Bell Ringer

What are different ways we learn?

Discuss with your partner – 3mins

Share out – 3 mins1

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Learning

Chapter 8

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Learning

How Do We Learn?

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Experiments

Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov’s Legacy

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Learning

Operant Conditioning

Skinner’s Experiments

Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner’s Legacy

Contrasting Classical & Operant Conditioning

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Learning

Learning by Observation

Bandura’s Experiments

Applications of Observational Learning

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Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due

to experience. Learning is flexible.When talking about learning, what do

the following statements mean?What does relatively permanent mean?What does learning is flexible mean?

How do you know when you learn something?

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How Do We Learn?We learn by

association. Our minds naturally

connect events that occur in sequence.

By linking two things together, we learn to

expect an specific outcome.

What association do you make with this flag?

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Stimulus-Stimulus Learning

Learning to associate one stimulus

with another.

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Stimulus-Stimulus LearningLearning to associate

one stimuluswith another.

We associate lightning with

thunder. Thunder scares us. When we see lightning, we get

scared

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a response

with a consequence.

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Response-Consequence Learning

Learning to associate a responsewith a consequence.

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Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

who elucidated (made clear) classical conditioning. His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson and B.

F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Sov

foto

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US)

produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone

(neutral stimulus) does not.

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Pavlov’s ExperimentsDuring conditioning, the neutral stimulus

(tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After

conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation

(now Conditioned Response, CR)

Classical ConditioningUS – Unconditioned Stimulus

oFood

UR – Unconditioned ResponseoSalivation

CS – Conditioned Stimuluso Bell

CR – Conditioned ResponseoSalivation without food present

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I need two volunteers• Please only volunteer if you:

• Can read from a list of words

• Don’t mind getting a little wet (water on face)

• Everyone else, as you watch the activity, identify the US, UR, CS, and CR.

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CAN, dish, CAN, bridge, scale, can, fan, board, CAN, cool, three, horn, disk, CAN, can, cast, test, pen, dime, CAN, dish, van, can, card, stand, meat, pad, can, dish, set, can, tree, ice, plum, can, cost, bird, glass, can, light, can, sword, juice, can, dish, rock, smoke, grease, dish, keep, kid, tan, dice, hole, set, dish, eye, friend, wax, bill, bulb, dish, class, mine, mark, work, can, dish, can, bus, dish, phone, can, smart, first, can, crack, feet, can, tub, bowl, can, van, day, can, rake, dish, CAN, bluff, risk, CAN, salt, dish, CAN, ball, stack, CAN, rain, hat, food, can, van, disk, tree, can, cup, can, lime, CAN, dish, girl, chalk, can, dish, CAN, key, screen, ran, CAN, disk, CAN, knob, bag, tape, CAN, dish, clip, CAN, air, ban, cheese, CAN, door, can, box, dish, hair, CAN, ring, nail, CAN, boat, cap, dish, CAN, crane, wheel, fire, CAN, dish, king, cape, apple, CAN, dog, blue, can, dish, CAN, take, call, brick, pair, CAN, spin, chair, CAN, camp.

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What happened?

• Did you see an example of learning occurring? Explain

• What happened when “CAN” was read? How about “can”?

• What happened when a word that sounded like “can” was read?

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Bell Ringer – What would be the US, UR, CS, and CR in the following

scenerio? – ½ sheet of paper - 4 mins.

An experimenter rings a bell just before blowing a puff of air into your face. After several repeats of this behavior, you begin to blink when you hear only the bell. 19

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Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in which an

association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes

place.

1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.

2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second.

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AcquisitionThe CS needs to come half a second

before the US for acquisition to occur.

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ExtinctionWhen the US (food)

does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation)

begins to decrease and eventually causes

extinction.

Example - I LOVE popcorn – When I make

and eat popcorn, my dog sits at my feet. In the beginning, I gave

my dog a piece of popcorn every so often.

It got to the point where she expected popcorn every time. The last few times, I

have withheld popcorn from my dog. Last

night. She didn’t even come over and sit at

me feet when I had my popcorn.

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Spontaneous RecoveryAfter a rest period, an extinguished

CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

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Stimulus GeneralizationTendency to respond to stimuli similar to

the CS is called generalization. Pavlov

and his students realized that the dogs responded to similarly to different tones. The responses weren’t as

strong as the Conditioned Stimulus

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Stimulus DiscriminationDiscrimination is

the learned ability to distinguish

between a conditioned

stimulus and other stimuli that do not

signal an unconditioned

stimulus.

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Extending Pavlov’s Understanding

Pavlov considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However,

they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes

(thoughts, perceptions, and expectations) and biological

constraints.

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Cognitive Processes

Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be

reduced to mindless mechanisms.

However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy

or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

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Biological Predispositions

Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals.

Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.

However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an

animal’s biology.

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Biological Predispositions

John Garcia

Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours),

but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or

sound).

Courtesy of John G

arcia

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Biological Predispositions

Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

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Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is

isolating elementary behaviors from

more complex ones through objective

scientific procedures.

Pavlov’s Legacy

Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)

Classical Condition in society

Discuss – What examples of classical conditioning have we witnessed in society?

If you haven’t witnessed any examples of classical conditioning, how might classical conditioning be used in society?

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Watson used classical conditioning

procedures to develop advertising campaigns

for a number of organizations,

including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers

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1. Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Homework

Monday’s homework – Read and complete terms – Ch 8 pg. 313-325

Tuesday’s homework – Read and complete terms – Ch8pg 326-339

Who is Skinner?

What did he do?

What did we learn from him?35

Bell Ringer• Looking back on everything we have

covered and learned this year, what psychological concept we have discussed is evident today?

• With your partner/neighbor, be able to explain what psychologcial concept is and why it occurred.

• 3-4 minutes36

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

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Operant & Classical Conditioning

2. Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

B.F. Skinner• Burrhus Frederic "B. F." Skinner (March

20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.

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Foundation for Skinner’s Experiments

Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his Law of Effect. This

law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

Yale University Library

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Operant ChamberUsing Thorndike's law of effect as a

starting point, Skinner developed the Operant Chamber, or the Skinner

Box, to study operant conditioning.

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Operant ChamberThe operant chamber, or Skinner box, comes with a bar or key that

an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record

the animal’s response.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euINCrDbbD4

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ShapingShaping is the operant conditioning

procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive

approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A dog shaped to locate drugs.A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors

and sizes.K

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Fred Bavendam

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Types of ReinforcersReinforcer - Any event that strengthens

the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.

Reuters/ C

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1. Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Example – receiving food if hungry, blanket if cold, etc…

2. Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. Example – If you know you get praise for good grades, you will work at getting good grades.

Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

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1. Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A student gets a piece of candy for volunteering.

2. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. – Another example – you study and work all week to get a good grade on the test.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers

We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require

consistent study.

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Reinforcement Schedules1. Continuous Reinforcement:

Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs. Example – piece of candy every correct answer

2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on. Example – Slot machine at a casino.

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Ratio Schedules1.Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a

response only after a specified number of responses. e.g., Pigeon rewarded after 30 pecks.

2.Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. This is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability. (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

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Interval Schedules1.Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a

response only after a specified time has elapsed. (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close.)

2.Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

Homework

• Complete Terms – thru pg. 341

• Complete reading text thru pg. 341

• Think about Operant Conditioning. What are some examples you have experienced of someone (parent, guardian, teacher, minister, etc…) using operant conditioning on you. Come to class ready to discuss. 50

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

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PunishmentAn aversive event that decreases the

behavior it follows.

I asked you would you rather always receive positive or always negative

punishment:How many choose positive?

IIIII IIIII IIIIWhy?

Not harmful/hurtfulMakes you think about

behaviorAge appropriate

More meaningfulIt works – teachers me

No physical contactMore effective – CalmTeachers life lessons

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How many choose negative?

IIIII IIIII IWhy?

Temporary – get it over withStraight forward

Associate punisher with negative thoughts

Less disruption of lifeTeaches discipline

Warning shotCan easily get out of it by taking

what is given you

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Punishment

1. Results in unwanted fears.2. Conveys no information to the organism.3. Justifies pain to others.4. Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its

absence.5. Causes aggression towards the agent.6. Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in

place of another.

Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere &

Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.

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Extending Skinner’s Understanding

Skinner believed in inner thought processes and

biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for discounting them.

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Cognition & Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes

from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate

the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop

cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of

the maze (environment).

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Latent Learning – Present but not visible

Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik,

1930).

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MotivationIntrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

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Skinner’s LegacySkinner argued that behaviors were shaped

by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that

Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape

learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.

In School

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.

In Sports

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share

profits and participate in company ownership.

At work

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the

occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.

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Operant vs. Classical Conditioning pg. 339

Homework

• Finish reading and complete terms for Ch 8

• Learning by Observation.

• Test on Friday

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Learning by ObservationHigher animals,

especially humans, learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the

pictures in a certain order to obtain a

reward.

© H

erb Terrace

©H

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The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.

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Mirror NeuronsNeuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals

and humans that are active during observational learning.

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Imitation Onset

Learning by observation

begins early in life. This 14-

month-old child imitates the

adult on TV in pulling a toy

apart. Mel

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Bandura's ExperimentsBandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others.

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Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models

(family, neighborhood or

TV) may have antisocial effects.

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Positive Observational LearningFortunately, prosocial (positive,

helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

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Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video

games express increased

aggression.

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Modeling ViolenceResearch shows that viewing media

violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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