Basics in Arrangitrg

Paris Rutherford

Fall 1999

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BASICS IN ARRANGINGO 1998 Paris Rutherford

CHAPTER I . SIMPLE ARRANGEMENTS

STEP ONE: GETTING STARTED

Tune Select ion . . . . . . . . .1. Sheet Music and Fake Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . z

Start ing To Work . . . . . . .4

STEP TwO: MELODY - I

Simple Analysis 5Melodic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Adapt ing The Melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Tune Wri t ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

STEP THREE: HARMONY. 1

Analyzing The Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Fundamental Bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Chord Subst i tutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

STEP FOUR: HORNS - I

Typical Combinat ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Transpositions

STEP FIVE: RHYTHM . 1

Function Of RhythmComposite Rhythm Part

STEP SIX: WRITING FORMATS

Two-line SketchPart Extraction

CHAPTER II - THE SMALL GROUP

STEP ONE: SIMPLE FORMS

Song Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43ABAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43AABA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44Outer Form . . . . . . . . . . . .46

STEP TWO: MELODIC DEVELOPMENT

Adding Notes (Non Harmonics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Embel l ishing A Melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Compositional . . . . . . . . . . .51

STEP THREE: HARMONIZATION

Harmonic Color . . . . . . .55Reharmonization ... . 55Target Chords ... . . . . . . 58Adding To The Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

37

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STEP FOUR: HORNS AND HARMONIC DENSITY

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Horn CombinationsHarmonic DensitY

6364

STEP FIVE: RHYTHM SECTION

Funct ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73lndiv idual Rhythm Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

STEP SIX: MEDIUM FORMATS

Ful l Sketches . . . . . ' . . 75The Ful l Score ' . ' . ' . . ' 80

APPENDIX (begins on page . . . . . . ' . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ' t

App. 1 Standard Tunes, bY song form.

App. 2 Scales and Modes

App. 3.1 Jazz Nomenclature

App. 3.2 Jazz Chord

App. 3.3 Add Chord

App. 4.1 Instrument Ranges

Agp. 4.2 DensitY Levels

App. 4.3 Voice Leading

App. 5 Rhythm Section lnstruments, grooves.

App. 6 Laying Out A Chart (p/us business)

App. 7 Transcriptions:

7.1 Dolphin Dance'l.Z Black Orpheus7.3 Down In The Depths7.4 Stella By Starlight7.5 Night Dreamer'1 .6 Reunion'1.7 Black Nile7.8 Contents Under Pressure7.9 Au Lait (Metheny)

7.10 In Case You Missed It7.l l King Cobra7.12 Devil 's Island7.13 You Don't Know What Love Is7.14 Day In Vienna7.15 Cathay7.16 Postcards7.11 Skylark7.18 Wildflower7.19 Intrigue7.20 Indigo7.21 Anthem7.22 Stolen Moments7 .23 Sho 'Nuff Did

Index 126

CHAPTER ONE:SIMPLE ARRANGEMENTS

STEP ONE: GETTING STARTED 1A: TUNE SELECTION (this page)1B: SHEET MUSIC (see page 2)lC: STARTING TO WORK (see page 4)

To arranging music is to adapt it to a specific style, or to prepare it for performance by aspecific ensemble. Adjustments may be needed in the melody or the harmony; theoriginal key may be unsuitable; tempo may need to be determined, to fit the rhythmpatterns of a chosen style. A chart for small or large band will certainiy involvevoicings for the horns. The list goes on: these are some of the decisions that must bemade by an arranger.

Basic arranging should avoid adjustments, though, that actually alter a tune in theprocess! The successful arrangement enhances the original without treading on thecomposition itself. Obviously, arranging can become quite subjective.

1A: TUNE SELECTION

The first step in arranging is selecting the right tune, or becoming thoroughlyacquainted with one that might be pre-selected for you. If the choice is yours:

1. Select your tune from "standard repertoire". (Standards have been proveneffective, through hundreds of arrangements for great recordings and liveperformances.) Pick one that you know well. Appendix L contains lists ofa few older standards, any of which might fit your need. They are groupedaccording to their song forms.

2. Select a tune in which there is room for expressing some ideas of your own.A tune written with lyrics may have fewer actual notes; removal of the lyricsmay increase the room you have for expressing yourself.

3. Avoid extremes in tempo, rhythmic/harmonic complexities, etc., whenfirst using any technique or concept. You can stretch out later.

Working materials Good tunes come in many different formats, each with its owninherent problems. The next few pages show some common ways that tunes areprinted, copied, or in other ways made available to the writer.

Procedures- I

18: SHEET MUSIC

Sheet music is the retail printed version of published music. Sheet music, whethersold singly or in a collection, appears in a 3-line format. Melody, chord symbols andlyric appear on the top line, a simple piano arrangement on the bottom two lines.O^ly the original sheet music version of a song is reliable to furnish the entire song asintended by the composer.

Three-line versions (sheet music) show the harmonization of a tune two ways: chordsymbols (above the melody) and the written piano arrangement. In the sheet music ofmany older tunes, the chord symbols frequently disagree with the piano arrangement.If the chord symbol doe.s not show a change of bass, then when the lead line isseparated from the rest of the print, the changes will be wrong. (A problem with olderfakebooks)

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Procedures-l

Chord symbols correctly reflect the changes foundin the original piano chart. Compare the two.versions; note the changed-bass nomenclature.

Fake Books - volumes containing a wide selection of tunes, usually in the form oflead sheets or lead lines, extracted from the sheet music. Older fakebooks are illegal (noroyalties paid the copyright owners), and the changes need scrutiny. \ewe1

"legal"

fakebooki are somewhat less of a problem, and are good for the publisher. But, due tothe overall choice of tunes, most legal fakebooks are less appealing to the iazz crowd.

The Real Book - fakebooks designed to appeal more to the jazz community. Most ofthe leadsheets contained in these editions have changes that follow well-knownrecordings. The logic is great: if you like the changes, fine - if you don't, talk to theartist who recorded them! Real Books have long been the staple f.or jazz musicians.

Transcriptions - the best answer of all! By quickly transcribing a tune that you want toarrange, from a performance you enjoy hearing, you improve your ears, you horywhere the rhythms and changes came from, and you give your ear/hand/eye combosome good workouts.

pg3

hocedures-l

lC: STARTING TO WORK

e The lead sheet Provide yourself with a clean lead sheet of the tune you are aboutto arrange. (See pp. 20 and 53.) The best lead sheet is one that you copy yourselfonto full size, 1O-line paper. This will give you room to write some of your earlierideas as they occur to you. Full size paper (9x12") is available in most musicstores that sell printed music, particularly the bookstores that service college anduniversity music programs. It is available in single sheets (pads of 40 or 50) andin double folds (sold most economically by the quarter or half ream.

. Learning at the piano Even if you are not a pianist, keyboard is the very bestinstrument on which to develop your tune. Pianos and synthesizers give youaccess to the entire range of octaves. Writers who are not primarily keyboardistscan soon develop reasonable "piano chops" for use in writing. This is called"arranger's piano" - the ability to play the changes with interesting alterations,to find horn voicings easily, and to keep reasonable time while using simplevoicings.)

While learning the tune, experiment with melody and changes separately.This is called "working the tune". (Step Chapter II, Step 1.)

. Sketching and materials Sketching means that you write down some of theinteresting ideas from early stages of experimentation. Write down the ideas thatappeal to you, as they occur. Use 2-line systems (even if you are working only themelody), to make room for harmonic ideas that occur to you later. Keep your firstsketches in a folder, together with the lead sheet.

Sketching should generate more material than you need. Save only the best: asyou become more fluent you will automatically pick up speed in the creativeprocess. This is also true for musicians who write computers or at a keyboardwith an inboard sequencer.

The aalue in sketching first, then writing or computing, is one of efficiency.You cannot use eaery good idea you haue. It is good to work out some of the earlystages of deueloping an idea before deciding whether to continue with it. Thesketching process will help you saae time and energy.

Awareness of fonn Every standard will have a good musical form. If you arecomposing your own tune, it should be written to a recognizable songform aswell. Working with simple song forms will enable you to make best use of yourtime.You may also gain further insight by playing (or listening to) songs with thesame song form as the tune you are writing.

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STEP TWO: MELODY

2A SMPLE ANALYSIS (this page)28 ADAPTING A MELODY (page 16)2C BASIC TUNE WRITING (page t8)

Melody is the ingredient which establishes the identity of music. Melody is mostresponsible for the memorability and success of a tune. This is not to discount theimportance of harmony and orchestration. Success in writing music, though, can be'no greater than the writer's ability to handle melody.

The art of writing and arranging melody begins with the analysis of great tunes.

2A SIMPLE ANALYSIS

Analysis of music is the study of its various elements. Musicians analyze music forthe purpose of learning from the successes (and failures) of those that precededthem. Analysis in this area is kept simple, and limited to melody.

Simple melodic analysis may be divided into three broad areas:

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE (2A-1, page 5)

Most music is constructed with phlsss that end with cadences. Melody ismade coherent and memorable through the use of devices developers. andall hanes toeether in a musical form.

ANALYSIS OF IMPLIED HARMONY (2A-2, page 12)

A melody, while in motion, will express a sense of harmony. This impliedharmony may or may not be the same as the harmonization written by thecomposer as an accompaniment.

ANALYSIS OF CHARACTER (2A-3, page'J,4)

All melody is either active (vertical) or passive (horizontal). Good tunes profitfrom a deliberate combination of both characteristics, carefully placed to givethe desired emotional effect.

Melody-l

2A-"1.. STRUCTURE describes the way a piece of music is held together. The mostbasic strucfural devices are phrases, cadences, developers. musical form.

PHRASES: A phrase is the shortest section of melody that feels complete. The mostcommon phrase length is four bars. Four bar phrases combine into eight bar sectionswhich are called double phrases or periods. A phrase normally ends with a longernote, or a more pronounced rest, before the melody proceeds. This break in motion(cadence) allows the music to "breathe".

Periods (or double phrases) are the primary eight-bar building blocks for a standardlength 32-bar tune. Formally, these periods are identified by letter names accordingto the simple song forms: AABA, ABAB, etc.

The pause (or breath) at the end .... than the pause (or breath) atof an 8-bar section will be more the end of its first 4-bar phrase.pronounced...

. If breathing is slighted (or inadequate), music will feel forced or busy.

. If pauses are too long or pronounced, though, melodic flow is damaged.

(The letters above appear for demonstration of form and are not those found in theindividual parts of performance-ready charts, called "rehearsal letters" - forcommunication and location during rehearsal, and having little to do with theactual form of the tune being played.)

8 BARS

pg6

Melody-l

CADENCES are combinations of notes, chords, and rests that slow the movement ofmusic, thus causi.g u sense of pause. Some cadences are shorter, some longer,depending on size or complexity of the music being sectioned. Cadences occur inharmony, melody, rhythm and texture.

In Step 2, we deal only with harmonic and melodic cadences.

HARMONIC CADENCES are chord progressions that slow or stop the feeling offorward movement in harmony. Cadences occur at the ends of phrases and periods.We use four harmonic cadences: half. full. modal and deceotive.

The half cadence uses a ii-V or tV-V progression. With the half cadence, the musicpauses (and breathes) but moves on. Music following a half cadence will feel like acontinuation of what went before.

. Half cadence

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The full cadence uses a V-I or vii-I progression. Movement stops when a fullcadence is used. Material that follows a full cadence will feel like the beginning of anew section.

. Full cadence

The modalmodal and

. Modalcadence

cadence is a IV-I progression. The music pauses, but with a sound that issomewhat "bluesy"

The deceptive cadence moves not from V to I, but from V to vi. (In jazz application,a deceptive cadence may also move from [V to iii, and on.) Harmonic motion feelsas if it should "tun:r around"- deceptiae describes the effect well, These cadences canbe used to briefly postpone the use of a full cadence.

o Deceptivecadence

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Melody-l

On page 9, cadences in "Stella By Starlight" are identified and labelled. Plav thisexample at the piano! Listen to how the cadences work.-

o fu bars 1.-2, and 17-1.8, the ii-V progressions are not cadential. but provide goodforward motion.

The full cadence in bar 6 and 7 proceeds to a minor IV chord (bar 8) whichProgresses across the double bar to a I chord. The effect is reminiscent of themodal cadence, contributing to the special qualities of "Stella."

The first L6 bars ends with a half cadence. The bridge begins with another ii-Vprogression; since it is the beginning of a section and not a phrase end, the effectis that of generating additional motion.

The ii-V half cadence in bar 28 is borrowed from a different key. The feeling ofhalf cadence is strong, and the harmonic interest is enhanced by this increase inharmonic color.

WHY ARE THESE THINGS IMPORTANT? These cadences provide the great senseof motion felt in this old standard. Cadences L" and 3o act normally, and do not"give away" the unusual progressions to unpredictable key centers. In this way,these normal ii-V cadences help keep the energy level high. The cadence at midtune is predictable, thus lowering the energy appropriately.

Enerw levels-in the typicalAABA tune.

This is a good energy graph for a 32-bar tune. \A/hen arranging, be careful not todamage the energy flow.

pg8

Primary cadences in "Stella

Melody-l

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The melodic cadence is a break in the forward movement of the melod-y toward the

ns&barphrases.(Longernotevalue,orrests.).Notel|atyh:r'Ithemonic cadences oicur separately, the music breathes but keeps

both cadences occur at the same time, the music stoPs'

cadences keep music from moving ahead. Too few cadences

$ s- Choice and placem ent of cadences is influences the

Melody-l

Developers are the, qriryry devices used to de.velop a fragment of melody first intoa coherent phrase, later these phrases into a fuil tune.

The most common developers are repeat, sequence, answer, and mirror.

' *."p":t isjust that: the reuse of a figure, using most of the same notes.("The Girl From Ipanema" develops inis way.f

Note: when a fragment of melody repeats (bars '1,-z, g-4), the chords change.

The sequence is a repeat of the previous phrase or fragment, transposed upor down, usually by only a step. check olt the ru.or,jp"riod of "fio*Insensitive" as it sequences the first period, a step lower.

when a- fragment or phrase sequences up, the energy level escalates a bit.Ih:l the tranposition.is largei than a siep (eithertirection), the energylevel jumps significantly! (See bar 9, below)'

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Melodv-l

The answer is a section of melody completing the thought from a previousphrase or period. The answer may be as short as a fragment, or as l,ong as afull eight-bar period, all depending on the material being answered.

The sense of movement, and the resulting rise in contour, are both strongerfrom an answer than from a repeat. In the following example from "Stella"make note of the different ways tension/release occurs, and its causes.

The mirror is a reuse of melodic material ininverted (mirrored) or reversed (retrograde).tension than a simple repeat.

which intervals are eitherThe mirror produces more

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Melodic motion from bar 1 into bar 2 is inverted for bar 3 into bar 4.The use of different rhythms adds interest, and doesn't damage the mirror.

Augmentation and dirninution are opposites. A melody is augmentedwhen resued with doubled note values. Diminution occurs in reusewhen note values are reduced (usually by 50Vo). Augmentation anddiminution are valuable tools, but are not part of simple arranging.

answer (consequent)

pg l1

Melody-1

LA-L.IMPLIED HARMONY (and Musical Tension)

Every melodv suggests a sense of harmony as it moves.....

... and all music has a level of tension. (excitement and/or expectation)Higher tension results from unexpected or opposing ideas. The composer/arrangerbuilds and releases tension to create an interesting product.

Harmony implied by a melody may or may not be the same harmony found inthe chord progressions that come with the song. Implied harmony is expressed fourways, as demonstrated on page 12.

o When the implied harmony agrees with the chord changes, tension is low. Theeffect is calm and consonant. (Good for beginnings and cadence areas in jazz andpop music, and for music needing a simple, childlike quality.)

. When the implied harmony differs from the changes, tension increases. Theenergy level and interest go up. (Good for contemporary jazz, even fordeveloping the phrase structures in music requiring lower tension levels.)

Implied hannony agrees withthe changes. Lowest tension.

Implied harmony difreEg from the

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In the above example, the implied harmony of thein bars 1 and 2; the resulting tension level is low.4, resulting in a rise in tension.

melody agrees with the changesThey begin to differ in bars 3 and

pg 12

MelodY-l

Implied harmony is expressed through . . .

Stepwise movement beginning on or approaching a strong beat.(Identify the scale - it becomes the implied harmony for that area of melody.)

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A broken chord or arpeggio. (Analysis is made according to any position of thechord: root or inversion.)

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Appoggiaturas and escape notes (The outer two of three notes will suggest a chord)

Any of the above, when out of sequence or obscurred by too many notes. (Too manystepwise notes obscures the analysis. Find repetitions or a single leap; analyzeaccordingly.

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Application: In iazz, agreement between implied harmony and the actual changes isusually not a good idea. Tension levels are too low. Use subs to move the bass linearound a bit.

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Melody_l

2A-3 CHARACTER. A melody line is said to be either active or static.

Active describes ";i.]"1t

*,"d.: up. of skips and./or sudden changes of register.o An active melody moves betteiin uniions (or 8ves) than whe"n chorded.Example: "In Case you Missed It" - See Appendix Z.

NOTE: Rhythmic complexity alone does not classifu a melody as,'actiue,,.Leaps, abript changes'o7 reiister, etc., must also occur.

static i"s the opposite of active. A static tune (or a portion of the tune) is one inwhich the movement is mostry stepwise, and/or J.,rtuir,"d.' voicings feel "more at home" on static

Tg.lodl than on one with more activity.Example: "You Don't Know rA/hat Love Is', - see Appendix 7.13

However, a static tune can also sound good withunison, preferably in the lower ranges.Example: "Black Orpheus" - See Alpendix 2.02

unisons, when played by a color

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Melodv-l

28: ADAPTING A MELODY

Adapting a melody is the simplest form of arranging, and involves only four steps:

1) Determine the style in which the tune should be played.2) Select the best key for the circumstances.3) Makg simple adjustments to the melodic rhythm (if needed) to put it into

the desired sfyle.4) CoPy (or print) the material accurately for the performers. (Transposed, if

transposing instruments are to be involved. See Step 6, this chapter.)

When adapting is all that the arranger needs to do, it may be accomplished in amatter of minutes. The tune need not be altered at all, and will only be played once.When the project calls for a chart that is more involved, the arranger should stillbegin with these same three steps.

SELECTING THE BEST KEY (28-2)

Place the range of the tune (distance from top to bottom notes) within the averageplaying range of your top or lead horn. For average playing ranges, see Appenaix a.

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If there is room within the span. locate the tune closer to the bottomof the average playing range if the lead is a higher horn (trumpet, alto sax,etc.). Locate the span closer to the top of the average playing range if thelead is a lower horn (tenor sax, trombone, etc.). Then choose the key thatmakes this possible.

Fine tuning the selection of "best key"Brass and Sax players are most experienced playing in keys ranging from one sharpto five flats (concert). Therefore, when choice of concert key is between, say, BbMajor and B Major, the ensemble is most likely to play its best in Bb Major.

pg 16

Melody-l

ADIUSTING THE MELODIC RHYTHM (2B-3)

If your style will be jazz (swing), analyze the melody for rhythmic placement. If toomany strong notes fall "on the beat", move some of them off the beat, thusproviding a looser relationship between melody and accompaniment (bass line).The process of moving notes to unaccented beats is called "syncopation".

Syncopation is a key element in the melodic style of jazz artd jazz-related music. Thedecision of how much to syncopate a melody is influenced by the amount of motionin the accompaniment.

r When music is felt in "2" fewer syncopations are needed than when felt in "4".

o When music is felt in "4", syncopation should keep the melody from hitting thestrong beats in the accompaniment too often.

When properly adjusted to swing, a melody will not line-up perfectly against thebackground, and stay there. There must be a few soulful surprises.

Useful routine for adiusting melodic rhythm, to swing:

1) Locate a phrase containing too manyquarter notes or downbeats. Move itslast note ahead '1./2beat. (The processof moving notes from strong beats toweak beats is called syncopation.)

2) Treat additional bars the same wayuntil you have done eight bars.

Adjust the melodic rhythms in 4-bar segments so there is a good flow.Listen to recordings of uncomplicated small jazz ensemble music: when thearranger syncopates at the wrong time, the style changes. This is not good.

Watch for symmetry (equal motion to the left and right) that damages the goodunpredictability of your melody. Adjust the syncopation to relieve some of theunwanted symmetry.

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pg r7

Melody-1

2C. BASIC TUNE WRITING

Most top jazz performers write at least some of their own material. Yet, the ability towrite a good tune is elusive to many capable musicians. Their primary difficulty isin waiting too long for inspiration, rather than being willing to start with an ideathat can be developed.

Where to start: Most writers begin either with a fragment of melody or an appealingchord progression. There is no set rule, and it may change for you from one day tothe next. Try the following routine:

When beginning to write an original tune

either: begin with an interesting chord progression (3-4 bars at most),Develop it according to guidelines found on the next few pages,but don't go far before you put melody to what you have.

--- or: write a fragment of melodE that appeals to your ear (two bars at most).Begin to develop it using one or more of the of the simple devices foundon page 16. (Developers) Don't go too far before you begin to harmonize!

then: write music! Let the techniques covered so far help you make decisions.(The best selection of a song form is made after you have developed yourfirst material for 8 or 16 bars, not before. At that time, you can refineand rewrite. This process is normal to song writing.)

. The beginning of a goodchord progression maybe as short as this:

. And, a beginning fragment ofmelodv can look like this:

Combined, they form a very brief beginning to a tune. (The fragment isshort enough that it should be reused immediately.)

The first four bar phrase has two positives working for it: 1) the short fragment hasa leap, and is reused immediately, and 2) the intervals between primary melodynotes and bass notes are interesting and aggressive. Note, though, that the tuneitself is not aggressive.

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MelodY-l

Starting with a melodic fragment is usually easier. The fragment should be shortand simple, but should have a quality that calls for immediate reuse of some kind.As you harmonize the first fragment, start with a chord whose bass will provide aninteresting interval relationship to the melody. (7th, 9th, 4th, etc.) But, don't be toodissonant!

Reuse the material. The key to a well written melody is reuse. When melodicmaterial is imitated, then contrasted, it is time to repeat or in some way reuse. Thenumber of options is large: analysis of great tunes will help you locate a model tune,to imitate. this is good business, at first, and unnecessary once you get rolling.

The demo fragment may be developed through the devices shown on PP. 16 EE17.

The fragment has a goodinterval relationship to itsharmony (3rd, 7th, 9th, etc.)

A repeat can call for a change ofharmony. Stay close to the key atfirst, but borrow from other keysas you develop the melody.

The contrasting answer may nowproceed to a different key center.(The first material has been usedand reused adequately by now.)

The second four bars will answer the first four. Since the fragmentshave leaps, the contrasting answer is more step-wise. The contrast betweenleaps and the stepwise movement sets up the need for a cadence and a reuse.

In the 2nd eight bars, a repeatin the melody should be moreaggressive, calling for morecolor in the harmony.

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RESULT: Two similar "A" periods, the second of which has a higher energy level.

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MelodY-l

Two repeating sections of music call for a contrasting area: the bridge. The AABAform, with its bridge, is right for this tune. (The decision to repeat "A" with asimilar 8-bar period calls for the contrast of a bridge, thus the AABA form.)To find the right sounds for an effective "8" bridge, use these measurements:

. If the A sections have an active character, the bridge should be less active.If they were not, then the bridge should be more active.

o If they were both in the same key center (and this is normal),then the bridge should go elsewhere.

o If they stayed in.a mid-range area, the bridge should go higher.

. If the A sections were rhythmic, the bridge may be less so.

This demo bridge will provide needed contrast through the use of leaps and ahigher range. The style is tuneful, though, and stays away from heavy sounds: a

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The return to " A" should begin the same as either of the previous "A" sections.(Usually the second "A", since the higher contour is needed after a bridge.)

The same beginning fragment can be developed many ways. Here are iust two:Dm7 Sbz

Answer flrst, tnen reuse.(sulr aPProPrrare ror a rlrstperiod in a simple song)

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Melody-l

Final version of the demo tune, in AABA form

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pg2r

Melody-l

Opening fragment, developed into a longer idea, for different song form.

When generating material for an ABAB song form, the initial idea should belonger. Two similar 4-bar phrases call for a contrasting answer, thus forming the 16-bar " AB" section of an ABAB. 'When things become difficult, imitate the structureof a model tune you'like.

MODEL: "I REMEMBER APRIL"

F maJT

g7(iet

Original fragment, developed into a 15 bar section,following the logic from "I Remember April"

.+EQIIEIfiCE

IIIII

Harmony-l

STEP THREE: HARMONY-I

ANALYZING THE CHANGES (this page)REHARMONZATION ANDCHORD SUBSTITUION (see page 27 .)

Jazz and popular tunes are written with chord progressions called "the changes."It is the arranger's choice whether to use what is given, or to make adjustments asneeded. Rarely will an arranger leave the originai progressions entirely unchanged.

Before reharmonization comes analysis - for familiarization, and for measuring theamount of harmonic color already present between the tune and its changes. In thenext example, changes represented by the chord symbols suggest a wrong bass line.

"Someone To Watch Over Me"

Thcre's I some - bod - y I'm long-in3 to rcc. I hope thet he Turns out to b€

Chord slmbols in older songs may not show the correct bass morr"m"ti. . *

The changes in bars 2-3 should read: Eb/G - F#'? | Bb?/F - Eo7

The fundamental bass of the changes represented by the generic piano arrangementcontains a descending bass. The chords above are rather plain. If that is okay, thereis no need to adjust. When the level of harmonic color does not fulfill the need,though, reharmonization takes place, involving chords that are more colorful (seepage24), and/or chord substitutes, which effectively alter the bass line. (See page 27.)

Nomenclature is the system of symbols that identify the chord sounds that are used.Letter names and numbers are used to express root, mode, and other importantcharacteristics. See Appendix 3 "Nomenclature".

3A:3B:

EI?

page23

Harmony-l

FUNDAMENTAL BASS

Fundamental bass is a series of notes written to show the bottom notes from a set ofchanges. One note is sustained for each chord, no matter how long it may last.(Fundamental bass is not intended for performance by the bass player, bui is ananalytical tool for the arranger.)

"Have You Met Miss Jones"

Fundamental bass simplifies the analysis of two-part structure.

Two Part Structure

Music with melody and harmony will always have at least two parts moving.Melody is thought of as Part 1 and harmony (in this case the fundamental bals) asPart 2. These two lines have a contrapuntal relationship to each other. That is, theymoJe together but are not allowed to become "tied" to each other. (Except atcadence points, where forward movement is supposed to slow down.)

The intervals between fundamental bass and melody are strategically important.2nds, 9ths, 7ths, are more aggressive than 3rds and Sths, 6ths, and create i highetinterest level. Sths and 8ves are less energetic, and are most useful at beginningsand cadence areas. In more aggressive tunes, they are avoided.

' In the example below, the chords in bar two created Sths between theparts. Chord subs change the Sths to 3ids, for a different sound.

(Miss Jones)A

FU

Substitute to change 5th (top-bottom) to 3rd * Passing tone chord for interest

fundam.entalbass

page24

Harmon.v"-l

The level of harmonic color in jazz is higher than in other popular styles. For mostPurPoses, major and minor triads, major 6th chords, and straight dominant seventhchords are too plain. Shown below are common devices used to colorize harmony,including extensions, suspensions, alterations and changes of bass note.

COMMON COLORING DEVICES

PI,AIN E)(IENDED

1. Extensions are the notes oneadds to chords or hamonies fromthe scale most representative of thechord. A triad is built by stacking3rds. The triad or 7th is extendedby then adding additional Srds.

DOMINANT

2. Suspensiorls, or "sus-chords",are the result of putting the 4th intoa dominant chord and removing the3rd. Suspensions are described bychord symbols that read *sus-4'.

DOMINAIVT AI..|TERED3. Alterations are chromaticchanges made to chords. The mostcommon alterations involve the 5th9th scale degrees. While even a triadmay be altered this way,alterationsusually take over after the chord hasalready been extended.

4. Change-bass describes thechord whose bass note is not its ownroot. Change-bass runs the garnutfrom the common inversion to thehybrid chord (whose bass note isoutside the chord's own key center)

PI,AIN & E)MENDEDEbg BbmajT Dm

CHANGE OF BASS

See Appendix 3 for a detailed coverage of jazz chords.

C7sus4 BbmaiTlC

c7( i l11) c7(be) c+7(ile)

obrcb eb lo orcb

page25

Harmony-l

Determining when to use more colorful chords

When a tune is relatively diatonic (even an aggressive jazz tune), especially if itstempo is high, then the quality of chords used in the changes can remain simple.9ths, 13th, sus chords, etc. are adequate. This is true in most of "Black Nile" -----

BT ACK NILFabr s Ehng alg'.'. FmgEbr 3

Wh..rnegtuttr

E9

abr:

When a iazz tune needs to tell a more modal story, has a slower tempo, or containsa greater number of accidentals, then the quality of chords should be more colorful.Alterations and change-bass are added to the extensions and sus chords in Wayne's"Stella By Starlight" - see also this tune in the Appendix.

DomTaltered

Minorsus-4 andDomT (b5) - -

DomTaltered

Change >bass andsus-4's

I

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

I

Ebs a llsl

page26

Harmony-l

38: REHARMONIZATION AND CHORD SUBSTITUTION

Reharmonization is the process of conforming u set of changes to the requirementsof an arrangement. The process occurs every time an arrangement is written for ajazz group. Normally, two items receive the closest scrutiny: level of harmoniccolor, and the 2-part relationships (bass against melody). Adjustment of color levelmvolves the extensions, alterations, etc.; adjustments in the 2-part structureinvolves chord substitution.

The substitute is a chord which provides the same kind of harmony as (or functionas) the chord which it replaces.

Chord substitutes are used for one of two reasons:

L) The fundamental bass malr cause an unwanted interval against the melody.The use of a "primary chord substitute" will change the fundamental bass,thereby altering the two-part structure of the tune. Basic harmony remains.

SKYIIRKLtEl ' ,EntbE

rr*t)bttCrttrrl

GE7 C!7

r - | l i 5.El . l t

h.LH.

F'

F -.-

El5 Eo7 El?

W-i F{.tr ry bt

r rbr rtc, I

r ta

b* o t ?-jc-r t . t -

L?

b. |E r E.arhc.G tL-. .ard

(lrbt Fo? }7

- rbt c-- ' | rd. t

- L Ht

AdbT BE7

. lb--d.d ht- Al b F b- i l l l ._ br-dtF bJt- . .h

2) The arranger may just want a different sound. The original may be tootoo bland, or it may even be too aggressive and need taming somewhat.The arranger may want for a particular modal sound to prevail.

(nPm>cr*g^e/ Dearlv BelovedJMed. Swing Music bv Jerome Kern

Lvric bv fohnny Mercer

G70^,7 G1 Du,7

Harmony-l

Common Substitutes (primary and secondary) are built over bass notes a third orfifth above or below or below the original note.

1) A primary substitute is baseda third away from the originalchord; they have two notes incommon.

Locating the "subs"

Major chords:Locate the new bass note andselect the right chord over it.The number of common tonesbetween sub and original willinfluence the energy level inthe music.

Minor chords:Locate the new bass note andselect the right chord over it.The number of common tonesbetween sub and original willinfluence the energy level inthe music. There are moreminor scales (than major),so there are more choices ofsubs for minor chords.

Dominant chords:Locate the tritone (#4, b5).Build another dominant(or a diminished 7th chord)containing the same tritone.The "tritone sub" is basedan aug.4th or dim.Sth awayand contains the same tritoneas the original.

2 The secondary substitute has only onenote in common with the original, andis based a fifth awdf , up or down. Theenergy level of a secondary is higher thanthat of a primary.

Cm? Cm1lF

CmajT CmajT/F

keep the sanre riad,change thebassnote

keep the same triad,change the bass note

keep the same tritsne (3rd + ?th)move bass up or dqwn #4 or b5

page28

Other substitutes include the inversions and the change-bass chords.These substitutes tend to be those chosen for choice #2 of "Whv Use Subs?"

Suspensions:-A "suspension" is the sus-4,the dominant whose 3rd isreplaced by the 4th. Thischord updates the sound ofthe harmonic progiession,while leaving bass movementunchanges.

Inversions:For major and minor chords,build the voicing over the 3rdor 5th of the chord. (The onlydifference between a Lst-suband a first inversion is onenote in mid-voicing.)

Changgbass chords:Change-bass chords, in general,are available for substitution, sofar as their bass notes OR theirchord functions meet the needsof the ananger.

Harmonv-1

cg cgs|t. c2 Cgga Fma;?

fuplace the 3rd wit}r the 4th.The chord still sorrrds dominant

Keep the chord and ....to change a melody$ass relationshipmove to ib inver:ion...... without changing the harmony

ct Eal orcgtE E+7le E+le c+f

Dorninant .... bass up a 3rdneeriso mairesmversronctrange.... or the halfdim.

..... sr a riifferent dsmnantchord builtbetvreen thesarte outer notes (C + E)

See Appendix 3: Jazz Chords and Add-Chords

L.t l

t-+

t - ln [o-

page29

DEMONSTRATION OF THE REHARMONIZATION PROCESS.

"AUTUMN LEAVES,"

The original changesare good. The fewadjustments arenumbered andexplainedbelow.

(Original changes)

6maj7

Harmony-l

Em/D Ar6/C

SOLUTIONS (applied on next Page)

(1) Extend or add to the longer triads.(2) Sub to sus-4's and tritone subs.(3) Sub down to change-bass: min' sus4(4) Extend the Em to create new line.(5) Sub down to C6/9, tritone the next bar.(6) Sub 29, delay the Cbass, extend 87.

page 30

IIIIIII

B?

CmajT

^I-

a

PROBLEMS (with the original)

(1) Long triads on strong beats(2) Too many straight dominants(3) Bar 17: octaves in 2-Part.(4) Bars 19 + 20 are boring.(5) Bar 21: octaves in 2-Part.(5) Last 4 bars: cadence too long.

Harmonv-l

"AUTUMN LEAVES'' --- FOLLOWING REHARMOMZATION.

Q! (Extend the trrads)

@ Suspend part of the domnant

($ create sus4 from ong, @; s"U ciown to keep pedat @ extena to create "rnterest hne",-y7 te 67t iet -Enr7/B Bbo? -sm/C D9'c5( Abt( is)

1i;___g;

The C9 is a tritone substitute to the Flf07, thusmaking the appoggiatura even more coherent yet!

wEC

page 3l

I

IIrlrlIIIIIIIIIIIIII

t'

Harmony-l

Final Balance

Finally, it is important for the arranger must see to if that the 2-part scheme (melodyand bass/changes) are well balanced. That is, the harmonization can be as crafty asone is able, but the changes must remain subordinate to the melody.

The following should be true.

1) The changes must flow well. There can be no sudden changes or surprises,regardless of how clever the chord(s) responsible. Unless, of course, thesudden surprise is also present in the original comPoser-changes.

2) The changes must sripport the melod|, and not compete. That is, the amountof color or alteration in the changes should never be greater than the amountof coior or interval energy in the melody itself.

3) The changes must flow with the same scheme as the song form. That is, therise in interest levels caused by substitutions etc. should progress with the form,and not contrarv to the form scheme.

Guidelines for using substitute chords:

1) Play and analyze the tune. Identify cadences or changes thltshould not be altered, e.g., those that are characteristic of thetune itself. Example: the first four bars of "My Funny Valentine"have a characteriitic descending line in the harmony (either inthe bass or above). Be careful of changing this characteristic!

2) Analyze the original changes against the 2-part structure of thetune. Locate inaccurate or awkward chords from this standpoint.

3) Choose substitutions to correct the problems in #2.

4) Choose substitutions also to adjust the level of harmonic color(up or down), as needed

5) Start with lstlevel subs when the tune has a diatonic or gentlequality to if move to 2nd-level or change-bass subs to provide moreliarmonic interest, or to keep the changes from being predictable.

6) Don't oversubstitute!

page32

Horns- I

STEP 4: HORNS IN THE SMALL GROUP (COMBO)

if: TffiSSo3ff"'il^'IoNSInstrumentation for a small group is usually 2 to 3 horns with rhythm section.When there are three or more horns, they are usually mixed. That is, there will be amix of brass and woodwinds.

Mixed horns provide more color, depth, and varief of sound than two or three ofthe same kind of horn. When only two horns are present, the mix may be in termsof instrument type. (Brass, woodwind, etc.) Or it may be in terms of instrumentregister. (High and low homs). In any event, the best mix is that which providesyou the greatest versatility.

. The first simple arrangement should be written for two horns with rhythm.The emphasis is placed entirely on good melodic writing.

. These four combinations of two horns are effective with rhvthm section.

Front Line The homs that play in a small group, or five to six horn band are calledthe "front line". When trumpet is part of a front line, it should be placed on thelead. That is, when the horns are harmonized, trumpet should play the top part.Guitar, while not a wind instrument, is valuable as a doubling member of the frontline. Doubling, in that guitar adds excellent color to unisons. Guitar can also comp,of course, increasing the versatility of that instrument.

Basic Ranges The basic ranges of any instrument are those into which most oftheir music tends to fall. For the first several charts, the wise arranger will keepclose to these basic ranges. The best playing always takes place in the ranges wherepeople have the most experience playing. See Appendix 4 for ranges and otherinformation.

(1) Trumpet and Alto Sax(2) Trumpet and Tenor Sax

(3) Trumpet and Trombone(4) Trombone and Tenor Sax

UpperRegisters

IN GENERAT......Lowerregisters

AveragePlayingRanges

ExtendedRanges

Seldom usedin writ ingsmall grouparrangements.

Almost all of what is heard insmall group music fal ls withinthis range. Useful also forselecting best keys. (page 16)

Seldom usedin writ ingsmall groupmusic.

Do not write inthis range forsmall grouparrangements

pg 33

Horns-l

48. TRANSPOSITIONS

A transposing instrument is one whose "C" is a different pitch than on the piano.All transposing instruments used in jazz music sound a lower pitch than written, somust be "transposed up".

o Trumpet and Tenor Sax are Bb transposing instruments.

o When writing a transposed part for a Bb horn, write everything a whole stephigher than the concert pitches. This will also require adding two sharps tothe concert key signature. For example, C Major for piano becomes D majorfor the Bb part, and F Major concert is written one step higher, in G Major.

For trumpet, transpose up one whole step.

For tenor sax, transpose up a whole step plus one octave.Note: The most common transposition errors in jazz occur in the

tenor sax. Don't forget the extra octave!

The same written line, played both by trumpet and tenor sax,

will sound in octaves.

I!!

IrlIII

I

II

Il

IttIIII

L

pg34

Horns- I

Alto and baritone saxes are Eb transposing instruments.

When writing a transposed part for a Eb hom, write everything a major 6thabove the concert pitches. This will also require adding three sharps tothe concert key signature. For example, C Major on piano becomes A Majorwhen transposed for an Eb instrument and F Major is written in D Major.

For alto sax, transpose up a major 5th from the concert (written) music.

For baritone sax, transpose up a major 6th plus one octave.

The same written line, played both by alto and baritone saxes,

t will sound in octaves.t -

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4zaut?art

7u.

w

Rhythm-l

STEP FTVE: THE RHYTHM SECTION54: MAKEUP OF THE RHYTHM SECTION lthis page)58: TIIE COMPOSITE RHYTHM PART (see pg 58)

The instruments keeping time and moving the changes in a jazz or pop chart iscalled the rhythm section. (Rhythm section is frequently shortened to Rhythm.)

Rhythm function together as a unit, and are responsible for keeping a solid feelingof rhythmic time ("g3oove") alive in the playing of an arrangement. Even whenhorns play background figures, the rhythm section is responsible for the quality ofthe groove. They must play responsively to each other; thus, their part(s) must bekept as simple as possible.

MAKEUP OF THE RHYTHM SECTION

The basic rhythm sectionfound in a small jazz group(or "combo") consists of:

. PIANO(and/or GUITAR)

. BASS

. DRUMS

In a simple anangement, consisting only of a good plan, good changes, anintro, an ending, and instructions regarding style/tempo

The arranger may write one composite part for the entire rhythm section,to be photocopied to each rhythm player. This composite rhythmpart is discussed on page 50, and is entirely appropriate whenever rhythmplayers require only good changes and information on the layout of thechart. If more is required, a composite part is inappropriate.

PIANO (or KEYBOARD) can mean either theacoustic piano or a synthesizer. The pianoplays stylistic rhythm patterns on the changes.The changes may also be played in this styleby GUITAR, or by both piano and guitar.

BASS may be upright, electric, or in some groupseven a keyboard. ln a simple.urangements, thedemands are very non-specific, so the choice ofbass instrument should be made by the player, orby the leader of the group, but not the writer.

DRUMS indicates a standard drum kit. PERCUSSION maybe present as well. For a simple arrangement, both thedrummer and the percussionist read from composite parts(see next page) and decide which instrument(s) to play.

pg 36

Rhythm-l

THE COMPOSITE RHYTHM PART

In a simple arrangement, all rhythm players may play from a photocopy of acommon rhythm part. This composite part gives the changes and any stop timesthat may occur. Instructions may be written to tell the drummer where to playsomething other than straight time (in whatever style)

Srru,n

l ' f rrv€ rxt Z

When a composite rhythm part contains specifically notated rhythms, it isunderstood that everyone in the rhythm section will play these rhythms.

When requirements of a chart cause a composite rhythm part to look as busy as thenext example, the composite is no longer the correct format. Too many differentsounds are called for. Each player should receive an individual part instead. (SeeChapter II Step 5.)

. Not a good composite rhythm parh it looks too busy.

pg37

Format-l

STEP SIX: SMALL FORMATS64. TrWO-LINE SKETCH (below)68 INDTVIDUAL PARTS (pg 48)

The best format for the final version of any arrangement depends upon two factors.

1) Size of performing group. The larger the group, the larger the format needed fora final version.

2) Application. The best format is the least complicated format that will servewithout compromising the chart.

Rule of thumb ..... Simplify as much as possible. When music becomes difficultto follow easily, or looks cluttered, it is time to move to the next larger (or morecomprehensivl) format.

6A. TWO.LINE SKETCHES

The two-line sketch is the smallest complete format. It is written in treble/bass clefs,always in concert key. A sketch may contain a fair amount of information,including written instructions on style, number of rhythm to play, roadmap, etc.

2-line sketches are best

r When a simple chart has unison horns and a straight-ahead rhythm groove, viathe composite rhythm part, use the two-line sketch. (For a chart more complexthan this, move up to the three-line sketch.)

Aggressrve Lat in f1H= 144

$rDt-Alto)

When there is a lyric and only a simple rhythm background will be used. (Ifhorns are used in addition to the vocal, then a 3-line format is better.)

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Cdrtinuc latin 6

pg 38

Format-l

Cautions: the following are common errors made in jazz charts. Be careful to check

your work against this list before having the music played!

1. The sketch is always written in the concert key, without octave transpositions.

Where homs will play in octaves, one line may be written with the indication"8ves" above or below the melody.

Z. Material for the composite rhythm part apPears on the bottom line, and is

written in bass clef'

3. Bar numbers should appear throughout, placed at the bottom left of each bar.

Computer notation progtams may place-bar numbers above the line. These

are "iefault settingsi an-d can be chinged on most Programs. If not, the

program is inadequate for serious notating.

4. Clefs and key signatures appear at the beginning of every line in published

music. In abbreiiated manuscript, they may aPPear only once Per Page,at the

beginning of line one, or when ihe key g$lq".t. (Note: any clef lacking a key

signature automatically signals a key of C Major or A minor.)

5. Time signatures appear only once. unless there has been a change of meter.

6. When possible, title and authorship appear on line one of a Page of sketch; the

music begins on line two.

7. Changes should be written clearly, and with chord symbols choLen that are

not hf.ely to be misinterpreted. (The style of nomenclature in Chapter One,

Step 3, is highlY recommended.)

8. Lyrics, when preSent, should be "all caPs", and written over a straight edge

for the sake of aPPearance'

pg39

Format-l

Two Line Sketch of "Yesterdays"

Top line = Tenor solo, untransposed. Bottom line = same music exactly as to becopied for a composite rhythm part.

Yesterdays

{

I:

IIIIIIIIIIII

a e

Amin FIA 'rT16 AminT'- \*ril rfimz1b sy sus D9

F2 ctE clD Am/C A

I

najT/B 813

Dn/E E7b9 r13' ll'

CID D9 B/G F/G

t3

Fm7(f,5)

pg40

Format- I

5B. EXTRACTING THE INDIVIDUAL PARTS

Individual parts represent you as your music is performed. Material, appearance,and layout will introduce you before one note is played. This becomes more andmore important every year!

In manuscriph

' Paper: Use professional lOline paper. (12-line paper will look crowded.) Youwill find good papers at Penders; also at the University Store. Be sure that the1O-line is at least 80 lb. weight - 100 lb. weight is preferred. Also, though goodPaPer is available in off-white or buff, white is preferred, especially for pencil.

o Pencils: Use a soft lead pencil for individual parts. (Ex: the Berol ElectronicScorer, sharpened frequently to keep stems and bar lines thin.)

o Eraser: Use the non-abrasive variety, which lifts a pencil's image withoutdamaging the surface of the paper. (Example: the Staedtler Mars Plastic Eraser,available from art supply stores, and most University Book Stores)

. Rulers: Use a triangular, transparent "straight-edge" for bar lines, and tounderline titles, credits, etc. (Available at most book stores and art supplystores. Also, when you purchase a straight-edge, be sure that it has a bevelededge, so that soft leads and ink pens will not smear.)

For computer generated parts:

. Print: Laser printing is so commonly available now that other platforms (inkjet, dot matrix) are used now only for personal "trial runs."

. Paper: Printers use an extremely light weight paper. Once you are sure thatyour music plays the way you want, photocopy your printed parts onto 80 lb.white ledger paper. This will give your music the right feel.

. Appearance: All notation programs use good fonts - Petrucci, Sonata, etc. Inaddition, several "jazz fonts" are readily available, causing your music more andmore to resemble professional hand-copied manuscript.

o Formatting: The best format for individual parts, though, is not necessarily thatwhich is built into the default file of your software. The best format is one thatyou construct through the editing process. Turn to page 48. See also Appendix 5.

pg4l

Format-1

FORMATTING INDIVIDUAL PARTS

Whether in manuscript or computer generated, follow these guidelines:

. Place the instrument name at the left (on line one, or where line one would be.)

. Place the title in the middle of the page where line two would be.

. Music begins on line three.

o Group four bars to the line except where the music would appear cluttered

(lyrics, too many 15th notes, etc.)

Number each bar, with the number appearing at the bottom left of the bar.

Begin page two on line one; page number should appear at bottom center.

IIIIIIIIIIIIItTIIII

a

a

Tenor

YesterdaysJerome Kern,

arr. Paris Rutherford

l0

o

Solo ad lib