analysiswhen reviewing the process. Study eachstep in detail. Is it possible to eliminate or

combine certain details? Can distances andtimes be further reduced? Should se-quences be changed? Can some operationsbe simplified? Who does the work? Whocould do it better? Can changes be madeto permit a person with less training andskill or more efficient machines to do thework? Where is the work done? Could itbe done somewhere else more economically?When is the work to be done? Would it bebetter to do it at some other time? How isthe work to be done? This suggests alter-nate possible machine methods or the useof machines instead of hand labor.

Inefficient methods. Such an analysis willshow any unnecessary handling, excessivemovements of materials, duplication of ef-fort, excessive number of steps taken, num-ber and kind of delays, labor inefficiencies,and so on. These are only part of the possi-ble questions to ask about each recordedstep in the operation in order to try to re-duce the steps to a minimum and arrive atthe simplest “paper picture” of the method.The more questions asked, the more a ques-tioning and critical attitude toward workmethods is developed.

Solutions. As the manager develops thebest method of processing each member ofthe truss, site layout requirements may beanalyzed in greater detail. The location ofmaterial stacks, equipment, parts storage,and assembly areas must be plotted and dis-tances computed at the same time the man-ager develops the process charts.

Control factor. The end result of processcharting is the calculation of the productionrate for the given process. In general, thesteps which cannot be accomplished concur-rently control the time it takes to perform aprocess. In other words, they establish thecontrol factor.

Establishment. To determine the control fac-tor, first list all operations and the time re-quired for each. Second, determine thosewhich are performed concurrently. The re-maining operations (those which cannot beaccomplished concurrently) establish thecontrol factor.



Example. In Figure 4-5 there are eight opera-tions (details 1, 3 through 6, 8, 9, and 11) re-quiring a total of 18 seconds. Four opera-tions (details 1, 8, 9, and 11) can be accom-plished concurrently. Hence, details 3through 6 are the only operations which can-not be accomplished concurrently. The ana-lyst circles the time required for these opera-tions on the flow process chart and estab-lishes the control factor as 8 seconds perunit. This data is entered in the column un-der notes, and the production rate is calcu-lated as shown. In addition to Figure 4-5,Figures 4-6 through 4-10, pages 4-12through 4-16, show the plotting of the controlfactor and the resulting calculations of theproduction rate for each member of the truss(Figure 4-3, page 4-7).

NOTE: In some flow process charts, morethan one series of operations may be takenas the control factor. For example, in Fig-ure 4-6, steps 3 and 4 could be used as thecontrol factor instead of steps 6 and 7 (en-circled). None of the steps selected as thecontrol factor can be those taking place con-currently, regardless of the sequence se-lected.

PROPORTIONINGIn the flow process charts (sample worksheets in Figures 4-5 through 4-10), exceptfor webs and hangers, the cutting rate(based on a 50-minute hour) varies for eachmember unit. To achieve balanced produc-tion of the several parts making up the fi-nal product (the truss), analyze the produc-tion rate of each part and establish the pro-portionate cutting time which, when allottedto each member, will result in a balancedproduction.

Production rate analysis. Table 4-2, page4-17, shows such an analysis for balancedproduction of the member units required for4,000 trusses. Since the cutting rates arebased on the flow process charts for eachmember unit, the numbers in the cuttingrate column (column C) remain constant.Likewise, the cutting ratios (column E) willremain constant for each member, no mat-ter how many truss units are to be built.

Efficient Site Layout

Balanced production. Balanced produc-tion for any period of time can be deter-mined from Table 4-2 as follows:

Example 1. How many rafter units shouldbe produced to balance production for trussunits in six 50-minute hours?

Step 1. Determine the number of produc-tion hours to be allotted for cutting rafters.The cutting period ratio (column E, Table 4-2) is 0.352. Therefore--

0.352 X 6 = 2.112

Step 2. Determine the number of rafters tobe cut. The cutting rate per 50-minute pe-riod (column C, Table 4-2) = 131.

131 x 2.112 = 277 rafter units

Check --

6 x 46.1 = 277 truss units

0.6 x 461 = 277 truss units

Example 2. With a crew of nine workers,how many man-hours are required for cut-ting the 277 rafter units computed inexample 1 ?

SITE LAYOUT - THE THIRD STEPOnce the components of the plant havebeen at least tentatively selected, prepare alayout to show the location of the variousconstruction aids.

Principles. While each job has its owncharacteristic problems and plant require-ments, principles which apply to all jobs in-clude the following:

Ensureanced.

that the layout of the site is bal-Select equipment which can be

4-11


4-13Efficient Site Layout


used at its maximum capacity at alltimes.

Place stockpiles of materials as close aspossible to the place of final use.Where storage space is limited, placethe heaviest or most unwieldy materialsclosest to the point of use to reduce han-dling.

Design the material delivery schedule toeliminate as much on-the-job storage aspossible. On-the-job storage divertsconsiderable effort from the main job, in-creases the job area, and necessitatesrehandling.

Locate general utility equipment, suchas cranes and air compressors, to serveas large an area as possible to keepmovement of such equipment to a mini-mum.

Locate mixers, hatchers, power saws,crushing and screening plates, and simi-lar facilities to keep materials handlingto a minimum.

Maintain supplies of petroleum, oil andlubricants; water; hand tools; and equip-ment repair parts at realistic levels.

Avoid traffic congestion by using one-way roads or turnarounds.

Arrange material flow so that it may behelped by gravity, where possible.

Provide medical facilities. They mayrange from single first-aid kits on asmall job to a complete aid station withtrained aid personnel available at alltimes on a large project.

Provide safety measures for the preven-tion of injuries when planning the lay-out. These may include dust alleviationand such items as protective equipmentand lighting for night work.

Provide fire prevention and protection,particularly during dry or cold weather.

Preparation. In the development of an effi-cient system for processing materialsthrough the plant, it is very unlikely thatthe first layout will meet all requirements.Several layouts may be prepared at thisstage, only to be discarded as new complica-tions become apparent. The use of graphpaper will permit rapid freehand sketchingroughly to scale so that time spent in thiseffort will be held to a minimum. Time con-scientiously expended in layout preparationwill prevent the loss of valuable man-hourslater at the job site.

Trial layouts. When making a site layout,plan the whole and then work at the de-tails. When planning the processes, keepin mind the available equipment. Once theprocesses are established, make trial sitelayouts on scaled paper to determine howto perform the processes most efficiently.Many typical layouts may be found in refer-ences dealing with particular operationssuch as rock crushing and central mixing.These serve as excellent starting points fora detailed analysis of a specific project.Sample layouts of this type are shown inAppendix D.

First layout. Layout sketch number 1 inFigure 4-11, the first attempt in this par-ticular problem, does have possibilities.However, it is apparent that either all cut-ting operations must be completed beforestarting assembly of trusses, or the trailer-mounted saws will have to be moved fre-quently in order to maintain a balance ofcut parts available for assembly.

Second layout. A second layout, given inFigure 4-12, is more feasible. The locationof materials and the distances coincide withcutting operations as outlined in the proc-ess charts (Figures 4-5 through 4-10, pages4-10 through 4-16). Up to this point, thelayout seems satisfactory. However, in de-veloping a process of assembling thetrusses to be approximately equal to the cut-ting rate, you will see that parts storageand assembly facilities are not realistic.

Third layout. Layout number 3 (Figure 4-13, page 4-20) now appears to be a workable



Efficient Site Layout4-19


layout because it reflects the flow processcharts (Figures 4-5 through 4-10, pages 4-10 through 4- 16). From the planner’s view-point, there is both a layout and a process-ing system which will produce roof trussesaccording to the estimate. Of equal impor-tance is the fact that no time will be lost insetting up the fabrication yard. Supervi-sory personnel in the field will know exactlywhat is intended. Every detail developed bythe planner is on paper in legible form forthem to execute.

Assembly phase. An analysis similar tothe one presented here may be conductedfor the assembly phase of the truss fabrica-tion. One analysis using a crew of 12 work-ers yields a unit assembly rate of 46.64.This means that 4,000/46.64 = 85.8 hours(or 8.58 days of 10-hour days) will be re-quired for assembly with the specified 12-worker crew. This yields a total of 1,030man-hours.

CONCLUSIONIf this method of analyzing site layout re-quirements appears to be too detailed andtime-consuming, consider the usual methodand then compare the merits of each.

Usual method. In the detailed planningstage, the estimators develop figures thatshow the rates of production that should beaccomplished as well as the overall time re-quired to perform each item of work. How-ever, even though such an estimate con-tains the backup calculations that result inthe final figures, rarely can anyone otherthan the estimator who compiled it deter-mine the factors upon which the figures arebased. Needless to say, when the site is tobe laid out and the production process setup, no plan exists. The individual chargedwith supervision is expected to set up thesite and accomplish the task with the ratesof production derived by the estimator.



However, without knowing the determiningfactors for the figures, the supervisor canrely only on technical knowledge and experi-ence. The inevitable result is confusionwhen the job is getting under way and adouble-shift operation in the latter stages inan effort to meet deadlines.

Flow process chart method. Use of theflow process chart establishes a definite se-quence of operations that reduces the over-all process to a minimum number of opera-tions, movements, and delays. On the flowprocess chart we determine what takesplace.

Established critera. The flow processcharts provide a means of analyzing eachoperation and movement of materials to de-termine how, where, and when each opera-tion is performed. Criteria are establishedfor simultaneous development of the layoutplan.

Visible data. All data is visible, easily inter-preted, and available for viewing by othersto see whether, based on experience, fur-ther improvements can be developed beforeplacing the plan into operation. Whenready to execute, orders can be issued withconfidence because the supervisor knowsthat operations will be set up exactly asvisualized by the estimator.

Future referernce. Furthermore, the data pro-vides a basis for developing and recordingfurther improvements once the job is underway. After the job is completed, there isfactual recorded data to be filed for refer-ence in planning future jobs of a similar na-ture.

Problem. In this chapter the location ofthe fabrication yard is considered to have

been fixed. There is a requirement for4,000 20-foot trusses for standard TO build-ings (Figure 4-3, page 4-7). The problem isto determine the following

Layout of fabrication yard.

Size of labor crew required.

Distribution of labor to ensure efficientproduction.

Man-hours required to produce eachtruss unit.

Total production time required.

Solution.

The layout of the fabrication yard isgiven in the layout sketch shown in Fig-ure 4-13. The assembly phase para-graph explains that it is a workable lay-out because it includes all operationsoutlined in the flow process charts (Fig-ures 4-5 through 4-10, pages 4-10through 4-16).

The layout sketch also shows the size ofthe labor crew required: one cuttingcrew of nine workers, four assemblycrews of three workers each.

Layout sketch number 3 (Figure 4- 13)shows a distribution of labor for effec-tive cutting and assembling.

Man-hours required to produce eachtruss are 0.195 for cutting and 0.258for assembly.

The total time required is 9.08 days.



CONTROLLING FUNCTIONS C H A P T E R 5

SUPERVISION

STEPSSupervision is the direction and control ofsubordinates; that is, telling people what todo, then making sure they do it. There arethree steps in the supervision process.

Step 1. Set objective standards. The keyword in this step is “objective.” The stand-ard which is set must mean the same toboth subordinates and supervisor, In con-struction, standards of percentage comple-tion are often vague. For example, if a unitwas directed to have the construction of sixconcrete slabs 50 percent complete by a cer-tain date, should it have three slabs com-plete or forms set for all six? This problemcan be avoided by directing the unit to com-plete specific activities in a detailed CPMnetwork.

Step 2. Measure performance. Perform-ance can be measured either by inspectionor by report. These control devices will befurther discussed,

Step 3. Make adjustments. If perform-ance does not meet standards, adjustmentscan be made in two ways: either improveperformance or lower standards. Generally,improving performance is appropriate. Attimes, however, the supervisor may face asituation where the standard becomes unre-alistic; for example, a schedule is based onpoor estimates or fails to reflect delays. Inthese cases, the supervisor must be able toadjust the schedule or be given additionalresources.

COMMUNICATIONSThe essence of good supervision is goodcommunications. Objective standards can-not be set when orders are not communi-cated clearly. Performance cannot be meas-ured when the communications system doesnot allow for timely reports. Adjustmentscannot be made unless there is provision incommunications for feedback. Communica-tions may be oral or written. Each methodhas inherent advantages and disadvantages.

Written communications. Written commu-nications for supervision include communi-cations devices designed for a downwardflow of orders from supervisor to subordi-nate, such as regulations, SOPS, directives,and policy memoranda, and a communica-tions device for upward flow of informationfrom subordinate to supervisor in the formof reports. The downward communicationsdevices used for supervision do not have astheir purpose the dissemination of informa-tion. Regulations, SOPS, directives, and pol-icy memoranda are designed to tell peoplewhat to do, not to inform. Any informationcontained in these directive communica-tions should be necessary for the clarifica-tion of the order. Information of a generalnature can be transmitted through othercommunications devices such as manuals,circulars, or bulletins. Thus, regulations,SOPs, directives, and policy memorandashould be written to accomplish the firststep in the supervision process, the settingof objective standards. Similarly, the up-ward-flow communications device, the super-visory report, has as its function the accom-plishment of the second supervision step,

Controlling Functions 5-7


measuring performance against standards.The supervisory report, then, must corre-spond with an order. Performance cannotbe measured against a standard which hasnot been set; nor should a standard be setif there is no mechanism to verify enforce-ment.

Advantages. Written communications pro-vide a record of both standards and per-formance. This record is useful for bothcontinuity and later reference. Some advan-tages of written communication are--

A high level of accuracy, uniformity,and completeness. Written directivescan be prepared meticulously so that alldetails are spelled out. Even if extremecare is taken in the preparation of abriefing, the subordinate does not havethe briefing to refer to as he does a writ-ten directive. Plans and specificationsare examples of standards which mustbe transmitted to paper to ensure accu-racy. Reports which must be consoli-dated at higher headquarters are oftenwritten to ensure uniformity.Time savings. When a directive appliesto many subordinates, often time can besaved by sending a written directiverather than by attempting to reach eachsubordinate individually or in specialmeetings.

Disadvantages. When a regulation, SOP, di-rective, or policy memorandum is sent downthrough several levels of command, there isa time lag in implementation, a time lag inperformance measurement, and a furthertime lag in performance-standard adjust-ments. This may result in inappropriatestandards being established and maintainedby higher headquarters. Some disadvan-tages of written communication are--

A large amount of administrative effort.Written communications must bedrafted, reviewed, printed, distributed,and filed. All of this requires a greatdeal of clerical support.Inflexibility. It is difficult to change aregulation, SOP, directive, or policymemorandum in the face of changing

circumstances. This is particularly trueif the order has come from several com-mand levels above the working unit.

Oral communications. Oral communica-tions include inspections, conferences, andbriefings. These are two-way communica-tions devices because with face-to-face con-tact there is always the opportunity to ex-change information, Just as with writtencommunications, oral communications forsupervision should accomplish the three su-pervision steps listed on page 5-1.

Immediate feedback. The third step in thesupervision process is to make adjustmentswhen performance does not meet stand-ards. This step is greatly simplified by oralcommunications. Often, through questionsor discussion, either the performance or thestandards can be adjusted immediately.

Little administration effort. Oral transmis-sion of information on standards and per-formance saves clerical effort. A supervisormay stress oral communications in caseswhere administrative support is not avail-able.

Flexibility. In an inspection, conference, orbriefing, the face-to-face contact betweenthe supervisor and subordinate makes possi-ble a quick response to changing circum-stances. Further, with oral communica-tions, no long process is needed to changea previous decision.

Written versus oral communications.Generally, written communications are over-used. Too many regulations are writtenwith limited applicability. SOPs are writtenfor procedures which should be left to thediscretion of subordinates. Reports may besubmitted long after their usefulness hasended. At each level of command, writtensupervisory communications should be ex-amined at least every six months to deter-mine which regulations, SOPs, directives,policy memoranda, and reports are obsoleteand which would be better suited for oralcommunications.

5-2 Controlling Functions


INSPECTIONS AND REPORTS

INSPECTIONSThe inspection is a control device whichgives the commander first-hand knowledgeof a situation and provides immediate feed-back. An Army proverb states that “a unitdoes well what the commander inspects. ”The most effective way of ensuring that vi-tal functions are not neglected is through asystem of inspections. Because they aretime-consuming and time is the supervisor’smost precious resource, inspections shouldbe carefully planned to accomplish a defi-nite purpose.

Types. Announced inspections are used tobring the unit up to a specified perform-ance level by the inspection date. Unan-nounced inspections are used to measurethe unit’s normal performance. Announcedinspections are best suited for control ofone-time-only activities, such as the inspec-tion of a building before turnover or the in-spection of a new property book. Unan-nounced inspections are best suited for con-trol of continual tasks or procedures suchas maintenance or the utilization of workerson a job.

Uses. Both types of inspections are impor-tant to the construction supervisor. For ex-ample, if a unit is responsible for construc-tion of a fixed bridge, the commander mightannounce an inspection to check placementof the piers and abutments, while inspec-tions to ensure that safety procedures arebeing followed would not be announced inadvance.

DELEGATION OF INSPECTIONAUTHORITY

Inspection is intended to keep the com-mander informed and to teach, guide, andcompel things to happen as planned.Where someone other than the commanderis delegated the task of inspecting, instruc-tions must be issued by the commander asto the authority of the inspecting party.These instructions must define if the in-specting party can require work to be done

according to specifications and plansand/or if they can issue stop orders.

Although no formal inspection organizationis found in an engineer company, the com-mander must select personnel for trainingas inspectors. The work force in the com-pany is usually spread thinly, and trainedinspectors are not usually available. Sincea thinly spread force is very difficult to con-trol, a commander who spends most of thetime making personal inspections will notbe able to devote enough time to other func-tions of command. For these reasons, train-ing of inspectors should be a priority item.

INSPECTION OBJECTIVESAt the construction site, the supervisorshould inspect performance in the followingcategories (see Figure 5-1, page 5-4):

Construction.Progress (as scheduled). Compare construc-tion progress with the CPM schedule. Arecritical activities on schedule? Are delaysin noncritical activities likely to cause a pro-ject delay?

Conformance (as specfied). Does construc-tion conform to the plans and specifica-tions? Has drainage been provided for? Isthere evidence of substandard workmanship?

Utilization of resources.Personnel. Does the commander or platoonleader know who is on the site? Are absen-tees accounted for? Does the commanderknow what each person is doing? Is every-one working or on authorized break? (In or-der to decide this, the inspector must knowthe authorized break times.) Are the skillsof the workers being utilized to the maxi-mum extent? Are the on-the-job traineesbeing adequately supervised?

Equipment. Is the equipment on-site neces-sary for transportation or construction? Arethere qualified equipment operators on-siteand are they using equipment efficiently?



Is the equipment placed efficiently for con-struction? Is sufficient equipment on-siteready for work? (Appendix E lists equip-ment and tools needed for the various tasksin the construction process).

Materials. Are materials on-site for theday’s work? (Appendix F lists consumptionfactors for expendable supplies. ) Have deliv-eries of material been arranged for futurework? Is materials handling being mini-mized? Are materials being stored properlyto prevent damage or loss? Does the scrappile indicate excess waste?

Maintenance.Equipment. Does each equipment logbookhave the necessary maintenance forms cur-rent and properly filled out? Perform oneor two operator maintenance checks as out-lined in the appropriate TM.

Tools. Has the noncommissioned officer incharge (NCOIC) assigned responsibility forthe security, care, and maintenance of alltools? Are the tools damaged or rusty?

Does the NCOIC know the procedures for re-placing broken tools? Are tools being usedas intended? (Pliers are not hammers orwrenches; ripsaws should not be used forcrosscuts.) Are all tools under proper, con-sistent accountability?

Health and welfare.Safety. In vertical construction, has theNCOIC designated a hard-hat area? Arehard-hat rules being enforced? Are menwho work on poles, elevated trusses, orframes wearing safety lines? Is electricalcircuitry properly insulated and grounded?Are earplugs used around compressors andother noisy equipment? Are backing guidesused to block vehicles? Is there a first-aidkit on site? Are other safety SOPS being en-forced? Are safety shoes used in appropri-ate work areas?

Tactical situation. Do all personnel knowtheir actions in case of enemy indirect fireor ground attack?

Transportation. Is emergency transportationfrom the site immediately available? Is



there adequate transportation to and fromthe site? Is this transportation suitable forinclement weather?

Dining facilities. Is a warm, clean, shel-tered dining area provided? Do the officersand NCOs on the job eat there? Is the qual-ity and quantity of food as good as or bet-ter than the food in the base camp diningfacilities? (To answer this question, youmust eat there.)

Latrines. Are latrines clean, adequate innumber and design, and away from the din -ing area?

Area Police. Is the site maintained orderlyand policed in a manner that helps ratherthan hinders efficient work progress?

REPORTSThe commander has limited time and can -not make all the inspections needed to en-sure effective control, Therefore, reportsmust be used to supplement personal in-spections. The advantage of supplementinginspections with reports is the time saved.The disadvantage is that the commandermust see the situation through another’sviewpoint.

Reporting system. A good reporting sys-tem provides a continuous flow of valuableinformation to the commander at consider-able time savings. A bad reporting systemsupplies the commander with excess infor-mation or misinformation and wastes every-one’s time. The following are guidelines forachieving a good reporting system:

Design. Design the reporting systemaround the commander’s needs. Differentlevels of command have different needs.The same commander has different report-ing needs at different times. Since needschange with time and from one command toanother, reports also must change.

Frequency. The frequency of reports mustcorrespond to the frequency of meaningfulchanges in the situation. A daily report ismeaningless on a situation which changes

only monthly or yearly. Reports which con-tain the same information day after day orweek after week are wasted reports. On theother hand, reports must be timely so thatthe commander can act in time. A meaning-ful change should be reported promptlywhether a report is due or not.

Purpose. Reports are a control device, asystem of measurement, not a means of set-ting standards or policy. Many supervisorsthink they can force things to happen byforcing their subordinates to report onthem. A quarterly report on maintenancedoes not compel good maintenance; a dailysafety report does not guarantee safety. Areport which is used to generate “aware-ness” is a poor substitute for leadership.

Specificity. Since the commander must seethe situation through another’s eyes, thisdisadvantage can be largely overcome by acarefully designed, factual, report format.Allowing a subordinate to report percentagecompletion may give the subordinate widelatitude for interpretation. Making the sub-ordinate report detailed tasks which arecompleted narrows this latitude consider-ably. Reports of equipment and man-hourutilization should have specific guidelinesso that the subordinate knows how to re-cord each man-hour or equipment hour.

Verification. The commander must make in-spections to verify reports. Although theamount of bias in reports can be greatlyreduced by setting up an objective reportingsystem, even the most objective systemleaves room for interpretation or even mis-representation of the facts. A good report-ing system may supplement inspection, butreports cannot replace inspections. Thereis no substitute for direct control.

Report types. Reports can be designed tocontrol a wide range of performance. Pro-duction reports control plant operationssuch as quarries, asphalt plants, or prefabri-cation yards. These reports list productioninputs (materials, personnel, and equipmenthours) and quantities of output over aspecific time period. Project costs are con-trolled by budget reports. Budget reports



compare actual to planned expenditures. struction time and resource commitmentsThe most common report in construction is to plannedthe schedule, which compares actual con-

SUPERVISION OF INDIGENOUS

UTILIZATIONAlmost all units, from logistics commandsto combat units, can be aided by the utiliza-tion of indigenous (local) personnel. The en-gineer construction unit especially can bene-fit from the help of local labor. Skilled lo-cal tradesmen have experience that the con-struction unit may not have in workingwith the area’s available materials. Localpersonnel can also help the engineers withsuch less skilled tasks as materials trans-port and apprentice work.

LOCAL SUPERVISORSThe use of local supervisors as first-linemanagers is important to the successful ac-complishment of projects employing local la-bor. Using capable local personnel as super-visors facilitates control, but great caremust be taken in the selection of these su-pervisors. A poor choice can negate the use-fulness of a civic-action project or make fur-ther construction operations with local per-sonnel impossible. In any project using lo-cal labor, Army managers should remain asinconspicuous as possible.

CONSIDERATIONSConstruction projects involving local person-nel must be coordinated with the local gov-ernment and with other US agencies. Wagerates must be set high enough to attractthe workers but not so high that the localeconomy will be thrown into turmoil. If theconstruction is part of a civic-action pro-gram, the engineer unit must ensure thatthe project will fit in with local and USagency planning.

Commitment of US labor and equipment.The availability of US labor and equipmentto support the project must be examined inthe light of changing operational require-

progress.

PERSONNELments. Often, commitments of US re-sources are not “necessities. ” Local supervi-sors can often find alternative ways of ac-complishing tasks without the commitmentof US equipment or skills.

Capabilities of local labor. The materialsand technology of the project must bematched to the capabilities of the localforce. Failure to consider this in projectplanning will lead either to projects that aretoo simple or projects that do not corre-spond to the construction and maintenanceabilities of the population. Maximum useshould be made of local materials andskills.

Length of projects. If possible, large pro-jects should be constructed by breakingthem down into smaller, usable subele-ments, even if this method of constructionresults in greater overall effort being ex-pended. Short-duration projects also pro-vide a degree of protection against unfore-seen operational requirements. In civic ac-tion, the early completion of a project pro-vides visible proof to the citizenry that jointefforts with US units can produce improve-ments in local living conditions.

CIVIC-ACTION PROJECTSCivic-action projects should be designed formaximum community involvement. Theneed for the projects should be determinedby the local leadership. The design shouldbe produced by the community when possi-ble and should always be approved by thecommunity. The construction should be ac-complished by local laborers. The role ofthe engineer unit should be one of technicalassistance, materials support, and the occa-sional commitment of engineer equipment.A civic-action projecting characteristics:

should have the follow-

5-7Controlling Functions


Maintenance. With any civic-action pro-ject, a system should beset up during theproject planning stage for the maintenanceof the project when it is completed. This isparticularly important for horizontal con-struction projects or for equipmenttransfers.

Development of local skills. The ultimategoal of civic-action projects should be to in-crease the skill and self-reliance of the civil-

ian population. Although individual pro-jects should be within local capabilities,they should also teach additional skills.

Stimulation of additional projects. Inkeeping with the building-block aspect ofskill development, civic-action projectsshould stimulate further projects. A con-struction materials plant (brick, lumber) isone example of a base project upon whichother projects can be built.

QUALITY CONTROL

REQUIREMENTConstruction quality control in the TO isthe responsibility of the project supervisor.Quality control includes planning, design-ing, and monitoring the construction proc-ess to achieve a desired end result. Duringthe planning phase, control is achieved bythe proper application of network analysis(CPM), scheduling, and estimating. Design-ing a project for quality involves choosingthe proper configuration, material, equip-ment, and personnel to achieve the con-struction. The construction monitoringsteps require adherence to standard con-struction procedures, established supervi-sion practices, and accepted testing meth-ods. Quality control in military construc-tion is needed for many reasons. The basicobjective of quality control, however, is toprovide a safe, functional, and enduring pro-ject with an acceptable appearance.

GUIDANCEThe supervisor must know and apply stand-ard practices to provide guidance to ade-quately control the various operations in-volved. Since military construction opera-tions are varied and detailed, this manualdescribes only general quality control meas-ures. The following paragraphs provide su-pervisors with examples for developing andusing control measures on specific construc-tion projects.

LUMBERDifferent types of timber have varying con-struction and carpentry characteristics.One type is often better suited for a particu-lar job than another. Lumber type and sizeare usually stated in the construction plan.For more detailed information, consult theappropriate carpentry manual.

Joints. Scan all connections at angles forproper and smooth fit. Check right-anglejoints for accuracy with a carpenter’ssquare. End-grain sections are critical andshould be examined for splits. Generally,eightpenny or tenpenny nails are used forall types of joints.

Splices. Lumber construction with splicesmust be as strong as a single timber ofequivalent length. To ensure adequatestrength, analyze the types of stress onlinear connections (Figure 5-2). Compres-sion stress may be neutralized by butt andhalved splices. Square and plain splicesbenefit members in tension. Connectionssubject to bending moments are controlledwith combinations of tensile and compres-sional splices. Check splices to be surethat stresses are counteracted by correctsplice type.

Fasteners. There are six different classesof fasteners in timber construction— nails,screws, bolts, driftpins, corrugated fasten-ers, and timber connectors. Nails shouldbe driven at a slight angle for utmoststrength. As a rule, the nail should be



embedded two-thirds of its length throughthe piece to be fastened and one-thirdthrough the anchoring member. Check con-struction for adequate nail usage. Allscrews should be emplaced using starterholes that are less than the diameter of thescrew and approximately two-thirds itslength. Washers should be used in con-struction with bolts because without protec-tive washers, overtightened bolts can dam-age the lumber’s surface.

Foundations. Wooden piers or columnsshould be treated with a protective coatingto guard against decay. Check piers for 6-to 10-foot spacing. When the piers extend

3 feet above the ground, use bracing (Fig-ure 5-3).

Framing. Pier connections should have sillreinforcement consisting of single heavy tim-bers or of two or more timbers. Thestrength of the girders relates directly tothe square of the span length. If two spansare used, one twice the length of the other,the girder for the longer span should befour times stronger than the other. Nailsizes for two-member girders are sixteen-penny; for four-member girders, twenty-penny or thirty-penny. Nails are driven1/2 inch from the top and bottom withspacing of 24 inches. Girders should betested (for trueness) with a straightedge.


FM 5-412

All girder joints should be staggered forstrength and durability (Figure 5-4).

Floor joists. Floor spans over 10 feet re-quire joists of 2 inches by 8 inches orgreater. Usually, joists are 2 or 3 inchesthick. Joist depth is restricted by load con-ditions. Check the spacing interval to besure it is no greater than 24 inches center-to-center. In connecting floor joists to gird-ers or sills, use ledger plates with pier- orcolumn-type foundations. The joist mustnot be notched more than one-third of itsdepth in the plate-sill connection (Figure5-5).

Floor Bridging. For every 8 feet of spanlength, one line of bridging must be con-structed (Figure 5-6). The bridging is toe-nailed to the joists with at least two ten-penny nails. The bottom of the bridging isnot nailed until the rough floor is laid, to fa-cilitate joists adjusting to final position.The bridging is generally 1- by 3-inch mate-rial.

Walls. Corner posts are built up with twoor three layers (Figure 5-7). When a parti-tion meets an outside wall, T-posts areused to provide an area for nailing the in-side finish (Figure 5-8, page 5- 12). Studsare spaced 12, 16, and 24 inches center-to-center, depending on building and finishtype, although TO construction standardsfor temperate climates permit spacing of up

to 5 feet. Theteen-penny orthe top plate.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

studs are fastened by two six-twenty-penny nails throughGirts are the same width as

the studs so they will be flush. Girts paral-lel the plates with spacing of about 4 feet.The top plates are the same size as thestud with sixteen-penny or twenty-pennynails at all studs and corner posts. Thesole plate is at least 2- by 4-inch timber orthe same size as the wall thickness. Twosixteen-penny or twenty-penny nails aredriven at each joist the sole crosses. If thesole runs parallel to the joist, there shouldbe two nails every two linear feet. Whenhorizontally placed, the bridging is aboutone- half the distance between sole andplate. Posts and walls should be plumbedand straightened, using a carpenter’s levelor plumb bob and a chalk line (Figures 5-9and 5-10, pages 5-12 and 5-13).

Ceilings. Ceiling joists are the same sizeas floor joists. Joists are usually spacedabout 16 inches center-to-center. Nailed tothe plate and rafter whenever possible, theceiling joists are lapped and spiked overbearing partitions. The joists are cut flushwith rafters.

Rafters. Spacing of 16 to 48 inches is nec-essary in rafter construction. Measure raf-ter rise and run with tape to check thespecified pitch. The rafters are fastenedwith sixteen-penny or twenty-penny nails



and are braced when long spans are neces-sary.

Openings. Openings (floor, door, roof, andwindow) are framed by headers and trim-mers (Figures 5-11 and 5-12). Door open-ings should allow at least 1/2 inch betweenjamb and framing members in order to al-low plumbing and leveling of jamb. Windowopenings require studding to be cut awayand its equivalent strength replaced by

redoubling the studs on each side of theopening to form trimmers and inserting aheader at top. Wide openings need twoheaders with trusses added.

Steps and stairs. Step material must bemeasured to ensure that it is 2 or 3 inchesthick and 6 or 8 inches wide. Stringers areat least 2- by 4-inch material, and stair-ways usually contain three sets. The idealpitch of the stringers is obtained with a riseof 7 inches and a run of 10 inches. For


PROJECT MAMAGEMENT FM 5-412



adequate headroom, clearance should be aminimum of 6 feet 8 inches.

Floors. The subfloor, when used, is laid di-agonally and connected with eightpenny ortenpenny nails. Subflooring 8 inches wideor greater requires three or more nails perjoist. Subflooring more than 1 inch thickshould be fastened with larger nails. Fin-ish flooring is generally 3/4 inch thick and3 1/4 to 7 1/4 inches wide with square orgrooved edges. Nails are driven in everyjoist and are eightpenny size, if the flooringis to support heavy loads and thematerial is 2 inches thick and 4 to 12inches wide with only square edges.Stronger flooring is connected with sixteen-penny or twenty-penny nails.

Exterior walls. Sheathing should have nolengthwise gaps, and end joints should beplaced over studs. Fastening is accom-plished with three eightpenny nails if piecesare more than 6 inches wide. Sheathingsize is 3/16 inch thick by 6, 8, 10 or 12inches wide. Vertical siding cracks are cov-ered by wood strips called battens whichare attached by eightpenny or tenpennynails. Horizontal siding of the beveled typeneeds a 1-inch overlap at the narrow endand a 2-inch overlap at the wide end. Thenail is driven at the butt through the nar-row portion. Drop horizontal siding, whenused as combined sheathing and siding, re-quires tongue-and-groove lumber with thetongue up and nailed directly into thestuds. If sheathing is not used, drop hori-zontal siding is applied after any openingcasings are set. If sheathing is used, build-ing paper and drop siding are applied afteropening casings are set.

Concrete form construction. Field Man-ual (FM) 5-742 contains adequate designsfor all types of required forms. Since formstend to lose their shape after the concretehas been placed, measures must be takento restrict spreading of forms. Generally,construction sheathing of 1-inch thick mate-rial is required for footing forms. It shouldbe nailed to vertical cleats of 2-inch mate-rial spaced on 2-foot centers. All footingpanels are tied together from opposite sides

with Number 8 or 9, soft, black, annealediron wrapped around center cleats. Allnails are driven halfway for easy removal.Forms greater than 4 feet square require 1-by 6-inch boards nailed across the top toprevent spreading. Wall footings shouldhave spreaders nailed at intervals to main-tain the desired footing width. Check foradequate spreaders and ties around formsto eliminate spreading. Ensure that provi-sion is made for removal of spreaders afterconcrete is placed.

CONCRETETake care to provide dry storage areas forcement. Before use, check cement for hardlumps that indicate partial hydration whichcauses reduced quality. Laboratory testsshould be made on the mixing water to de-ter mine impurities, such as sulfates, thatdetract from concrete properties. If labora-tory facilities are not available, water thatis suitable for drinking is generally suitablefor concrete production.

Structures. Portland cement is manufac-tured to meet several different qualities es-tablished by the American Society for Test-ing and Materials (ASTM). To assure thestructural soundness of concrete struc-tures, follow guidance in FM 5-742 formatching cement type with a particularstructure.

Inspection of aggregate. Aggregate shouldbe visually inspected for contamination bydirt, clay, or other organic matter, andweaknesses such as cracks. Practical aggre-gate shape calls for particles that are morerounded or cube-shaped than rough orsharp. Experience shows that either ex-tremely fine or coarse sands (determined byvisual inspection) are objectionable. Stock-piles of aggregate should be examined forsegregation and contaminating features.

Tests. When portland cement admixturesare specified, tests are per formed to ensuredesirable mixes. There are three suchtests-pressure, volumetric, and gravimet-ric. Discussions of these tests and other


PROJECT MANAGEMENT T e x t

cement component checks are contained inFM 5-742.

Portioning of concrete mixtures. Threeprocedures are available to determine theamounts of each component of a concretemixture. These are known as the book,trial-batch, and absolute-volume methods.All are adequate, although the book methodmay require adjustment in the field. Initialmixes should be sampled for appearance todetermine whether proper proportions arepresent. Periodic checks to maintain qual-ity should continue through the mix cycle.A concrete mixture which contains the cor-rect amount of cement and sand will fill allspaces between coarse aggregate particleswith mortar when troweled lightly. If voidsbetween coarse particles are not filled afterlight troweling, the concrete mixture is defi-cient in cement-sand mortar. Spot inspec-tion of all scales and measuring devicesshould take place every shift to assure accu-rate proportions. Check weights and vol-umes should be utilized regularly. Con-crete consistency is generally measured bya slump test and checked against specifica-tions. Proper methods for completing theslump test are outlined in FM 5-34 and FM5-742.

Concrete construction joints. Check theeffects of planes created by work from differ-ent days. Joints should be strategicallyplaced in zones that will cause a minimumamount of weakness in the structure.These zones are located where shearingstresses and bending moments are small.The joints may also be reinforced by sup-port from other members. Proper inspec-tions should be made to check for suitablemeasures of reinforcing joints with key-ways, V-joints, or steel bars.

Expansion and contraction joints. Checkfor location of expansion and contractionjoints where there is a change in thickness,at offsets, and where the concrete will tendto crack if shrinkage and deformations dueto temperature are restrained. Expansionjoints should be observed for adequate fillerof cork or premolded mastic. Generally,there should be expansion joints every 200

feet. Contraction joints are at 30-foot inter-vals or less. Dummy contraction joints arejoints with no filler or with a thin paintcoat of asphalt, paraffin, or other materialto break the bond. These joints are to beat a depth of one-third to one-fourth thethickness of the structure.

Handling, transporting, and placement.Poor handling and transporting techniquescan cause segregation of concrete. Mixesshould be observed at regular intervals formix separation resulting from poor deliverymethods. Avoid placement drops of greaterthan 3 to 5 feet by using chutes, baffles, orpipes. Individual pourings of concrete lay-ers should never exceed 20 inches thick (ex-cept in columns or piers). Check consolida-tion of concrete by observing the surface ofthe structure after forms are removed. Asmooth finish indicates that proper vibra-tion is being accomplished. Inspect finishquality by viewing surface characteristics.Small tears in the surface indicate screed-ing (smoothing) was too fast or performedwithout a bottom metal edge on the screedtool. If a smoother surface is desired, float-ing should be checked. Excessive floatingis indicated by the appearance of excesswater and mortar on surfaces. Further evi-dence is revealed when this fine materialscales and tears. If the concrete surface isnot as dense as specified, troweling may betried. To check the efficiency of troweling,observe the surface. If the trowel leavesthe concrete skin free of all marks and rip-ples, the process is satisfactory.

Curing. Take steps to ensure that curingis proceeding properly and that a standardcuring method is being followed. All of thestandard methods must be used to achievespecified strength during the concrete cur-ing period (see FM 5-742).

Reinforced concrete construction. If con-crete will have to withstand tension as wellas compression, slender steel reinforcingbars are necessary. Reinforcing steel hasbeen specified by ASTM with a minimumyield strength of 40,000, 50,000, 60,000,and 75,000 pounds per square inch (psi).The grade mark of the steel is stamped on


FM 5-412

the standard bars. For example, a "40" willbe located on a bar that has a yieldstrength of at least 40,000 psi. Plans willcall for the minimum yield strength desiredfor particular structures. Hooks to rein-force areas are labeled by type in structureconstruction drawings. Care should betaken to check hook placement and type.All splices of bars are overlapped and tied,and should be staggered. Before placingconcrete, check reinforcing pads for anchor -age and correct if required. Bar intersec-tions in flooring reinforcement should betied with one turn of wire at frequent inter-vals to create a steady network.

Clear distances between parallel bars in col-umns should be measured and should beat least one and one-half times the bar di-ameter. Reinforcements are usually kept aminimum distance from outside concretesurfaces. Check for conformance.

MASONRYThe strength of all masonry lies in the mor -tar that bonds the structure. Specific jobsrequire designated types of mortar mixes,and steps must be taken to provide the des-ignated category. A guide to favorablemixes is found in FM 5-742. Mixing timecan affect quality and should be reviewed toguarantee the standard limits of at least 3minutes of machine mixing are met. As inconcrete mixing, mortar mixing requires ac-curate batching. An examination of themeasuring processes should reveal any poortechniques, faculty equipment, and im-proper methods.

Materials. Concrete block, brick, and tileused in masonry construction are specifiedin plans to meet strength and size require-ments. Details of block types and sizes arein FM 5-742. Rubblestone is an expedientraw material. Size has no bearing, al-though roughly squared stones are better.Rocks chosen should be strong and dura-ble, such as limestone, sandstone, or gran-ite.

Construction. The line, level, and plumbof all construction must be true and mess.

ured regularlyline, and level.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

with a straightedge, plumbAll joints should be filled

with mortar and adequately compacted. Ma-sonry joints should be a uniform thicknessand approximately 3/8 inch thick. Thefirst levels of all masonry work should beconstructed with extreme caution to assurealignment, level, and plumb throughout thestructure.

Methods. Rubblestone wall quality de-pends on stone placement. Each stoneshould be placed on its broadest face; thelarger stones should be at the base of thestructure. Care should be taken that allvoids between stones are filled with mortar.Bond stones that horizontally pass all theway through a cross section of the wallshould occur at least once in every 10square feet of wall. Usually, stone wallsare aligned by sight. However, if exactlyplumb and level stone walls are required,checks with a plumb line and level must bemade.

STEELInspect material for bent or twisted pieces.If the strength of a member is questioned, abent piece of steel should not be straight-ened but should be used as stock to be cutfor shorter lengths. Material with shortkinks or buckles or material that shows sur-face cracks at the point of deformationshould not be used.

Type and size. Fabrication of steel struc-tures is restricted to the certain type andsize of members that are noted on construc-tion plans. The designated membersshould be identified by measuring thelength and cross-sectional dimensions. Theappropriate length and size will be given inthe plans so that a cross check of all mate-rial can be made. To assure proper place-ment, each member can be marked withpaint or chalk.

Connection. There are four different waysto connect steel structural members - bolts,rivets, pins, and welds.

Bolts. To determine if bolts of the properlength are being used, check the length of



thread that extends beyond the nut aftertightening. This length should be about1/4 inch. Bolts should be tightened with astructural offset wrench, first tightening thenut and then applying one last twist on thewrench. To avoid overstressing the bolt, donot use pieces of pipe or other extensionsto wrench handles. If the structure is per-manent, check to be sure the threads be-yond the nut are hammered down. (Allbolts should be coupled with at least onelock washer under the nut). If a pneumaticimpact wrench is used, check adjustment ofthe wrench for proper tightening of bolts bymeasuring performance with a torquewrench. (Torque specifications are in theplans.) Inspect the connecting process toensure that parts being fastened are alignedwith driftpins before bolts are installed.

Rivets. Examine rivet connections for inade-quate lengths, indicated by either cappedheads when too long or undeformed headswhen too shot. A table of recommendedlengths of rivets is given in TM 5-744.Pieces to be fitted with rivets must be setup with bolts and tightened before riveting.Inadequate fastening by rivets is usually anindication of improper setup. Proper heat-ing of the rivets is indicated by a lightcherry-red color. To test for loose rivets,touch a finger or a small piece of metal toone side of the finished rivet. Tap theother side lightly with a hammer. An ade-quate joint will not transfer the vibration tothe finger or to metal. To inspect for burn-ing of the rivets, inspect the rivet head forpitted surfaces.

Pins. Inspect pin connections for holdingmechanisms such as cotter pins orthreaded recessed nuts. Great care mustbe exercised in boring pinholes, and theymust be examined for smoothness, straight-ness, and perpendicular alignment to themember axis.

Welds. Weld joints must be continuouslychecked by a qualified inspector. Finishwelds are examined for undercut, overlap,surface checks, cracks, and other defects.To become better qualifiedseparate a good weld from

on criteria thata bad one, com-

pare the actual weld products to variationsof welds. A procedure for training inspec-tors and welders involves varying the threewelding parameters one at a time. Theseparameters are: current, voltage, andspeed. Comparing the welds produced withvaried parameters provides a basis for deter-mining when faulty welding practices havebeen used. TM 5-744 illustrates the sur-face appearance of welds made under vary-ing operating conditions. Properly weldedjoints should be uniform in appearancewith evenly deposited weld metal. Fusionof the base metal at the point of contact ofthe weld is important and should be com-plete in a good joint.

PLUMBING MATERIALSMilitary plumbing supplies are divided intofive categories: cast iron, iron and steel,copper tubing, bituminized fiber, and asbes-tos cement. The plumber has little choicein the kind of material used since it is or-dered by someone else. However, a few ba-sic criteria dictate the acceptable grade ofthe plumbing supplies. Since cast iron,iron, and steel pipe are subject to corro-sion, they should be checked for rust uponreceipt and stored in a dry place. Also,cast iron is extremely brittle and should bechecked for splits and cracks. Copper tub-ing is the most desirable material for waterdistribution systems. However, it has a ten-dency to split and should be checked.

Cutting. The steel-pipe cutting wheelshould be visually checked for nicks orburrs. After the steel pipe is cut, followingstandard procedure, it must be reamed toremove the inside burr and filed to removethe outside burr. Cast-iron pipe is usuallycut with a machinist’s cold chisel and ham-mer. Inspection of the cut cast-iron pipeshould show an even break around the cir-cumference. If the break is not even, checkto see that the cast-iron soil pipe is not be-ing cut too fast. Copper tubing is cut witha pipe cutter or hacksaw. If a pipe cutteris used, check the cutting wheel for nicksor burrs. If a hacksaw is used, see thatthe blade is fine-toothed (24 teeth per inch).Also, cutting with a hacksaw should only



be accomplished with a miter box or a jig(aboard with a V-groove for holding the tub-ing). Make a final visual inspection of thefinish cut to ensure that no burrs remainand that the tubing is not out of round. Fi-ber pipe is cut with either a crosscut or arip handsaw. Inspection of the cut shouldreveal a square and shred-free cut. To en-sure a quality cut in fiber pipe, a miter boxshould be used.

Joining. Steel pipe must be threaded be-fore joining. Before threading, check to en-sure that the die and guide are the samesize and correspond to the size of the pipebeing threaded. Always inspect thethreader to ensure that it has sharp diesfree from nicks and wear. A quick check ofa pipe joint is made by examining the num -ber of threads. If the pipe was threaded tothe correct length, two or three threads willshow on the pipe beyond the face of the fit-ting. Cast-iron joints are made by caulkingwith lead or oakum. Inspect the quality ofcast-iron joints for poor coverage andcracked pipe. To make sure that a copper-tubing joint has been properly soldered,check the connection for a complete line ofsolder around the joint. Asbestos-cement-pipe joints may be checked for quality by aspecial feeler gage. The gage is inserted be-tween the sleeve and the pipe. The properspacing of the rubber rings and any kinksare indicated by the gage.

Bending. In special cases, bending ironpipe may be more advisable than placing ad-ditional fittings. Check to determine whichmethod is more practical or less difficult.Two criteria control bending— configurationand radius. It is desirable to leave astraight section between bends rather thanto make a direct reverse bend.

SOILKnowledge of soil characteristics is vital tothe quality construction of military roadsand airfields. To determine properties, sev-eral identification procedures known as clas-sification tests have been designed.

Classification. Classification is an engi-neering tool that provides the constructionsupervisor with information such as propersoils for base course and subgrade. Proce-dures for these tests (field identification,California bearing ratio, dry density, andsuch) are discussed in FM 5-430-00-1/AirForce Pamphlet (AFPAM) 32-8013, Vol 1and FM 5-410. Once the soil has been clas-sified (verified by laboratory tests when prac-tical), FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013,Vol 1 and FM 5-410 may be used to arriveat the pertinent factors of that particularsoil.

Construction control. The construction se-quence for military roads and airfields maybe listed as layout, clearing and grubbing,stripping, drainage, earthwork, subgradepreparation, base-course preparation, andwearing-surface preparation.

Layout. During the layout phase, a surveycrew will place construction stakes alongthe proposed roadway or airfield. The con-struction stakes indicate alignment, cut,and fill. Before any other construction oc-curs, the supervisor must double-check thesurvey work with the design. The informa-tion on the stakes, such as elevation, sloperatios, and cut-fill amounts, may be com-pared to specifications on the design for ac-curacy.

Clearing, grubbing, and stripping. The con-trol of clearing, grubbing, and strippingstages of construction assures that allstumps, boulders, vegetation, and materialabove the surface are removed so that con-struction will not be hindered.

Drainage. Probably the most important as-pect of road and airfield construction isdrainage. A supervisor must be aware ofand prepare for adequate drainage through-out all the construction process. Soils maybe divided into three groups of differentdrainage characteristics. Well-draining soilsare sands and gravel such as those classi-fied as GW, GP, SW, or SP. Open ditchesmay be used in these soils to achieve effec-tive drainage. Poorly draining soils are siltsand clays such as ML, OH, MH, GM, and



SM categories. Subsurface drainage sys-tems should be utilized in these poorlydraining soils. The final class is impervioussoils such as GC, SC, CL, CH, and OHgroups. This type of soils requires overdes-ign of subsurface drainage to be effective.Generally, a supervisor may expect poorerdrainage on a site with coarse-grained soilsthan with fine-grained soils. A good rulewhen considering construction drainage isto maintain at least 5 feet between the con-struction and the top of groundwater. Thisdistance may be obtained by either raisingthe work level or lowering the groundwatertable, Natural drainage should be used,whenever possible.

Earthwork. In construction, earthwork in-volves cuts and fills. The standard cut forhighway or airfield construction is 1 1/2:1which is suitable for favorable soils (Figure5-13). Favorable soils are cohesive, sandyor gravelly soil or dry, cohesionless soils.However, if the depth of the cut exceeds 20feet, the slope should be based on experi-ence in that particular area, stability analy-sis (described in FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1), or excavation of trial slopes.Generally, if the cut exceeds 20 feet, theslope ratio may have to be reduced. Be-cause of their erosion characteristics, sandyor loamy soil cuts should never be greaterthan 2:1. Slopes steeper than the standardcut can only be planned in rocky areas; indense, sandy soil interspersed with boul-ders; or in loess. When construction is tooccur in loose, saturated sand, soft clays,or weathered rock areas, caution must beused in making standard cuts. Usually theslopes will have to be flattened, drainage im-proved, or retaining walls constructed. The

standard slopes for a fill in military con-struction vary from 1 1/2:1 to 3:1. Theslope selected is based on the soil embank-ment characteristics given in FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1. Soils used inconstruction fills generally should be coarse-grained. Care should be taken during strip-ping to ensure that all organic material(usually 1 foot of top soil) is removed. Or-ganic material is not suitable for construc-tion material because it cannot be com-pacted to achieve the design specificationsfor strength and stability. Control generallytakes the form of field checks of moistureand density to determine whether the speci-fied density is being attained (see FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1). Adjustmentsin the rolling process and moisture addi-tions to achieve the specifications must fol-low the density measurements if out of lim-its.

Subgrade preparation. Soil materials suchas expansive clays, silts, and strength-los-ing clays cannot be compacted to designdensities, and proper procedures for han-dling such material must be used. Accept-able subgrade material preparation is con-trolled to a minimum modified American As-sociation of State Highway and Transporta-tion Officials (AASHTO) requirement by en-suring that dry density and moisture con-tent are adequate.

Base-course preparation. Information rela-tive to subbase and base construction forspecific construction materials is containedin FM 5-430-00-l/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1.

Wearing-surface preparation. Wearing sur-faces of military roads and airfields are clas-sified in three groups— rigid, bituminous,and natural. The design and the require-ments of construction determine which ma-terial will be used.



EARTH-MOVING OPERATIONS C H A P T E R 6

EQUIPMENTEarth moving may include site preparation,excavation and backfill, dredging, and pre-paring base and subbase. The type ofequipment used can have a great effect onthe man-hours and machine-hours requiredto complete a given amount of work. Be-fore estimates can be prepared, a decisionmust be reached on the best method of op-eration and the type of equipment to be

used. Equipment selection should be basedon efficient operation and availability ofequipment. It is best to use any availableequipment that can reduce the amount ofmanual labor required. Since most earth-moving operations can be performed by ma-chines with operators, manual labor shouldbe avoided.

SITE PREPARATIONSite preparation includes clearing and grub-bing operations such as removing, piling,and burning trees and brush; removingstumps; and loading and hauling cut treesand brush. Site preparation also includes

EXCAVATIONExcavation and backfill includes trenchingand ditching, digging bell holes, excavatingfor footings and foundations, general excava-tion, and removing excess earth. It also in-cludes trimming and grading, water re-

DREDGINGIncluded in dredging operations is prepara-tion of a spoil area for dredged material aswell as construction of dikes when required,setting and connecting discharge lines fromdredge, dredge operations, barge operations,

cut-and-fill earth-moving operations, remov-ing existing asphalt and concrete structures(paving, walks, and curbs), excavating andhauling from cut areas, as well as spread-ing and compacting into fill areas.

AND BACKFILLmoval, shoring and bracing, backfilling andcompacting, excavating and hauling fill,spreading and compacting fill, and generalgrading.

OPERATIONSand disconnecting and removing dischargelines. It also includes underwater excava-tion with a dragline or clamshell, haulingdredged material by truck or barge, and dis-posal of material.

Earth-Moving Operations 6-7


BASE AND SUBBASE PREPARATIONBase and subbase preparation includes (see Table 6-1 ) should be added to the com-grading and smoothing, excavating, loading, puted compacted quantity to obtain thehauling, spreading, rolling, sprinkling, and quantity of loose material that must be han-fine-grading selected material to form the died.base or subbase. A factor for compaction

GRAPHIC AIDSGraphic aids are useful for estimating pro-duction rates for any repetitious construc-tion operation that has several definablevariables.

The variables may be arranged in graphicform as shown in Figure 6-1. The graphicform uses the direct reading capability ofthe nomogram or nomograph to show therelative effect of the variables on produc-tion.

NOMOGRAPHSeven variables are incorporated into onegraphic representation in the earth-movingnomogram (Figure 6-1 ). Two variables werefixed: capacity at 5 cubic yards per truckand time at 10 hours per day. The time de-lay per trip, distance, speed, number oftrucks, and total volume hauled per daywere then progressively locked into the no-mograph to form this unique estimating tool.

EXAMPLEFind the volume of earth in cubic yardshauled per 10-hour day in 20 trucks, eachaveraging 5 cubic yards per trip, and withan average time delay of 30 minutes, aver-age speed of 25 miles per hour (mph), andan average haul distance of 7.5 miles.

Using the nomograph (Figure 6-1) to findthe volume, follow the broken line 30 - A -B - C - D - E - F .

Average time delay per truck per trip forloading, dumping, maintenance, andcontingency during a 10-hour workdayis 30 minutes. Enter nomograph at av-erage time delay of 30.

Average speed is 25 mph. Project aver-age delay time of 30 to 25 mph - A.

6-2 Earth-Moving Operations


Read across to distance equivalent -12.5 miles - B.

Average haul distance is 7.5 miles. Dou-ble for round trip. Combined distance,D, is 27.5 miles - C.

Project to 25 mph (speed) - D.

Twenty 5-yard trucks are used - E.

Read across to production line, V - cubicyards hauled is 910 cubic yards per day- F.

Check by computation:t = time delay/trip, minutes = 30 minutesS = speed = 25 mphd = distance one way = 7.5 milesN = number of trucks = 20 trucksQ= quantity per truckload = 5 cu ydH = hours/day haulage = 10 hrs/dayV = volume hauled/day, cubic yards =

(To be determined)

Then,V= S

S(t/60) + 2d NQH

V= 25 mph25 mph (30 min/60 min per hour) + (2 x 7.5 miles)

x 20 trucks x 5 cubic yards per truck x 10 hrs per day

25 mph V=

V=

27.5 miles 1,000 cubic yards per day

909.09 cubic yards per day or 910 cubic yards per day

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 6-2 through 6-7, pages 6-5 through6-10, may be used in preparing machineand man-hour estimates for earth moving.These tables are off-site estimating data,not exact figures. Since the variables affect-ing earth moving are many, much considera-tion should be given to situations and condi-tions varying from the nor8s these tablesare based upon. A table on soil variationconversion factors (Table 6-8, page 6- 10)and a table on boom swing angle conver-

sion factors (Table 6-9, page 6-11) shouldbe used when necessary. These are onlytwo variables of many that must be consid-ered. The prevailing conditions and situ-ations will always govern earth-moving esti-mates. Other conversion factors are listedin Tables 6-10 through 6-14, on pages 6-12through 6-15.



6-13Earth-Moving Operations


PAVING OPERATIONS C H A P T E R 7

TYPESThis chapter covers the construction ofasphalt and concrete paving, curbs, andwalks.

EQUIPMENTThe selection of equipment affects the num-ber of workers required for paving opera-tions. The use of transit-mixer trucksrather than paving mixers will usually in-crease the man-hours required to constructpaving. Placing, spreading, and finishingequipment should be sized, whenever possi-ble, to the plant equipment. If the pavingequipment cannot handle the plant output,the plant will be idle part of the time wait-

ing for the paving crew. If the plant outputis less than the paving equipment can han-dle, the paving crew will be idle part of thetime waiting for the plant. With someequipment, it is possible to cut the crewsize and slow the paving operation to theplant capacity. However, this is not alwayspossible and certainly is not efficient. Theestimator should know what equipment willbe used in order to consider all factors.

ASPHALTConstruction of asphalt paving includesheating asphalt, marking pavement edges,brooming, priming, spreading and finishingasphaltic concrete, rolling asphaltic com -crete, applying seal coat, applying tackcoat, loading and hauling chips or gravel,spreading and rolling chips or gravel, andbrooming chips or gravel. The time re-quired to spread asphalt concrete with an

asphalt finisher and to roll this material isimportant in only a few cases. Assumingnormal operations, an asphalt finisher withthe required rollers can spread and com-pact material faster than an asphalt plantcan produce asphalt concrete. Therefore, inthis chapter, only the plant output capacitywill affect the paving time required for agiven job.

CONCRETEConstruction of concrete paving includes crete; removing and cleaning forms; cuttingplacing forms, reinforcements, and dowels; or forming joints; pouring joint sealer; andmixing, placing, finishing, and curing con- installing expansion joints.

Paving Operations 7-1


CURBS AND WALKSEither concrete or asphaltic concrete may concrete, or asphaltic concrete. It also in-be used in the construction of curbs and eludes finishing and curing concrete and fin-walks. This construction includes placing ishing, priming, and rolling asphaltic con-forms, expansion joints, reinforcement, crete.

ESTIMATING TABLESUse Tables 7-1 through 7-3, pages 7-3 do not include the delivery of materials tothrough 7-5, to prepare man-hour estimates the jobsite.for paving, curbs, and walks. These tables

EXAMPLES OF TABLE USE

PROBLEM 1Four miles of 2-inch thick asphaltic con-crete (hot-plant mix) 12 feet wide are to beplaced on an existing road surface. Theplant supporting this operation averagesonly 80 tons per hour. Assuming there areenough dump trucks to haul the plant mix,estimate the number of hours required forthis paving operation.

Solution. Area to be paved = 4 miles x 12feet x 5,280 feet/mile x 1 square yard/9square feet = 28,160 square yards.

From Table 7-2 we find that for a thicknessof 2 inches and a plant output of 80 tonsper hour under adverse conditions, we re-quire 13 hours/ 10,000 square yards.

Then 28,160 square yards x 13hours/10,000 square yards = 36.6 hours.

Thus, approximately 37 hours are required.

PROBLEM 2A prime coat of 0.3 gallon/square yard is tobe applied to 3 miles of 18-foot-wide road-way. An 800-gallon, truck-mounted dis-tributor with an 18-foot spray bar and a1/8-inch nozzle will be used. The averagedistance to the supply point is 12 miles,and it takes 20 minutes to refill the truck.Estimate the number of hours required forthis operation.

Solution. From Table 7-2 we find that atan application rate of 0.3 gallon /squareyard, the vehicle moves at a speed of 300feet per minute and the truck empties in 5minutes.

Thus, 300 feet per minute x 5 minutes =1,500 linear feet/truck. 3 miles x 5,280feet/mile = 15,840 feet/ 1,500 = 10 1/2 (ap-proximately 11 truckloads). This results in55 minutes of actual spray time. However,travel time to and from the supply pointand the time to fill the truck must also becalculated. Assuming an average speed toand from the supply point of 30 miles perhour,

Travel time = 12 miles/30 miles per hour x2 (round trip) = 48 minutes

Load time given as 20 minutesUnload time 5 minutesAverage cycle time = 73 minutes

Must make 11 trips x 73 minutes =803 minutes/60 = 13.4 hours

7-2 Paving Operations


7-4 Paving Operations


CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION C H A P T E R 8

TYPESConcrete construction usually requires form-ing; reinforcing mixing, placing, and finish-ing concrete; stripping forms; and curingconcrete. In addition, some concrete con-

LABOR FORLabor required for forming includes fabrica-tion, handling into place, erection, and oil-ing; installing form ties, tie wire, struts,chamfer strips, screed guides, bracing, andshoring, erecting runways and scaffolds;and checking forms during placement ofconcrete. Stripping includes removing,

struction requires fine grading, vapor barri-ers, expansion joints, cold- weather protec-tion, and placement of embedded anchorsin the concrete.

FORMINGcleaning, and reconditioning forms. Form-ing is usually computed in square feet ofcontact surface, which is the area of con-crete in direct contact with forms or in lin-ear feet of form length required. Screedguides should be computed as the equiva-lent form length of an edge form.

LABOR FOR REINFORCED CONCRETEConcrete is reinforced with steel bars orwith welded steel wire mesh which is usedfor reinforcing slabs, gunite, and precastconcrete. In some applications, wire meshand bars are used in combination for rein-forcing. Some tables show both bars andmesh, so that the appropriate man-hoursper unit may be used. Reinforcing steel iscomputed in tons of bars. Reinforcingmesh is computed in square feet of thearea.

Labor for reinforcing steel includes handlinginto place, tying, supporting, and any cut-ting which becomes necessary at the sitesuch as cutting around embedded materialsor cutting stock lengths of straight bars tofit slab dimensions. Labor for wire mesh re-inforcing includes handling into place, cut -ting to fit, tying at overlaps, and pulling upinto position during placement of concrete.

LABOR FOR MIXING CONCRETESometimes concrete must be mixed at the ment into the mixer; bringing water to thejob site rather than being delivered in tran- mixer by truck, hose, pipe, or pump; andsit mix trucks. Labor for mixing concrete operating the mixer.at the jobsite includes loading, measuring,wheeling, and dumping aggregates and ce-

Concrete Construction 8-1


LABOR FOR PLACING CONCRETEHandling from the mixer or transit mixer spreading, vibrating, and screeding the con-truck to the final position is included in crete to grade.placing concrete. This includes hoisting,

LABOR FOR FINISHING CONCRETEConcrete finishing includes floating, trowel- honeycombs. Pointing and patching in-ing, and tooling slabs: and filling voids and cludes patching tie holes and removing fins.

LABOR FOR CURING CONCRETEThe term curing includes covering surfaces lins, burlap, or straw, and keeping as wetwith curing compound, sand, paper, tarpau- as required.

FINE-GRADING PROCESSThe process of fine grading includes bringing, leveling, compacting, and sprinklinging in fill or removing excess earth, spread- when necessary.

VAPOR-BARRIER PLACEMENTThe process of placing vapor barrier in- fit, smoothing as necessary, and sealing thecludes handling and placement, cutting to joints.

EXPANSION JOINTSPlacing premolded expansion joints includes pansion joints includes cleaning the jointshandling into place, cutting to fit, placing, of foreign matter, handling material to theand fastening to hold in position until con- melting pot, melting, handling to the joints,crete is placed. Labor for placing poured ex- pouring the joints, and dusting.

COLD-WEATHER PROTECTIONSeveral methods are available to provide straw, or paper; heating the mixing watercold-weather protection for concrete. These and aggregate; and building enclosures andinclude covering the concrete with sand, operating heaters.

ESTIMATING TABLESWork rates in Tables 8-1 through 8-8, must be adjusted accordingly. The tablespages 8-3 through 8-6, are based on the do not include loading and hauling materi-use of untrained troops. If crews of differ- als to the jobsite. Table 8-9, page 8-7, con-ent makeup are employed, the work rates tains conversion and waste factors.

8-2 Concrete Construction


CARPENTRY C H A P T E R 9

TYPESThis chapter covers rough carpentry workand installation of flooring finish carpentry,windows, doors, and insulation.

ROUGH CARPENTRYThe term rough carpentry includes measur- ters, and rough door bucks. It also in-ing, cutting, and installing wood framing, cludes the installation of wall and rooffloor joists and sills, cross bridging, wall sheathing and siding.framing and plates, roof framing and raf-

FLOORINGFlooring includes measuring, cutting, and der finish floors and adhesive under tileinstalling subflooring, finish flooring, and floors. In addition, flooring includes install-soft tile (asphalt, cork, rubber, and vinyl). ing building paper under soft tile laid overIt also covers installing building paper un- wood floors.

FINISH CARPENTRYThe work of finish carpentry includes install-ing baseboard, molding, door and windowframes, trim, kitchen cabinets, woodenstairs, closet units, and finish walls. Finishcarpentry also includes installation of fas-

WINDOWSThe tables in this chapter cover the installa-tion of double-hung and casement windows,jalousies, skylights, wood doors of all types,louvers, screens, and venetian blinds, aswell as caulking and weather-stripping.

tening devices such as plugs, expansionshields, and toggle bolts; blocking for level-ing and plumbing and scribing fillers andtrim to walls and adjacent pieces.

AND DOORSInstallation includes drilling for fastenersand installing plugs, expansion shields, tog-gle bolts, blocking, hinges, locks, and otherhardware.

Carpentry 9-1


INSULATIONThe installation of insulation includes scaf- into place, and making cutouts in insula-folding when required, fastening insulation tion as required.

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 9-1 through 9-9, pages 9-3 through sume average working conditions in terms9-8, may be used to prepare detailed man- of weather, skill, motivation, crew size, ac-hour estimates for carpentry.do not include provisions forhauling materials to the job.

These tables cessibility, and the availability of equip-loading and ment. Tables 9-10 and 9-11, pages 9-8All tables as- and 9-9, contain conversion factors.

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USEProblem. A 24- by 40-foot frame storageshed is to be built as part of a training pro-gram. Its interior partitions will be coveredon both sides with plasterboard. Ceilingjoists will also be covered with plaster-board. Exterior walls will be covered with 4-by 8-foot treated fiberboard and 1 -inch by 8-foot shiplap siding. There will be four inter-ior doors, four exterior doors, and eight dou-ble-hung windows, all with plain trim.

The estimates show the following quantities:Floor joists and sills 1,300 bd ftWall framing and plates —— 2,120 bd ft

Ceiling joists 785 bd ftCross bridging 288 prRoof framing and rafters — 2,089 bd ftSheathing 4- by 8-foot fiberboard 1,280 sq ftRoof sheathing 1 inch by 8 foot- 1,410 sq ftSiding l-inch by 8-foot shiplap – 1,280 sq ftSubflooring 4- by 8-foot plywood – 960 sq ftFinish flooring softwood 960 sq ftDoor frame and trim 8eaWindow frame and trim 8eaFinish walls - plasterboard — 2,240 sq ftWindows - double hung 8eaDoors - single interior 4 eaDoors - single exterior 4ea

Determine the man-hours needed for this project.Solution. Using Tables 9-1 through 9-11, the following computations are made:Floor joists and sills, 1.300 thousand-bd-ft measure x 32 man-hours . . . . . = 41.6Wall framing and plates, 2.120 thousand-bd-ft measure x 56 man-hours . . . . . . = 118.7Ceiling joists, 0.785 thousand-bd-ft measure x 32 man-hours . . . . . .. . . . . . . . = 25.1Cross bridging, 2.88 hundred pr x 5 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 14.4Roof framing and rafters, 2.089 thousand-bd-ft measure x 48 man-hours. . . . . . = 100.3Sheathing 4- x 8-ft fiberboard, 1.280 thousand sq ft x 24 man-hours . . . . . . . . = 30.7Roof sheathing 1 in x 8 ft, 1.410 thousand sq ft x 24 man-hours . . . . . . . . = 33.8Siding l in x 8ft, l.280 thousand sq ft x 48 man-hours . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 61.4Subflooring 4- x 8-ft plywood, 0.96 thousand sq ft x 16 man-hours. . . . . . . . . = 15.4Finish flooring softwood, 0.96 thousand sq ft x 24 man-hours . . . . . . . . = 23.0Door frame and trim, 8 x 2.5 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 20.0Window frame and trim, 8 x 3 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 24.0Finish walls - plasterboard, 2.24 thousand sq ft x 48 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . = 107,5Windows - double hung, 8 x 2.5 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 20.0Doors - single interior, 4 x l.5 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 6.0Doors - single exterior, 4 x 2 man-hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 8.0Total man-hours required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = + 649.9

Use 650 man-hours

9-2 Carpentry


Carpentry 9-3


9-4 Carpentry


Carpentry 9-5


9-6 Carpentry


Carpentry 9-7


9-8 Carpentry


Carpentry 9-9


MASONRY C H A P T E R 10

Masonry covers installing brick, concreteblock, mortar-bound rubble, ceramic tile,

BRICK AND

TYPESquarry tile, structural tile (glazed or face),and also lathing and plastering.

CONCRETE BLOCKLabor for the installation of brick and con-crete block includes mixing mortar, carryingmaterials to the mason, hoisting materials,and laying brick and block. It also in-cludes tooling joints, erecting and disman-

tling scaffold, sawing block, and cullingbrick and block. Labor for this type of ma-sonry includes cleaning brick and block inplace.

MORTAR-BOUND RUBBLEThe installation of mortar-bound rubble in- rubble. Tooling and pointing joints, erect-cludes labor for mixing mortar, rough-cut- ing and dismantling scaffold, and cleaningting stone, carrying mortar and rubble to rubble in place are also part of the installa-the mason, hoisting materials, and laying tion.

CERAMIC AND QUARRY TILEThe installation of ceramic and quarry tile setting tile. Labor estimates should also in-includes mixing mortar for bed coat and clude slushing and finishing joints, cleaningjoints, carrying mortar and tile to the tile tile in place, and erecting and dismantlingsetter, spreading bed coat, cutting tile, and scaffold.

STRUCTURAL TILEThe installation of structural face tile andglazed structural tile units includes mixngmortar, carrying mortar and tile to the ma-

LATH ANDLabor for lathing and plastering includeshandling material into place; hoisting mate-

Masonry

son, hoisting materials, laying tile, toolingjoints, erecting and dismantling scaffold,cutting tile, and cleaning tile in place.

PLASTERrials; cutting and installing hanging wiresand straps; cutting and fastening lathing

10-1


channels, angles, beads, and moldings; and ter, installing and finishing plaster, erectinginstalling furring strips, metal lath, and gyp- and dismantling scaffold, and curing andsum lath. Labor also includes mixing plas- drying plaster.

ESTIMATING TABLESUnit masonry Tables 10-1 through 10-3 in- finishing, and curing. Allowances are madeclude inking mortar, carrying materials, for erecting and dismantling scaffolds in allculling, cutting, hoisting, laying masonry, cases. Estimates do not provide for loadingtooling joints, and cleaning work in place. and hauling material to the jobsite. TablesFor lathing (Table 10-4, page 10-4), labor in- 10-6 and 10-7,eludes installing required metal fastenings tain conversionand furring. Estimates for plastering (Table10-5, page 10-4) include mixing, hoisting,

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USE

pages 10-5 and 10-6, con-actors.

Problem. Twenty housing units are to bebuilt in Germany when weather is generallyfavorable for construction. Estimate thenumber of working days it will take to com -plete the project. Material estimates are asfollows:

8-inch concrete block — 20,000 sq ftAcid cleaning block 20,000 sq ft

Acid cleaning tile 1,250 sq ftGlass block 1,000 sq ftMetal lath - walls (metal studs) 25,000 sq ftMetal lath - ceiling (wood joists) 10,000 sq ftMetal lath - base 2,500 lin ftCorner bead 2,500 lin ftLath at openings 4,000 lin ftPlastering walls (2 coats) — 25,000 sq ftPlastering walls (plain finish) – 10,000 sq ft

6-inch quarry tile 1,000 sq ft Scaffolding 1 story - 8 crewsTile base (6-inch) 500 lin ft

Solution. Labor is mostly inexperienced, so the man-hours/unit are figured at 30 percentabove tables.

Units x Man-hours/unit = SubtotalLaying block . . . . . . . . . 20. 0 143 2,860Cleaning block . . . . . . . 20. 0 33 660Laying tile: Floor . . . . . . 1.0 208 208

Base . . . . . . 0.5 299 150Cleaning tile . . . . . . . 1.25 13 16Glass block . . . . . . . . . 1.0 325 325Metal lath: Walls . . . . . . 25.0 52 1,300

Ceiling . . . . . . 10.0 13 130Base . . . . . . 2.5 46 115Corner... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2.5 46 115Openings . . . . . . 4.0 91 364

Plastering: Walls . . . . . . 25.0 31 775Ceilings . . . . . . . 10.0 55 550Scaffold . . . . . . . 8.0 26 208

Total man-hours: 7,776Assuming an 8-hour workday, work requires 972 man-days. An engineer companyconsisting of 60 laborers, using organic equipment, could complete the project in 16.2(972 /60) working days.

10-2 Masonry


Masonry 10-3

PROJECT MANAGEMENTFM 5-412

10-4 Masonry


Masonry 10-5


10-6 Masonry


ROOFING C H A P T E R 11

TYPESThe types of roofing included in this chap- deck, applying prime coat, and laying rollster are built-up, roll, shingle, metal, asbes- for roll roofing. Table 11-3, page 11-3, in-tos-cement, and tile. Table 11-1, page 11- cludes placing and nailing shingle roofing.2, includes melting asphalt, laying felt, mop- Table 11-4, page 11-3, includes placing,ping, and laying gravel for built-up roofing. caulking, drilling, and fastening materialsTable 11-2, page 11-2, includes cleaning for metal, asbestos-cement, and tile roofing.

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 11-1 through 11-5, pages 11-2through 11-4, may be used in preparing de-tailed-man-hour estimates for roofing. -

These tables include allowances for unload-

EXAMPLEProblem. A warehouse is to be built in atropical area. Heavy rains require a 4-plybuilt-up roof to be applied during the dryseason. Estimate the number of man-hoursneeded to build the roof, based on the fol-lowing material estimate:

OF

ing, hoisting, and storing materials at theconstruction site. They do not includehours needed for loading and hauling mate-rials to the job site.

TABLE USERoof, 4-ply built-up 5,000 Sq ftRoof insulation 5,000 Sq ftFlashing 300 lin ft

Solution. Because crews are inexperienced, the man-hours/unit are increased30 percent over the figures given in Table 11-1.

Unit x Man-hours/unit = SubtotalRoof, 4-ply built-up . . 5 33 165Insulation . . . . . . . 5 33 165Flashing . . . . . . . . 0.3 78 23

Total man-hours 353

Roofing 11-1


11-2 Roofing


Roofing 11-3


11-4 Roofing


ELECTRICAL WORK C H A P T E R 12

TYPESElectrical work discussed in this chapter in- power systems. It also includes installationcludes construction of electrical distribution of interior electrical services, transformers,lines, outdoor lighting, and underground and substation equipment.

ELECTRICAL LINE WORKLabor includes unloading materials, excavat-ing,ting

installing crossarms- and insulators, set-poles, backfilling, and stringing and

OUTDOORStreet lights, security lights, airfield lights,and athletic-field lights are types of outdoorlighting. Labor for installation includes dig-ging foundations, setting poles, backfilling,installing standards and light fixtures,

sagging wire. It also includes installingand connecting transformers, switches,breakers, capacitors, and regulators.

LIGHTINGstringing wire, laying buried cable, install-ing duct, encasing duct in concrete, andpulling cable. It also includes installingcontrol devices, lamps, control vaults, andtransformers.

UNDERGROUND POWER SYSTEMConstruction of underground power systems constructing transformer vaults, installingincludes excavating, installing ducts, encas- transformers, and constructing manholesing ducts with concrete, backfilling, and and handholes. Construction time dependscompacting. It also includes pulling cable, on soil and weather conditions.

INTERIOR ELECTRICAL ROUGH INRoughing-in interior electric includes install- tor control centers. It also includes pullinging service mains, switches, panels, con- cable through conduit and splicing in elec-duits, fittings, outlet boxes, nonmetallic ca- trical boxes.ble, armored cable, transformers, and mo-

Electrical Work 12- 1


INTERIOR ELECTRICAL FINISH AND TRIMFinishing and trimming interior electric in- vices, heavy-duty utility devices, controls,cludes installing and connecting recepta- and appliances. It also includes circuit test-cles, switches, light fixtures, light-duty de- ing.

TRANSFORMERS AND SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTInstallation of transformers and substation plumbing, fastening, trimming, and connect-equipment includes unloading the equip- ing the equipment.ment, moving it into position, leveling,

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 12-1 through 12-9, pages 12-3 working conditions. To apply these tablesthrough 12-10, may be used in preparing to a particular situation, the weather condi-detailed man-hour estimates for electrical tion, skill and experience of the workers,construction. The tables do not include pro- time allotted for completion, size of crew,visions for loading and hauling equipment types of material used, and types of equip-and materials to the jobsite. Man-hours ment must be considered.units are given in these tables for average

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USETo make an estimate of man-hours for elec-trical work using the tables in this chapter,follow the procedure in the example below.

Problem. Interior electrical work is to beperformed in a two-family housing unit.The work element estimate shows the follow-ing quantities of work to be performed:

Electrical service main, 100 amperes 1 eaElectric panels, 8-circuit 2 ea

Conduit and boxes, 1 1/4 inchesand smaller 1,100 lin ft

Pull and splice wire, No. 10and smaller 2,200 lin ft

Pull and splice wire, No. 8and larger 160 lin ft

Receptacles and switches — 30 eaIncandescent fixtures 14 eaAttic exhaust fans 2 eaWater heater 2 ea

Solution. Because the project is located in an area of moderate rainfall and most of thecrew members are experienced workers, subtract 15 percent from the man-hour estimates.Referring to Tables 12-5, 12-6, and 12-7, compute the man-hours per unit at 85 percent asfollows:Electric service main, 100 amperes . . . . . . . . 12.0 x 0.85 = 10.2 eaElectric panels, 8-circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 x 0.85 = 7.65 eaConduit and boxes, 1 1/4 inches and smaller . .250.0 x 0.85 = 212.5/1,000 lin ftPull and splice wire, No. 10 and smaller . . . . . 18.0 x 0.85 = 15.3/1,000 lin ftPull and splice wire, No. 8 and larger . . . . . . 56.0 x 0.85 = 47.6/ 1,000 lin ftReceptacles and switches . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 x 0.85 = 0.17 eaIncandescent fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 x 0.85 = 0.43 eaAttic exhaust fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 x 0.85 = 1.7 eaWater heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 x 0.85 = 1.28 ea

12-2 Electrical Work


Using the preceding units, compute man-hours for electrical work.Rough in: Service main: 1 ea x 10.20 man-hours ea = 0.2

Panels: 2 ea x 7.65 man-hours ea = 15.3Conduit: 1.1 x 1,000 lin ft x 212.5 man-hours/ l,000 lin ft = 233.8Wire, No. 10: 2.2 x 1,000 lin ft x 15.3 man-hours/ 1,000 lin ft = 33.7Wire, No. 8: 0.16 x 1,000 lin ft x 47.6 man-hours/ 1,000 lin ft = 7.6

Total man-hours for rough-in = 300.6

Finish and trim: Receptacles and switches: 30 ea x 0.17 man-hours/ea = 5.1Fixtures: 14 ea x 0.43 man-hours/ea = 6.0Fans: 2 ea x 1.7 man-hours/ea = 3.4Water heater: 2 ea x 1.28 man-hours/ea = 2.6

Total man-hours for finish and trim = 17.1Total electrical work in one two-family housing unit: 300.6 + 17.1 = 318 man-hours

Electrical Work 12-3


PLUMBING C H A P T E R 13

TYPESPlumbing consists of installing cast-iron fied-clay pipe, and asbestos-cement pipe;and steel pipe, valves and fittings, fire hy- roughing-in plumbing; and installing fix-drants, thrust blocks, concrete pipe, vitri- tures.

PIPEThe installation of cast-iron and steel pipe kets, and testing. The installation of asbes-includes unloading, placing, joint makeup, tos-cement pipe includes unloading, plac-and testing. The installation of concreteand vitrified-clay pipe includes unloading,placing, caulking, grouting, installing gas-

VALVESThe installation of valves and fittings in-cludes unloading, placing, caulking andleading, welding, and bolting flanges. It

ing, installing gaskets, soaping, pullingsleeve over joint, and testing.

AND FITTINGSalso includes installing gaskets, packing,handwheels, and trim.

FIRE HYDRANTS, POST INDICATOR VALVES, AND THRUST BLOCKSThe installation of fire hydrants and post in- tion of thrust blocks includes bracing, form-dicator valves includes unloading, placing, ing, reinforcing, placing concrete, and strip-caulking, bolting, clamping, adjusting to ping forms.grade, and plumbing stems. The installa-

ROUGH IN PLUMBINGThe roughing-in of plumbing includes un- making jointsloading and installing sewer and drain pipe, plumbing andinstalling water pipe, and testing. The in-stallation of cast-iron drains includes caulk-ing and leading joints, plumbing and grad-ing pipe, installing pipe hangers and straps,cutting pipe, and installing fittings. The in-stallation of galvanized-steel pipe vents anddrains includes cutting and threading pipe,

and applying joint compound,grading pipe, installing pipe

hangers and straps, and installing fittings.The installation of copper and galvanized-steel water pipe includes cutting, threading,and making steel pipe joints; cleaning andsoldering copper pipe joints; plumbing andgrading pipe; and installing pipe hangersand straps.

Plumbing 13-1


The installation of plastic water pipe (poly- ing, and cementing; plumbing and gradingvinyl chloride pipe) includes cutting, clean- pipe; and installing pipe hangers and straps.

FINISH PLUMBINGThe installation of finish plumbing includes (such as bathtubs, lavatories, water closets,setting and connecting all plumbing fixtures urinals, showers, and sinks).

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 13-1 through 13-7, pages 13-3 PVC pipe includes cleaning, applying sol-through 13-9, may be used in preparing de- vent, drying time, and installation of hang-tailed man-hour estimates for plumbing in- ers and supports. Table 13-8, pages 13-10,stallations. The tables do not include provi- gives information on needed quantities ofsion for loading and hauling equipment and solvent.materials to the jobsite. The installation of

EXAMPLEProblem. Twenty housing units are to beconstructed. Estimate the number of man-hours needed for rough in. Activity esti-mates show the following quantities:

Rough in sanitary lines (4-inchcast-iron and smaller) 145 joints

Rough in water lines (3/4-inch andsmaller threaded pipe) 185 joints

OF TABLE USERough in fixtures:

Bathtub with shower 20 eaLavatory 20 eaWater closet 20 eaKitchen sink 20 ea

Solution: Using Tables 13-1 through 13-8, the following computations are made:

4-inch and smaller cast-iron drain line . . 145 joints x 0.85 man-hours = 1233/4-inch and smaller water line . . . . . 185 joints x 0.5 man-hours = 93Rough in fixtures:

Bathtub with shower . . . . . . . . . . 20 ea x 4 man-hours = 80Lavatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ea x 3 man-hours = 60Water closet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ea x 3 man-hours = 60Kitchen sink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 ea x 3 man-hours = 60

Total man-hours for rough in = 476

13-2 Plumbing


Plumbing 1 3 - 3


13-4 Plumbing


Plumbing 13-5


13-6 Plumbing


Plumbing 13-7


13-8 Plumbing


Plumbing 13-9


13-10 Plumbing

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT FM 5-412

EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION C H A P T E R 14

Equipment installation includesmoving into location, uncrating,

TYPESunloading, assembling, positioning, aligning, support-cleaning, ing, and anchoring if required.

UNLOADINGThe task of unloading and moving in in-cludes lifting or skidding from the truck,transporting with equipment, or rolling orskidding into approximate position. Thetypical crew for this work is one crew

CLEANING ANDThe task of cleaning and assembling in-cludes uncrating, removing protective paperand coating, removing grease and oils, re-moving rust, assembling and attaching any

leader and two to five workers, dependingon the weight and size of the equipment.Mechanical lifting equipment is normallyused to unload and move the heavier pieces.

ASSEMBLINGparts shipped loose, and flushing oil reser-voirs and filling with the proper lubricant.The typical crew for this work is one crewleader and one to four workers.

POSITIONING AND ALIGNINGThe task of positioning and aligning in- drives. The typical crew for this work iseludes moving into position, bringing to one crew leader and two to four workers.grade, leveling, aligning, and connecting

SUPPORTING AND ANCHORINGThe task of supporting and anchoring in- plates; and installing bolts, washers, andeludes installing shims and plates; grout- nuts. The typical crew for this work is oneing, drilling for expansion shields; installing crew leader and two to four workers.expansion shields; drilling and tapping base-

Equipment Installation 14-1

FM 5-412 CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

CONNECTING EQUIPMENTThe task of connecting equipment includes switches, controls, dampers, or valves. Theinitial wiring, piping, or duct connection. It typical crew for this work is one crewdoes not include installing breakers, leader and one to four workers.

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 14-1 through 14-8, pages 14-2 sions for loading and hauling equipment tothrough 14-8, may be used in preparing de- the jobsite or for piping, wiring, or duct-tailed man-hour estimates for equipment in- work other than the initial connection tostallation. The tables do not include provi- the equipment.

14-2 Equipment Installation


Equipment installation 14-7


METAL WORK C H A P T E R 1 5

TYPESMetal work includes erection of structuraland miscellaneous steel fabrications anderection of sheet metal and fencing.

ERECTION OF STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS STEELThe labor for erection of structural steel in-cludes unloading, erecting temporary bolt-ing, plumbing, leveling, high-strength bolt-ing, and/or welding. Miscellaneous steel

SHEETThis includes the fabrication and erection ofgutters, downspouts, ridges, valleys, flash-ings, and ducts. Fabrication is usuallydone in the sheet metal shop and includesmaking patterns, cutting, forming, seaming,

erection includes unloading, setting inplace, plumbing, leveling, and fastening(usually by bolting or welding).

METALsoldering, attaching stiffeners, and haulingto the site. Erection includes unloading,storing on site, handling into place, hang-ing, fastening, and soldering.

INSTALLATION OF FENCINGThe installation of fencing includes digging and/or brackets on posts; installing gates,holes; unloading and distributing materials; including hardware; and stringing lone andsetting, plumbing, aligning, and concreting barbed wire.posts; installing braces; setting, stretching,and fastening fence fabric; installing caps

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 15-1 through 15-3, pages 15-2 and15-3, may be used in preparing detailedman-hour estimates for metal work.

Metal Work 15-1


15-2 Metal Work


Metal Work 15-3


WATERFRONT CONSTRUCTION C H A P T E R 1 6

TYPESWaterfront construction includes pile driv- installation of deck hardware, and pile ex-ing, pile bracing, pile capping, pier framing, traction.

EQUIPMENT SELECTIONThe type of driving and extracting equip- a pulling beam with blocks and cables mayment used can have a considerable effect be used for pile extraction. The equipmenton the time required for this work. A used affects the time required for a givensteam, diesel, or drop hammer may be used unit of work. The estimator should knowto drive piling. A steam or air extractor or what equipment is to be used.

PILE-DRIVING WORKThe task of pile driving includes assembling pile butts, cutting holes in steel piles to fa-leads and hammer, preparing equipment for cilitate handling, moving driver into place,driving, sharpening pile tips, installing steel placing pile-in leads, driving pile, and cut-tips on wood piles, squaring and trimming ting pile to the required grade.

PILE-BRACING INSTALLATIONThe installation of pile bracing includes cut-ting, drilling, handling into place, and fas-tening.

PILE-CAPPING WORKWood or steel pile capping includes cutting, forcing, placing and curing concrete, anddrilling, handling into place, and fastening. stripping forms.Concrete pile capping includes forming, rein-

SHEET-PILING INSTALLATIONThe installation of sheet piling includes pile-in leads, driving pile, cutting and brac-preparation of leads and equipment for driving pile, and installing deadman and tie-ing, preparation of pile for driving, placing backs.

Waterfront Construction 16-7


PIER-FRAMING INSTALLATIONThe installation of pier framing includes the stringers, bridging, allcutting, drilling, handling, and fastening of bumpers.

decking, rails, and

DECK HARDWARE INSTALLATIONThe installation of deck hardware includesrequired drilling, handling, and fastening ofbits, bollards, chocks, cleats, and pad eyes.

PILE EXTRACTIONThe task of pile extraction includes rigging piling. It also includes cutting piles belowthe equipment and extracting and handling water level and carrying pieces to stockpiles.

ESTIMATING TABLESTables 16-1 through 16-8, pages 16-3 construction. The tables do not include de-through 16-6, may be used in preparing delivery of materials to the jobsite.tailed man-hour estimates for waterfront

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USEThe example below illustrates the use of Ta-bles 16-1 through 16-8 for making a man-hour estimate for waterfront construction.

Problem. A pier to be enlarged will re-quired 200 50-foot wood-bearing piles. Be-cause the pier is located between severalbuildings, the piles cannot be prepared adja-cent to the pile-driving area. In this case,increase the time for placing and driving by15 percent because an additional crane willbe needed to transport the prepared piles tothe driving area (see note on Table 16-1).Work requirements are as follows:

2 0 0 —4 0 0 —8 0 0 —6 4 0 —8 0 0 —

2,500 —2,500 —3 5 0 —

1 0 —

50-foot wood-bearing pileshorizontal pile bracesdiagonal pile braceslinear feet of wood pile capslinear feet of stringerssquare feet of deckingsquare feet of wearing surfacefeet of bull railcleats

16-2 Waterfront Construction


Solution.

Description

Preparing pilesDriving pilesRigging equipmentCutting pile at levelDismantling equipmentHorizontal bracesDiagonal bracesPile capsStringersDeckingWearing surfaceBull railBumpersCleats

Units

200.00200.00

4.00200.00

4.00400.00800.00

0.642.402.502.500.350.02

10.00

Man-hours/unit

2.01.76.00.26.01.00.8

100.040.020.016.060.036.0

2.0Total man-hours

Subtotal

400340

244024

400640

6496504021

120

2,160



OTHER ESTIMATING REQUIREMENTS CHAPTER 1 7

WRECKING AND SALVAGING

SIMPLE PROCEDURESOnly relatively simple procedures are cur-rently used by the Army engineers to wreckstructures. Far less effort is made to sal-vage construction materials than once was,since labor costs have increased more thanmaterial costs. The salvage of marine ves-sels is a separate subject and is covered inTM 55-503.

USE OF ESTIMATING TABLETable 17-1, page 17-2, may be used to pre-pare preliminary man-hour estimates forwrecking and salvaging land structures. Be-cause of the great variance in capacity ofwrecking equipment, only the roughest la-bor estimates are included here. The tabledoes not provide for moving to the site orhauling salvaged materials.

EXAMPLE OF TABLE USEProblem. Sixteen wooden barracks are tobe demolished. Salvageable material isminimal, but includes parts of furnaces. La-bor is largely unskilled, but four crews canwork simultaneously. Tractors are avail-able. Each barracks contain 36,000 cubicfeet (60 x 30 x 20) or 36 units. Using aver-age man-hour estimates in Table 17-1, findthe total man-hours required to perform thework.

Solution. Since each unit requires 12 man-hours, the total work estimate is 36 x 12 x16 = 6,912 man-hours. Thus, approxi-mately 6,900 man-hours are needed to com-plete this task.

REMOVING SNOW

TYPES OF SNOW REMOVAL EQUIPMENT SELECTIONSnow removal includes the salting or sand- Table 17-2, page 17-2, divides snowfallsing of roads and airfields, the plowing of into three types: light (under 2 inches), me-roads and airfields by a 5-ton dump truck dium (2 to 6 inches), and heavy (over 6with a plow or grader, snow blowing, and inches). For light snowfalls, use salt toshoveling of sidewalks by workers or with a melt ice or sand to provide traction on thegarden tractor. Hauling of snow is not in- roads. A salt truck spreads salt or sandcluded because this activity is similar to most efficiently, although spreading can beearth moving with front loaders and dump done by shovelers spreading salt or sandtrucks (see Chapter 6). from the backs of dump trucks. For a me-

dium snowfall, graders (which are able toclear wide paths at relatively high speeds)are the most efficient snow removal equip-

Other Estimating Requirements 17-1


ment for main roads. Snowplows mounted not handle heavy snow loads, they are usedon 5-ton dump trucks are used for secon- continuously during a heavy snowstorm todary roads. For heavy snowfalls and large keep main roads open.accumulations, snowblowers are necessaryto discharge the snow over the high snow ESTIMATING TABLEbanks which build up on both sides of the Table 17-2 may be used to prepare prelimi-road. Plows are used to move snow to thesides of the road. While graders alone can- nary man-hour estimates for snow removal.

17-2 Other Estimating Requirements


WORK-ELEMENT CHECKLIST A P P E N D I X A

Remove existing structuresClearing and grubbingLayoutBlastingGradingFill, place, and compactLandscaping, seeding, and soddingExcavation and backfillRelocate existing utilitiesConcrete foundations and footingsPipe sleevesUnderfloor conduit and plumbingTransformer vaultGrade beamsGround floor slabJet anchor bolts or platesConcrete columns, beams, and girdersConcrete floor and roof slabsPrecast wall and roof panelsPrecast structural membersPrecast sills and lintelsConcrete canopy and entrancesTread and nosingsPipe sleeves and openingsStructural steelMasonry - concrete block, brick, and

structural tileFlashingFraming floors, walls, roofs, stairsSheathing walls and roofSubflooringDoor bucks and frames - woodDoor bucks and frames - metalOverhead doorsWindow framesConduit in slabs and wallsPiping in wallsElectrical roughing-inPlumbing roughing-in

BUILDINGSiding - woodMetal siding and roofingHoods and ventilatorsInsulation, roofRoofingAsphalt or woodDuctworkIntercom system

shingles

Telephone switchboard equipmentAlarm systems, burglar and fireElectric serviceTelephone serviceWallboardLathingStairwaysMetal studs and partitionsInsulation, walls and ceilingsDownspouts and guttersFire escapeLaddersPlatforms and catwalksRoof scuttlesExterior doorsScreen doorsWindowsWindow screensJalousiesExterior trimGlazingLouversCabinetsCloset unitsLockersBulletinMirrors and medicine cabinetsPanelingInterior doorsMetal doorsMetal toilet partitions

Work-Element Checklist A-1


Security grills Air conditioningPlastering Compressed air systemsCeramic tile DehumidifiersElectric fixtures Dry cleaning equipmentPlumbing fixtures Exhaust fanFinish flooring Fire protection systemsTile flooring, asphalt, rubber, vinyl, cork GeneratorsAcoustical tile -

Interior trimHandrailsCaulkingPaintingCurbs and walksParking areasFencingCleanup

Clearing and grubbingBlastingTrenching and ditchingBackfill and compactErosion controlWater mainsWater service linesSanitary sewer service linesValvesValve boxesManholesWater storage tanksWater pumpsSewage pumpsStorm sewers and manholesCatch basins

Stripping quarryDrilling and blasting

Heating systemLaundry equipmentPumpsRefrigeratorsShop equipmentVentilation equipmentMess equipmentWater coolersHospital equipment

OUTSIDE UTILITIESCulvertsCulvert head and wing wallsSewage treatment plantsPolesCableTransformersTelephone cableUnderground ductConduit risersManholes and handholdsStreet lightsSecurity lightsControl devicesCapacitors and voltage regulators

PLANT OPERATIONSHauling concrete to jobManufacturing concrete block - all sizes

Handling and loading quarried material Manufacturing precast concrete units - allHauling to crusher or job typesSetting up crusher plant Hauling precast units to jobOperating crusher Reinforcing steel fabricationsStockpiling crushed material Prefabricating doors, windows, jalousies,Hauling crushed material to plants or job louvers, framesSetting up asphalt plant Prefabricating stairs, cabinets, closet unitsOperating asphalt plant Prefabricating concrete pipeHauling asphalt to jobSetting up concrete batch plant

A-2 Work-Element Checklist


ROADS, PAVING, AND WALKSClearing and grubbing Asphalt tack coatBlasting Spread and roll asphaltic concreteCut and fill Spread and roll chip and gravel coatsGrading Concrete paving formsTrenching and ditching Reinforcing steel and dowelsMove and change interfering utilitiesCulvertsHead and wingwallsCatch basinsStorm drainagePrepare subgrade, subbase, baseFine gradingErosion control

Expansion and contractionFinishing and curingConcrete curbs completeConcrete walks completeAsphalt curbs completeAsphalt erosion protectionAsphalt walks completePrecast curbs installed

Sheet pilingPile dolphinsPier pilingPile cappingPier framingPier decking

WATERFRONT CONSTRUCTIONPier deck hardwarePile extractionTiebacks and deadmanSeawallsDredging

joints

Work-Element Checklist A-3


RESOURCE CONSTRAININGA P P E N D I X B

PROCEDURES

When daily equipment and personnel require-ments exceed what is available to the man-ager for a project, he must resource constrainthe project to have as little effect as possibleon the project duration. Often resources canbe shifted in such a way to avoid delayingthe overall project duration; however, shiftingresources may result In more critical activi-ties and certainly less available float of someactivities within the ES schedule.

Resource constraining a project consists ofthree parts: 1) resource constrain the ESschedule, 2) update the logic network, and 3)update the ES schedule.

PART 1: RESOURCE CONSTRAIN THEEARLY START SCHEDULE

Step 1. Find the first time period whereresource requirements exceed the re-sources allocated. ES schedule resource ma-nipulation must be done chronologically, onetime period at a time, working from left toright within the ES schedule.

Step 2. Choose an activity(ies) to delay.In order to solve the problem of too manyscheduled resources on a given day, youmust delay an activity from being done andconsuming resources on that day. To selectwhich activity would be the best to delay, con-sider the following five priorities.

The first priority choosing which activ-ity to delay is to choose an activity thatstarts on the time period resources are ex-ceeded. By choosing to delay an activity

that has already started and is on-go-ing, you are leaving that job undone,pulling out the resources, and planningto come back to finish it later. Choos-ing an activity that is just scheduled tostart saves start-up and shut-downtime, as well as unnecessary transporta-tion requirements and extra on-site ma-terial-delivery coordination and secu-rity. If more than one activity is sched-uled to start on the time period re-sources are exceeded, then consider thenext priority for determining which ac-tivity to choose to delay.

The second priority for choosing which ac-tivity to delay is to choose an activitythat, when delayed, provides sufficient re-sources to solve the constraint problem.For example, if you have 15 trucks sched-uled for a particular day but have only 12trucks available to use, delaying an activ-ity that uses just 2 trucks does not solveyour problem; you now have only 13trucks scheduled for that day, but youneed to constrain it down to the 12trucks (or less) that you have available.Choosing to delay an activity that uses,for example, 5 trucks on that day willbring your scheduled total down to 10,which solves the problem on that day. Ifno single activity provides sufficient re-sources to lower the amount to or belowwhat you have available, then choose acombination of activities to delay to meetthe constraint requirement. If, however,more than one activity provides sufficientresources to solve the problem, then

Resource Constraining B-1


consider the next priority for determin-ing which activity to delay.The third priority for choosing which ac-tivity to delay is to choose an activitywith the most total float. This will pre-vent the manager from selecting criticalor nearly critical activities to delay, un-less absolutely necessary. If more thanone activity has the most total float, (forexample, three activities each have sixdays total float), then consider the nextpriority for determining which activityto delay.

The fourth priority for choosing whichactivity to delay is to choose an activitywith the most free float. Activities withmore free float are less likely to impactfollow-on activities in the schedule. Ifmore than one activity has the most freefloat for example, two activities eachhave four days free float of the six daystotal float), then consider the next prior-ity for determining which activity to de-lay.

The fifth priority for choosing which ac-

with the shortest activity duration.Shorter activity duration estimates areless likely to be incorrect and to extendthe project’s overall duration.

Step 3. Delay that activity one time pe-riod and follow the delay through theschedule. If an activity is delayed into in-terfering float or past its right bracket (LF),follow the results of the delay through therest of the schedule. (An activity delayedinto interfering float will delay another activ-ity but will not delay the project duration. )

tivity to delay is to choose the activity

B-2

Identify all activities that logically followthe delayed activity. The numbers ofthe follow-on activities are shown in pa-rentheses behind the number of the de-layed activity (those activities that can-not begin until the delayed, dependentactivity is complete). For example, activ-ity 25(40,55) indicates that activities 40and 55 logically follow activity 25, andthey may or may not be affected by thedelay of activity 25. Check each ofthese follow-on activities to see if its ES

time precedes the new EF time of the re-cently delayed activity. If so, delay thatfollow-on activity's ES until the firsttime period after the EF of the activitywhich had been delayed for resources.Subsequently, check activities 40 and55 and the follow-on activities of 40 and55 for possible effects. This pattern con-tinues until all conflicting follow-on ac-tivities are delayed into free float.

Step 4. Sum the resources. After followingthe delay through the schedule, determinethe new total resource requirement for eachtime period.

Step 5. Proceed to the next time period.Move to the next time period where requiredresources exceed the resources available. Re-peat steps 2 through 4 above until the entireschedule has been adjusted to meet the re-source limitations.

Step 6. Identity the cause of the delay. Ifan activity was delayed for resources at anytime, place an "R" to the right of its LFbracket (see Figure B-1 ). If an activity wasdelayed because of logic only (because it logi-cally follows a previously delayed activity),place an "L" to the right of its LF bracket. Ifan activity was delayed for both resourcesand logic (for example, an activity which waslogically delayed because of a resource-de-layed activity and then later further delayedbecause, of resources), mark the activity as aresource delay.

Step 7. Draw the resouree flow arrow(s).Each resource-delayed activity is immediatelypreceded by an activity(ies) that uses thesame resource and has an EF time that isone time period before the resource-delayedactivity begins. This activity(ies), when cou-pled with "mothballed" resources, will oftenprovide sufficient resources to start the workthe next time period. "Mothballed" resourcesare resources that were not put to work inthe previous time period. (For example, 2trucks were "mothballed" the day that 12trucks are available and only 10 trucks werescheduled for work. ) If two or more activitiesthat use the same resource are scheduled tofinish (EF) during the preceding time period,

Resource Constraining


choose the one which, when coupled with"mothballed" resources from the previoustime period, will provide the least suffient re-source; in other words, avoid resource over-kill. Draw a resource flow arrow(s) from theend of the activity providing the resources tothe beginning of the resource-delayed activ-ity. If no one activity can provide sufficientresources, even when coupled with "moth-balled" resources that were not in use duringthe previous day, draw flow arrows from twoor more ending activities to the start of the re-source-delayed activity.

Figure B-1 is resource constrained down to18 carpenters. Now activity 15(50) is resource-delayed and will begin on time period 5.

Look at the preceding time period (4) for ac-tivities that end there and that use thesame type of resource. Both activities5(60,65) and 10(70) end at time period 4,but only activity 10(70) provides sufficientresources for activity 15(50) to begin.Therefore, activity 10(70) must be com-pleted before activity 15(50) can begin. Inthis example, draw a resource flow arrowfrom the scheduled end (EF) of activity10(70) to the new beginning (ES) of activity15(50).

An activity may require assets from two ormore activities, or one activity may provide as-sets for two or more activities. Figure B-2 is re-source constrained down to 14 scoop loaders.



Activities 25(35) and 30(55 ) are both neces-sary to provide sufficient resources for activ-ity 40 when coupled with two of the threeunscheduled "mothball" resources not usedin time period 7.

PART 2: UPDATE THE LOGIC NETWORKStep 8. Draw the resource dummy arrow.A resource dummy arrow must be added tothe logic network for every resource flow ar-row on the ES schedule. Draw the resourcedummy arrow from the activity(ies) that pro-vide the resources to the activity(ies) that re-ceive the resources. In Figure B-3, activity20 provides resources for activity 30. It isnot necessary to maintain the activity num-bering rules (lower to higher) when addingresource dummy arrows.

Step 9. Conduct a new time analysis.Treat the added resource dummy arrow as alogic arrow, and conduct new forward andbackward passes. The resource dummy ar-row will change some of the early and latestarts and finishes of the nodes in the net-work, and it may cause a change or addi-tion to the critical path(s).

Step 11. Mark time frames. Check theES and LF times in the network for all ac-tivities. If an activity’s ES or LF changed,remark the left and right brackets accord-ingly.

Step 12. Identify float. Recalculate inter-fering float for each activity based on thenew ES and LF times. Update the interfer-ing float ("Xs") on the ES schedule.

This step-by-step procedure will provide asolution to the problem of insufficient num-bers of resources. If this technique resultsin project delays that are unacceptable,there are variations the manager can use toselect activities to delay.

The first variation is to delay an activitythat has already started by splitting the ac-tivity. This option requires that you essen-tially make two activities out of one and re-define the logic network. You must remem-ber to add the new activity to the ES schedule.

The second variation often provides the bet-ter solution to the resource problem. It isto delay an activity that is scheduled to be-gin before the time period in question. Thedelay procedure used is the same, exceptthat the activity delay will be greater thanone time period; therefore, plenty of float isrequired for that activity’s delay.

PART 3: UPDATE THE EARLY STARTSCHEDULE

Step 10. List activities. Activities thatprovided resources will gain new follow-onactivity numbers (in parentheses).

B-4 Resource Constraining


The third variation is a deviation from thesecond priority of step 2 in the resource-constraining process. If a combination ofactivities provides sufficient resources tomeet the constraint and each has plenty offloat, delay each of these activities ratherthan one activity that is critical or nearlycritical.

A project manager can use these techniquesafter he fully understands the basic tech-niques of resource constraining. For anyproject with insufficient resources, the pro-ject manager must ultimately decide whichactivities to delay. An understanding of theintricate interaction between each activitywill enable the manager to make informeddecisions and successfully complete the project.

SAMPLE PROBLEMAs a project supervisor, you developed thelogic diagram and ES schedule shown inFigure B-4, page B-6. During your initialplanning, the number of available squads(14) was the only critical resource. Lateryou were tasked to provide three squads tosupport post cleanup during the same timeperiod. This has reduced the number ofsquads available for the project to 11. Youmust resource constrain the project to 11squads by completing the following tasks:

Resource constrain the ES schedule(Part 1).

Update the logic network (Part 2).

Update the ES schedule (Part 3).Determine if the reduced number ofsquads will affect the project duration.

PART 1After constraining the ES schedule, youfind that there are two resource delays (R)and one logic delay (L), as shown in FigureB-5, page B-7. Activity 15 cannot start un-til the resource from activity 20 becomesavailable. When delayed, activity 15 movesinto interfering float. This causes a logic de-lay of three days for activities 35 and 40.(Activity 45 is unaffected. ) When timeperiod 6 is constrained, you find that activ-ity 40 must be delayed one additional dayfor insufficient resources. Although activity40 was initially delayed due to logic, it will

receive an "R" delay. The resource neededfor activity 40 must come from activity 30.

PART 2The two resource flow arrows are incorpo-rated into the logic network by drawingdashed arrows and a superimposed "R", asshown in Figure B-6, page B-7. This estab-lishes two new paths in the network andchanges the time analysis. Whereas the oldcritical path consisted of nodes 25 and 55,there is now an additional critical path con-sisting of nodes 20, 15, 35, and 55.

PART 3A new ES schedule must incorporate thechanges which were made in the logic net-work. After updating the activity numbers(step 10), time frames (step 11), and floatcalculations (step 12), you prepared an ESschedule as shown in Figure B-7, page B-8.Activities 20 and 30 changed follow-on ac-tivities. Time frames (ES and/or LF)changed for activities 15, 20, 35, and 40.Interfering float calculations, however, didnot change for the activities with float (ac-tivities 10, 30, 40, 45, and 55).

You have now constrained the resources forthis project. Three additional activities (15,20, and 35) have become critical. None ofthe changes resulted in any activity beingdelayed beyond its LF (right bracket).Therefore, the project duration will notchange.



USE OFOff-the-shelf project management softwareis available which will automatically con-

COMPUTERSwhere the highest priority is usually toavoid extending the overall project duration.

strain or cross-level resources. However, in It is highly recommended that military man-order to market this software to a broad agers manually use the 12-step constrain-spectrum of users, the programs generally ing process listed above, even when using ause criteria to resource constrain that is computer program.not acceptable for military construction



CONVERSION FACTORS APPENDIX C

Conversion Factors C-1


C-2 Conversion Factors


C-4 Conversion Factors


TYPICAL PLANT LAYOUTS A P P E N D I X D

Typical Plant Layouts D-1


D-2 Typical Plant Layouts


Typical Plant Layouts D - 3


Typical Plant Layouts D-5


EQUIPMENT AND TOOL CHECKLIST A P P E N D I X E

Cement finishing towelsWooden or metal floatsEdgersJointersConcrete mixerTransmit mix trucksBatch plantWeighing devicesHoisting equipmentWheelbarrowBelt conveyorScaffoldingHeating equipment (cold weather)Transportation equipmentCuring equipment requiredBoots and gloves, kneepadsVibrator (air-gas-elect)Hand tools for formingSledge hammersPicksTrenching equipment

CONCRETE WORK

Brick towelsLine and line holdersBrick hammersPointing trowelsMason's levels (4-foot)Block saw and replacement bladeJoint finishing toolsScaffoldingMortarboardsMixing bins or boxesMortar hoesShovels

Hand levelsPliersShovels

(4-foot, 2-foot, and so forth)

Rules (6-foot)Aggregate production equipmentCement storage requirementsPumps (keep excavations free from water)Mechanical finishing trowelsConcrete pumpGunite machineWater hoseSubbase compaction equipmentWrecking barsPry barsConcrete paving machinePointing or cleaning requirementsPower tools for formworkGrinding toolsField office requirements

MASONRYMortar mixerPliers or side cuttersSquares (framing)Rules (6-foot)Tapes (50- or 100-foot)Water hose or barrelsTransportation equipment

Equipment and Tool Checklist E-1

FM 5-412 PROJECTED MANAGEMENT

Folding rules (6-foot)Leather gloves and jackknifeSide-cutting pliers (7-inch)Tape measure (50-foot)Bolt cutter (24-inch)Hoisting equipment as requiredClaw hammerOxyacetylene cutting equipmentArc-welding equipmentPortable benderHickeySet of blocks 3/4-inch manila line

REINFORCING BARS

Hoisting equipmentScaffolding requirementsTrowelsMarginPointingPipeAnglePlasterer’sBrushesBrowningFinishToolStraightedgesDarbiesHawksMixing machine

BrushesSpray gunHoses (air-paint)CompressorScaffoldingDrop clothsPaintpotsSafety equipmentGogglesFace maskSafety maskTransportation equipmentHoisting equipmentPutty knives

Snatch block (for hand hoisting)Transportation equipmentSand screensFloatsRubberCorkAngleWoodenCarpetCuring or drying equipmentElectric blowers, fan, and so forth

PLASTERWheelbarrowMortarboardsPliers, shears, bolt cutters, and so forth for

metal lathHand tools for wood lathMechanical plastering machineMaterial storage requirementsTransportation equipmentSafety equipment such as gloves and

gogglesWater hose or pailsTransportation equipmentExpansion bitField-office requirementsStorage-area requirements

PAINTPaint scrapersWire brushesDusting brushesSanders (hand power)Storage requirements (tarps and so forth)Field-office requirementsSpare parts for spray equipmentHose fittingsPaint gun extensionPaint mixerWrenches

E-2 Equipment and Tool Checklist


Hammers and handlesSaws, crosscut, rip, keyhole,

and compassRipping chiselsWood chiselsBrace and bitsSquares, framing, “T,” and combinationPlumb bobHand levelsScrewdriversFilesSharpening stonesWrecking barsPliers . . . . .Rules (6-foot)Tapes (50- and 100-foot)DividersHatchetsNail aprons

CARPENTRY

At least one brake, 16-gage capacity1 slip roll for cylindrical work1 shear, 16-gage capacity1 sheet-metal forming machine1 drill press1 electrial hand shearHand electrical drill with twist drillsHand tools per workerToolbox with:

Combination square (12-inch)Steel tape (6-foot)Chisel, coldPunch centerRivet sets (set)Hand groover (set)

Arc welding machines(such as-accessories with hand tools)

Welder for shop can be permanent(electrical drive)

Oxyacetylene welding and cutting ouffitsViseAnvilForgeGrinding wheel (stationary)Drill press with complete set drill bits

PencilsHacksawsPower equipmentRadial arms sawTable sawJointersPlanersShapersDrill pressGrindersChain sawsRoutersPortable electrical hand sawsSandersAdzesSledge hammersWrenchesScaffoldingHoisting equipment

SHOP

DividerScratch awlEdge scribeScrewdriverPliers, combinationFilePunch set (hand)SnipsWood malletBall peen hammerSetting hammerSoldering ironHacksawVise grip pliersTransportation equipment (crew materials)

WELDING

Electric hand drill with complete set drillbits

Protective equipmentGloves (leather gauntlet)Leather jacketsLeather apronsArc welding hoods (with clear and color lens)Acetylene welding goggles

(with clear and color lens)Face shields (clear for grinding)



EARTH WORK

Dump trucksPower shovelsDraglinesGraderRollers (grid-sheepsfoot, wobble wheel)CranesQuarry equipmentCompressorRock drillsRock dumpsCrusherDozersScrapersPushcartsLubrication truck (field)Water truckBackhoeDitcherEarth auger

GradersAsphalt plantDump trucksAsphalt paverSteel-wheel rollerConcrete paverConcrete spreaderConcrete finisherTransit mix trucksConcrete mixersCrusherQuarry equipmentCompressorRock drillsStake trucksForkliftsFront-end loader

BlockClimbing gearBrace bitsHammersLineman’s bag (tool)Center punchesPliers, long-nose

RipperJeepFuel truckLight standards and generatorsSpare parts and tiresSpare cablesAir and water hoseLow-bed trailers and tractorsStake trucksHigh-bed trailers and tractorsField-office equipmentStorage-area materialsTransportation equipment:

BusesStakesPickupsJeeps

Operator’s manualsRepair parts manuals

PAVEMENT WORKDozersRollers for compactionCranesRepair partsField-office requirementsTransportation equipmentStorage requirementsSweeper, streetWater truckWater and air hoseHand levelsMiscellaneous hand tools for stake settingAggregate drying plantAggregate washing facilitiesOperator’s manualsRepair parts manuals

OVERHEAD ELECTRICAL LINESPliers, lineman’sFire potLineman’s glovesSafety strapRubber glovesWrenchesKnives

E-4 Equipment and Tool Checklist


Plier, diagonalScrewdriversToolboxesEquipment requirementsStorage requirementsLaddersGogglesLighting equipmentSaws, electrical, hand

Plier’s diagonalPlier’s lineman’sPliers, long-noseRules (6-foot)ScrewdriversLineman’s tool bagWrenchesClaw hammersBrace and bitsAuger bitsKeyhole and compass sawFilesSoldering ironsElectrician’s knives

Chain sawsLine truckShovelsPole spikesAuger truckRules (6-foot)Tapes (50-foot, 100-foot)Rope

INTERIOR WIRINGWire tapesCircuit hickeysBlowtorchFire potLadleTesting equipmentCrosscut sawScaffolding materialsStorage requirementsSafety gearTransportation requirementsToolboxesTool belts

SOIL PIPE AND INTERIOR PLUMBINGOil canCold chiselsRound-nose chiselsHacksaw bladeHalf-round file, bastard, 10-inchHandle, fileHacksaw frame, adjustableSaw net, keyhole and compassPliers, slip (8-inch)Hammer, clawHammer, ball (1 1/2 pound)Hammer handle (14-inch)Wrench pipe (18-inch)

Igniters (acetylene torch)Marking crayon (soapstone)Wire brushChipping hammerFiles of various types and sizesScrewdriversHacksaw with bladesSquare, combination

Wrench pipe (10-inch)Wrench pipe (14-inch)ScrewdriversHandle, hammer, machineMechanic’s toolboxLevel, 2-plumb adjustment (28-inch)Rule, wood folding (72-inch)Wire brushShear, type “D”Reamer, pipe burringCutter, pipe (4 x 6)Cutter, pipe (1/8- to 2-inch)Star drills, 1 set

TOOLSSquare, framingSquare, triCold chiselsCenter punchCrescent wrenches

Chain hoist"C" clamps (various sizes)


PROJECTED MANAGEMENT FM 5-412

CONSUMPTION FACTORS FOR

EXPENDABLE SUPPLIES A P P E N D I X F

NailsFraming

8-penny common1O-penny common16-penny common

Sheathing (8-penny common)Flooring (8-penny common)Roofing (8-penny common)Wallboard (6-penny common)4-penny finish6-penny finish8-penny finish

MortarBlock (8 X 16) - 3/8 joint4-inch wall8-inch wall12-inch wall

Brick (2 1/4 x 8) - 3/8 joint4-inch wall8-inch wall12-inch wall

Structure tile (12 X 12) - 3/8 joint4-inch wall8-inch wall12-inch wall

Putty for Glass8 x 1 210 X 1612 x 2014 X 2416 X 28

CaulkingPrimerCompound ( 1/2 x 1 /2)

PaintingMetalEnamelZinc whiteWhite lead

5 lb/thousand bd ft measure15 lb/thousand bd ft measure10 lb/thousand bd ft measure30 lb/thousand bd ft measure30 lb/thousand bd ft measure

30 lb/thousand bd ft measure15 lb/1,000 sq ft trim3 lb/1,000 lin ft7 lb/1,000 lin ft14 lb/1,000 lin ft

0.1 cu yd/100 blocks0.2 cu yd/100 blocks0.3 cu yd/100 blocks

0.3 cu yd/1,000 brick0.4 cu yd/1,000 brick0.4 cu yd/1,000 brick

0.2 cu yd/100 tile0.3 cu yd/100 tile0.5 cu yd/100 tile

0.6 lb/pane0.8 lb/pane0.9 lb/pane1.1 lb/pane1.4 lb/pane

2 gal/1,000 lin ft13 gal/1,000 lin ft

0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft

Consumption Factors for Expendable Supplies F-1

FM 5-412

woodEnamelZinc WhiteWhite leadVarnishFlatGloss

Brick, Concrete, PlasterEnamelZinc WhiteWhite leadVarnishFlatGlossSizePrimerCalcimine

F-2

0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.3 gal/l00 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.3 gal/100 sq ft

0.2 gal/l00 sq ft0.3 gal/l00 sq ft0.4 gal/100 sq ft0.2 gal/100 sq ft0.3 gal/100 sq ft0.4 gal/l00 sq ft0.3 gal/100 sq ft0.3 gal/100 sq ft0.4 gal/l00 sq ft

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Consumption Factors for Expendable Supplies


GLOSSARY

AR

5TAAHTOAFCSAFPAM

ASMEASTMATTNbdB.I.bldgBLHBnBOMBTUCHCLcoCPMCPTcudDADDdureaeffEFENEngrequipment hours

ESFFFFMfrftgalGCGMGP

5-ton truckAmerican Association of State Highway and TransportationArmy Facilities Components SystemAir Force PamphletArmy regulationAmerican Society of Military EngineersAmerican Society for Testing and Materialsattentionboardblack ironbuildingmanufacturer’s model identificationbattalionbill of materialsBritish thermal unitclays, high compressibility (LL > 50)clay, low compressibility (LL < 50)companycritical path methodcaptaincubicpennyDepartment of the ArmyDepartment of Defensedurationeacheffort, efficientearly finishengineerengineer

Officials

Productive hours of an item of equipment; not the hours shown on theequipment’s hour meter.early startFahrenheitfree floatfield manualfromfeetgallonclayey gravelsilty gravelpoorly graded gravel

Glossary Glossary-1


GWG.V.hphrIFinLlbLFlinLLLOCLSMAJMARCMHminMLMOmphNCONCOICNo.OCOHOJTOLPECSPIBPltprprefabpsipsigPVCquantRRSTS3SCscp ldrssecSEESFSLSMSOPSPSQsqSTDSWTCMS

well-graded gravelgalvanizedhorsepowerhourinterfering floatinchlogic delaypoundlate finishlinearliquid limitlines of communicationlate startmajorManpower Requirements Criteriasilt, high compressibility (LL > 50)minutesilt, low compressibility (LL < 50)Missourimiles per hournoncommissioned officernoncommissioned officer in chargenumberon centerorganic soil, high compressibility (LL > 50)on-the-job trainingorganic soil, low compressibility (LL < 50)packaged expendable contingency supplyproceeded immediately byplatoonpairprefabricatedpounds per square inchpounds per square inch gaugepolyvinyl chloridequantityresource delayreinforced steel tieOperations and Training Officer (US Army)slow curingscoop loaderssecondsmall emplacement excavatorsheepsfootscoop loadersilty sands and poorly graded sand-silt mixturestanding operating procedurepoorly graded sandsquadsquarestandardwell-graded sandTheatre Construction Management System

Glossary Glossary-2


TM

TOT

TF

TOTOE

TPHUSUSAESVolwyd#

Glossary

total floattechnical manualtheater of operationstable(s) of organization and equipmenttotaltons per hourUnited StatesUnited States Army Engineer Schoolvolumewattyardnumber

Glossary-3


REFERENCES

Sources UsedThese are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.

Military Publications

AR 570-2, Manpower Requirements Criteria (MARC) - Tables of Organization and Equipment,15 May 1992.

FM 5-34. Engineer Field Data. 14 September 1987.FM 5-410. Military Soils Engineering. 23 December 1992.FM 5-430-00-1/AFPAM 32-8013, Vol 1. Planning and Design of Roads, Airfields, and Hell-

ports in the Theater of Operations: Volume 1, Roads. To be published within six months.FM 5-742. Concrete and Masonry. 14 March 1985.TM 5-301-1. Army Facilities Components System - Planning (Temperate). 27 June 1986.TM 5-301-2. Army Facilities Components Sysstem - Planing (Tropical). 27 June 1986.TM 5-301-3. Army Facilities Components System - Planning (Frigid). 27 June 1986.TM 5-301-4. Army Facilities Components System - Planning (Desert). 27 June 1986.TM 5-302-1. Army Facilities Components System: Design, Volume 1. 28 September 1973.TM 5-302-2. Army Facilities Components System: Design, Volume 2. 28 September 1973.TM 5-302-3. Army Facilities Components System: Design, Volume 3, 28 September 1973.TM 5-302-4. Army Facilities Components System: Design, Volume 4. 28 September 1973.TM 5-302-5. Army Facilities Components System: Design, Volume 5. 28 September 1973.TM 5-303. Army Facilities Components System - Logistic Data and Bill of Materiel. 01 June

1986.TM 5-304. Army Facilities Components System User Guide. 1 October 1991.TM 5-331D. Utilization of Engineer Construction Equipment Volume D-1 Asphalt and Concrete

Equipment. April 1969.TM 5-337-1. Asphalt Plant Layout 100 to 150-TPH. 29 March 1971.TM 5-744. Structural Steelwork. 10 October 1968.TM 55-503. Marine Salvage and Hull Repair 13 July 1966.

Nonmilitary Publications

Covey, Stephen R. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Simon and Schuster, 1989,Covey Leadership Center, 1-800-331-7716.

Documents NeededThese documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

DA Form 2028.DD Form 1723.

Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. February 1974.Flow Process Chart. September 1976.

References References- 1


INDEX

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FM 5-41213 JUNE 1994

By Order of the Secretary of the Army

GORDON R. SULLIVANGeneral, United States Army

Chief of Staff

Official:

MILTON H. HAMILTONAdministrative Assistant to the

Secretary of the Army06568

DISTRIBUTION:Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be published in accordance with DA Form 12-11-E,requirements for FM 5-412, Project Management (Qty rqr block no. 0015).

★ U. S. G. P. 0.:1994-528-C127:80134

PIN: 072614-000

army - fm5 412 - project managment

Documents

covers geographical areas

poorly draining soils

cubic yards hauled

family housing unit

typical plant layouts

drop horizontal siding

includes pulling cable

late finish times