best practice guidelines for great ape tourism · best practice guidelines for great ape tourism...

Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 38

Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism

with contributions from Marc Ancrenaz, Chloe Cipolletta, Debby Cox, Christina Ellis, David Greer, Chloe Hodgkinson, Anne Russon and Ian Singleton

Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson

Series Editor: E.A. Williamson

About IUCNIUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and

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IUCN SSC Primate Specialist GroupThe Primate Specialist Group (PSG) is concerned with the conservation of more than 630 species and subspecies of prosimians,

monkeys, and apes. Its particular tasks include carrying out conservation status assessments, the compilation of action plans, making recommendations on taxonomic issues, and publishing information on primates to inform IUCN policy as a whole. The PSG facilitates the exchange of critical information among primatologists and the professional conservation community. The PSG Chairman is Dr. Russell A. Mittermeier, the Deputy Chair is Dr. Anthony B. Rylands, and the Coordinator for the Section on Great Apes is Dr. Liz Williamson. Web: www.primate-sg.org/

www.primate-sg.org/

with contributions from Marc Ancrenaz, Chloe Cipolletta, Debby Cox, Christina Ellis, David Greer, Chloe Hodgkinson, Anne Russon and Ian Singleton



Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson

Series Editor: E.A. Williamson

The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organizations.

Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland

Copyright: © 2010 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial uses is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder(s) provided the source is fully acknowledged.

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Citation: Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson (2010). Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG). 78 pp.

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1156-0

Cover photos: [Front] Western lowland gorilla, Loango National Park, Gabon. Photo © Christopher Orbell/MPI-EVAN. [Back] Sumatran orangutan, Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Photo © Perry van Duijnhoven.

Layout by: Kim Meek, [e-mail] [email protected]

Available from: http://www.primate-sg.org

Funded by: United States Fish and Wildlife Service (Great Ape Conservation Fund)

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Table of Contents

Section 1: Executive Summary .......................................................................................... 1

Section 2: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2

2.1 PrimateSpecialistGroupandtheSGA...............................................................................22.1.1 Linkstootherbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapeconservation................... 2

2.2 Purposeoftheseguidelines................................................................................................3

2.3 Targetaudience...................................................................................................................4

2.4 Greatapetourismscenarioscoveredinthisdocument.....................................................52.4.1 Wildvs.ex-captivesites.................................................................................... 5

2.5 Introductiontogreatapetourism........................................................................................72.5.1 Canwecallgreatapetourism‘sustainabletourism’or‘ecotourism’?............. 7

Section 3: Global Experience with Great Ape Tourism ........................................................ 8

3.1 Historyofgreatapetourism................................................................................................8

3.2 Lessonslearnedfromexistinggreatapetourismprogrammes........................................113.2.1 Greatapetourism—conservationtoolorconservationthreat?....................... 113.2.2 Globalinterestingreatapetourismasaconservationstrategy..................... 113.2.3 Speciesdifferencesrelevanttogreatapetourism.......................................... 123.2.4 Greatapetouristprofiles................................................................................. 123.2.5 Differenttypesofgreatapetourism................................................................ 133.2.6 Managingtouristexpectations........................................................................ 133.2.7 Replicationofsuccessstoriesisnotalwayspossibleordesirable................. 133.2.8 Insecurityaffectstourismmarkets................................................................... 133.2.9 Globaleconomyaffectstourismmarkets........................................................ 143.2.10 Habituation—aninvariablylongandriskyundertaking................................... 143.2.11 Enforcementoftourismregulationsiscritical,butoftensuboptimal.............. 153.2.12 EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentsandfeasibilitystudies............................ 163.2.13 Impactstudiesandmonitoringarecritical...................................................... 163.2.14 Greatapetourismasadevelopmenttoolforlocalcommunities.................... 173.2.15 Importanceofeconomicvaluationsandtourismdemandstudies................. 183.2.16 Importanceofmanagementevaluationsoftourismstaffconduct.................. 193.2.17 Location,location,location.............................................................................. 193.2.18 Provisioning/feedingisnotappropriateforhabituationortourism................. 193.2.19 Reducingdisease-transmissionwithN95surgicalrespiratormasks.............. 203.2.20 Theproblemoftourismwithformerly-captivegreatapes............................... 213.2.21 Conclusionsfromlessonslearned................................................................... 22

Section 4: Potential Impacts of Great Ape Tourism .......................................................... 23

4.1 Tableofpotentialbenefitsofgreatapetourism................................................................23

4.2 Tableofpotentialcostsanddisadvantagesofgreatapetourism....................................24

4.3 Discussionofkeytourismimpacts...................................................................................264.3.1 Keypositiveimpact—sustainableconservationfunding................................. 264.3.2 Keypositiveimpact—enhancedmonitoringandprotectionofapes.............. 274.3.3 Criticalnegativeimpact—diseasetransmission.............................................. 274.3.4 Criticalnegativeimpact—behaviouralchange................................................ 284.3.5 Criticalnegativeimpact—vulnerabilitytopoaching........................................ 29

4.4 Conclusionsontourismimpacts.......................................................................................29

Section 5: Guidelines for Best Practice in Great Ape Tourism ........................................... 29

General Guidelines for all Great Ape Species .........................................................................30

5.1 Guidingprinciplesforusingtourismasagreatapeconservationtool.............................305.1.1 Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration...305.1.2 Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportforconservation.............................. 305.1.3 Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism......................... 305.1.4 Conservationbenefitsmustsignificantlyoutweighrisks................................. 305.1.5 Conservationinvestmentandactionmustbeassuredinperpetuity.............. 30

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5.1.6 Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundobjectivescience...................... 315.1.7 Benefitsandprofitforlocalcommunitiesshouldbemaximised..................... 315.1.8 Profittoprivatesectorpartnersmustnotbeadrivingforce........................... 315.1.9 Comprehensiveunderstandingofimpactsmustguidetourismdevelopment...31

5.2 Assessmentphase............................................................................................................315.2.1 Stakeholderawarenessofcostsandbenefits................................................. 315.2.2 Criteriaforgreatapetourismsites.................................................................. 325.2.3 Feasibilitystudiesandimpactanalysisofpotentialsites................................ 335.2.4 Furtherassessmentsrequiredfordecisionsontourismexpansion................ 33

5.3 Planningphase..................................................................................................................345.3.1 Impactoptimisationasacorecomponentofprogrammedesign................... 345.3.2 HabituationImpactAssessment(HIA).............................................................345.3.3 Criteriaforchoiceofsiteorgroup................................................................... 345.3.4 Developingandrefininghabituationprotocols................................................ 365.3.5 Tourismdevelopmentplansforsitesjudgedappropriateandfeasible.......... 37

5.4 Developmentphase..........................................................................................................39

Guidelines during Habituation:........................................................................................395.4.1 Noprovisioning................................................................................................ 395.4.2 Adherencetohabituationprotocols................................................................ 395.4.3 Habituationtargetdistances............................................................................ 395.4.4 Habituationtoobserverswearingsurgicalmasks........................................... 395.4.5 Avoidanceofoverhabituation.......................................................................... 40

Impact Mitigation:............................................................................................................415.4.6 Healthmonitoringandveterinaryresponse..................................................... 415.4.7 Employeehealthprogrammes......................................................................... 415.4.8 Communityhealthprogrammes...................................................................... 415.4.9 Communityoutreachandinvolvementingreatapetourismactivities............ 41

Management Systems:....................................................................................................435.4.10 Tourismbookingsystems................................................................................ 435.4.11 Pricingstructures............................................................................................. 445.4.12 Marketingefforts.............................................................................................. 445.4.13 Staffingissues.................................................................................................. 455.4.14 Stafftraining..................................................................................................... 465.4.15 Emergencycontingencyplans......................................................................... 46

5.5 Implementationphase—regulations.................................................................................47

Regulations – Pre-Visit....................................................................................................475.5.1 Disseminationofregulationsviatouroperatorsandbookingagents............. 475.5.2 Immunisation................................................................................................... 47

Regulations – On Arrival..................................................................................................485.5.3 Presentationoftourismimpactsandsafetyissues......................................... 485.5.4 Guidedhealthevaluationpriortodeparture.................................................... 485.5.5 Professionalhealthevaluation......................................................................... 48

Regulations – During Visit...............................................................................................485.5.6 Maximumnumberoftouristspergroup.......................................................... 485.5.7 Onetouristvisitperday................................................................................... 495.5.8 Novisitsbypeoplewhoaresick..................................................................... 495.5.9 N95respiratormasks....................................................................................... 495.5.10 Childrenyoungerthan15yearsoldprohibitedfromvisiting........................... 505.5.11 Non-essentialpersonneltoremainatadistancefromapes........................... 505.5.12 Preventcontaminationofthehabitatwithfoodwaste.................................... 505.5.13 Minimumdistancetohabituatedgreatapes................................................... 505.5.14 One-hourtimelimit.......................................................................................... 505.5.15 Hand-washingandhygiene............................................................................. 515.5.16 Tippingpoliciesandstaffsalaries.................................................................... 515.5.17 Monitoringandenforcementofrules............................................................... 52

Regulations – Site Management.....................................................................................525.5.18 Infrastructuredesignedtominimiseimpactonapesandhabitat................... 525.5.19 Staffhousingandadministrativeinfrastructure............................................... 535.5.20 Tourismaccommodationshouldbenefitlocalcommunities........................... 53

5.6 Monitoringandevaluationphase......................................................................................535.6.1 Appliedresearch.............................................................................................. 535.6.2 Staffmonitoring............................................................................................... 545.6.3 Programmemonitoringandevaluation............................................................ 54

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Guidelines for Specific Situations or Species .........................................................................55

5.7 Species-specificguidelines..............................................................................................555.7.1 EasternGorillas................................................................................................ 555.7.2 WesternGorillas............................................................................................... 555.7.3 Chimpanzees................................................................................................... 565.7.4 Bonobos.......................................................................................................... 565.7.5 Orangutans(SumatranandBornean).............................................................. 56

5.8 SpecialconsiderationsforsmallandCriticallyEndangeredpopulations.........................585.8.1 Risk-managementprogrammes...................................................................... 585.8.2 Optimisebeforeexpanding............................................................................. 58

Section 6: Conclusions .................................................................................................... 59

Section 7: Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 60

Section 8: Bibliography .................................................................................................... 60

8.1 Literaturecited..................................................................................................................60

8.2 Bibliography–otherrelevantliterature.............................................................................66

Appendix I – Sample Tourist Regulations ......................................................................... 67

A. EasternGorillas................................................................................................................67

B. WesternGorillas:tracking.................................................................................................68

C. WesternGorillas:baivisits................................................................................................69

D. WesternGorillas:forestwalk/chanceobservation............................................................71

E. Chimpanzees....................................................................................................................72

F. Orangutans:wild...............................................................................................................73

G. Orangutans:ex-captivesandwild....................................................................................74

Appendix II – Information on Face Masks/N95 Respirator Masks ..................................... 76

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Section 1: Executive Summary

Tourismisoftenproposed1)asastrategytofundconservationeffortstoprotectgreatapes1and

theirhabitats,2)asawayforlocalcommunitiestoparticipatein,andbenefitfrom,conservation

activitiesonbehalfofgreatapes,or3)asabusiness.A fewverysuccessfulsitespoint to the

considerablepotentialofconservation-basedgreatapetourism,butitwillnotbepossibletorep-

licatethissuccesseverywhere.Thenumberofsignificantriskstogreatapesthatcanarisefrom

tourism requireacautiousapproach. Ifgreatape tourism isnotbasedonsoundconservation

principlesright fromthestart, theoddsarethateconomicobjectiveswill takeprecedence, the

consequencesofwhichinalllikelihoodwouldbedamagingtothewell-beingandeventualsurvival

oftheapes,anddetrimentaltothecontinuedpreservationoftheirhabitat.Allgreatapespecies

andsubspeciesareclassifiedasEndangeredorCriticallyEndangeredonthe IUCNRedListof

ThreatenedSpecies(IUCN2010),thereforeitisimperativethatgreatapetourismadherestothe

bestpracticeguidelinesinthisdocument.

Theguidingprinciplesofbestpracticeingreatapetourismare:

• Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration.

• Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportfortheconservationofgreatapesandtheir

habitat.

• Conservationcomesfirst—itmustbe theprimarygoalatanygreatapesiteand

tourismcanbeatooltohelpfundit.

• Greatapetourismshouldonlybedevelopediftheanticipatedconservationbenefits,

asidentifiedinimpactstudies,significantlyoutweightherisks.

• Enhancedconservationinvestmentandactionatgreatapetourismsitesmustbe

sustainedinperpetuity.

• Greatapetourismmanagementmustbebasedonsoundandobjectivescience.

• Benefits and profit for communities adjacent to great ape habitat should be

maximised.

• Profittoprivatesectorpartnersandotherswhoearnincomeassociatedwithtour-

ism is also important, but should not be the driving force for great ape tourism

developmentorexpansion.

• Comprehensive understanding of potential impacts must guide tourism develop-

ment;positiveimpactsfromtourismmustbemaximisedandnegativeimpactsmust

beavoidedor,ifinevitable,betterunderstoodandmitigated.

Theultimatesuccessorfailureofgreatapetourismcanlieinvariablesthatmaynotbeobviousto

policymakerswhobasetheirdecisionsprimarilyonearningrevenueforstrugglingconservation

programmes.However,anumberofbiological,geographical,economicandglobal factorscan

affectasitesoastorenderapetourismill-advisedorunsustainable.Thiscanbedue,forexam-

ple,tothefailureofthetourismmarketforaparticularsitetoproviderevenuesufficienttocover

thedevelopmentandoperatingcosts,oritcanresultfromfailuretoprotectthetargetgreatapes

fromthelargenumberofsignificantnegativeaspectsinherentintourism.Eitherofthesefailures

willhaveseriousconsequencesforthegreatapepopulation.Onceapesarehabituatedtohuman

observers,theyareatincreasedriskfrompoachingandotherformsofconflictwithhumans.They

mustbeprotected inperpetuityeven if tourism failsor ceases for any reason.Greatape tour-

ismshouldnotbedevelopedwithout conductingcritical feasibility analyses toensure there is

sufficientpotentialforsuccess.Strictattentionmustbepaidtothedesignoftheenterprise,its

implementationandcontinualmanagementcapacityinamannerthatavoids,oratleastminimises,

1 Theseguidelinesare relevant togreatapes.Wedonotspecificallyaddress tourismdevelopmentwithlesserapes(gibbonsandsiamangs)orotherprimates.Throughoutthedocumenttheterm‘ape’refersto‘greatape’,eventhoughmanyissuescoveredarealsorelevanttolesserapes.

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thenegative impactsoftourismonlocalcommunitiesandontheapesthemselves.Monitoring

programmestotrackcostsandimpacts,aswellasbenefits,areessentialtoinformmanagement

onhowtooptimisetourismforconservationbenefits.

Theseguidelineshavebeendevelopedforbothexistingandpotentialgreatapetourismsitesthat

wishtoimprovethedegreetowhichtheirprogrammecontributestotheconservationratherthan

theexploitationofgreatapes. InSections2–4wesummarise thehistoryand lessons learned

duringthreedecadesofgreatapetourismandassociatedimpactstudies.Thisisfollowedwith

specific best practice guidelines in Section 5 that are based on experience and impact stud-

ies.Section8providesthereaderwithreferencematerial,includingusefulliteratureandasetof

sampletouristguidelinesfromseveralapetourismsites.Thisdocumentshouldbeviewedasan

essentialpartofthetoolkitforanysitepracticingorconsideringgreatapetourismaspartofits

conservationprogramme.

Section 2: Introduction

2.1 Primate Specialist Group and the SGA

TheSectiononGreatApes(SGA)oftheIUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup(PSG)isagroupof

morethan100experts involved inresearchonandconservationofthegreatapes.Theroleof

theSGAistopromoteconservationactiononbehalfofgreatapesbasedonthebestscientific

informationavailable.TheSGAservesasaforumfordiscussionand informationexchange; its

membersestablishguidelinesforbestpracticesinresearchandconservation,formulateaction

plansandadviseontheeffectiveprotectionofgreatapepopulationsinthewild.TheSGAadvises

governmentsoneffectiveconservationstrategiesbasedoncurrentknowledgeofthepopulations

anddistributionsofthegreatapesandthemanypressuresthatthreatentheirsurvival.Asaninte-

gralaspectofthisrole,theSGAfacilitatestheexchangeofinformationamongprimatologistsand

theprofessionalconservationcommunity.

2.1.1 Linkstootherbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapeconservation

DrawingonexpertisefromwithintheIUCNnetwork,thePSGhasproducedaseriesofbestprac-

tice guidelines for conservation practitioners, field scientists, governments, donors and devel-

opmentorganisationsinvolvedingreatapeconservation.Alltitlesintheseriesareavailablefor

downloadfromthePSGwebsite (<www.primate-sg.org/best.practices.htm>).Otherdocuments

intheseriescoverissuesthatinterrelatewithtourismWerecommendthatreadersofthetourism

guidelinesalsorefertotheseotherguidelines,astogethertheyrepresentatoolkitforbestpractice

ingreat apeconservationandmanagement.Specific interactionsbetween thedocumentsare

summarisedhereandwillbehighlightedinrelevantrecommendationsinthisdocument.

Health monitoring and disease control in great ape populations (Leendertz et al. in press):The

preventionofdiseasetransmissionisoneofthekeyissuesunderpinningbestpracticeinapetour-

ism.Thediseasebestpracticeguidelinesarethereforeakeyreferenceforthetourismguidelines,

andwillprovidethereaderwith:guidelinesfordevelopinghealthmonitoringandsurveillancepro-

grammes;detailsonmethodologyforsampling,testingandpost-mortemanalysis;andcontacts

fortheglobalnetworkofhealthprofessionalsandlaboratoriesinterestedingreatapes.Theywill

alsoprovidein-depthguidanceonthepreventionofdiseasetransmissionbetweenhumansand

greatapes,includingemployeehealthprogrammesfororganisationswhosestaffcomeintoclose

proximitywithapes.Diseaseriskisrelevantnotonlyinthetourismcontext,butinanysituation

wherehumansandapescomeintoproximity.

Human–Great Ape Conflict (Hockings and Humle 2009): Theconflictguidelinesprovideaframe-

work fordesigningand implementingactivities tomitigateconflictbetweenapesandhumans

competingforaccesstocriticalresourcessuchasfood(naturalorcultivated)andhabitat(forest

conversion).Incaseswheregreatapesarehabituatedtohumans,thereisachancethatthelevel

of conflictwill increaseasapes lose the fearof humans thatpreviously kept themaway from

humansettlementsandcrops.Communitiesmayresentthefactthattourismincomegenerated

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fromviewingcrop-raidingapesisaccruingtoprotectedareaauthorities.Anysiteconductingor

planningapehabituationshouldrefertotheconflictguidelinestobetterrespondtosituationsthat

mayarise.

Surveys and monitoring of great ape populations (Kühl et al. 2008):Anysiteconsidering the

developmentofgreatapetourismwillneedbaselineinformationonthepopulationofapesattheir

siteandwillneedtocarryoutregularmonitoringofthepopulationduringhabituationandsubse-

quenttourismoperations.

Reducing the impact of commercial logging on great apes (Morgan and Sanz 2007): Itislesslikely

thatapetourismprogrammeswillbedevelopedinloggingsitesthaninpristinehabitats.However,

sometimberconcessionspursuingForestStewardshipCouncil(FSC)certificationmayconsider

ecotourismdevelopment,andanumberofgreatapepopulationsexistoutsideprotectedareas

in exploited or privately-owned forests subject to mixed-management objectives, which might

includetourism.Therearelinks,therefore,betweentourismandlogginginthesesites.Additionally,

anumberofrecommendationsintheloggingguidelinesmayberelevantincertaintourismdevel-

opmentcontexts,suchasiftourisminfrastructuremayrequiresomelimitedtreefelling.

Re-introduction of great apes (Beck et al. 2007):Therearemanygreatapesiteswherere-intro-

duction is a current or potential activity and, for specific guidelines on methods, the reader is

referred to the relevantguidelines.Currentexpertopinion is that tourismshouldnotbecarried

outwithex-captivegreatapesduetoinherentover-habituationthatcanleadtoafailureofreha-

bilitation,incurringrisksofinjury,diseasetransmissionandevendeathtobothhumansandapes.

Inthecurrentdocument,therefore,werecommendasbestpracticethattourismshouldnotbe

developedinex-captivesites.However,inrealityanumberofex-captivesitesdooperatetourism

anditisimportantthatthesesitesareinformedabouttourismbestpractices(see2.4.1formore

information).

2.2 Purpose of these guidelines

Greatapetourismiswidelypracticedandgenerallypromotedasatooltoconservegreatapesand

theirhabitats.Thedevelopmentoftourismisoftenproposedbydonoragencies,greataperange-

stategovernmentsandconservationagenciesasapriorityintervention,withaviewtoincreasing

revenuesandcommunityinvolvement,aswellaspromotingfinanciallyself-sustainableforestsand

protectedareas,andbringingeconomicdevelopmenttoaregionorcountry.Anumberofsites

Western lowland gorilla, Bai

Hokou, Central African Repub-

lic. Photo © Chloe Cipolletta.

4

havegainedsignificantexperienceand ‘lessons learned’ from implementinggreatape tourism

sincethe1970s(McNeilage1996;Butynski2001).Fromtheirinception,manyapetourismsites

havebeenusingbasicprecautionstominimiseriskstotheapes,andthesecannowbejustified

with the results of significant experience and scientific research. Much has been documented

aboutthecosts,risksandbenefitsofgreatapetourism,withsignificantdebateaboutitsoverall

impacts(e.g.,Williamsonet al.2001).Overtheyearsresearchandmonitoringhaveprovidedthe

datatosupportmodificationstoapetourismprogrammedesignandmanagementtominimise

negativeimpacts(Butynski1998;ButynskiandKalina1998;Homsy1999;Litchfield1997,2007).

Thepurposeofthisdocumentistoprovideitstargetaudience(definedbelow)withcurrentstand-

ardsofbestpracticeinthedesignandimplementationofapetourismasameansofpromoting

greatapeconservationandthepreservationoftheirforesthabitats.Theseguidelineswillalso:

• emphasisetheinherentrisksposedbygreatapetourism;

• reinforcethemessagethatgreatapetourismisnotapanaceaapplicabletoallsites;

and

• conclude that if the conservation focus of tourism with the associated control

mechanismsrecommendedbythisdocumentcannotbesustained,thengreatape

tourismshouldnotbeconsideredandasearchforanalternativemeansofrevenue

andpoliticalsupportforconservationandprotectionactionsshouldbeundertaken.

2.3 Target audience

Theprimarytargetaudiencefortheseguidelinesispractitionersdesigningandimplementinggreat

ape tourismactivities in thefield, aswell aspolicymakerswithinpractitioner institutions.The

guidelineswillalsoassist‘users’ofgreatapetourisminprivatesectorbusinessestobetterinform

theirclients.Conservationprofessionalsandresearchers,whomaynotimplementtourismthem-

selvesbutwhosefieldprojectsinvolvehumansapproachinggreatapesorconductingactivitiesin

apehabitat,wouldalsolikelybenefitfromlessonslearnedintheimpactanalysesandprevention

recommendations.

Viewing mountain gorillas in Rwanda. Photo © José Kalpers.

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Primary target audience—practitioners and policy makers:

Thepractitionersofgreatapetourismwhowillbenefitfromreadingtheseguidelinesincludethose

currentlyimplementingordesigningtourismactivitiesasatooltosupportgreatapeconservation,

includingtheimplementingarmsofthefollowingtypesoforganisations:

• protectedareaauthoritieswithingreataperange-states;

• conservationagenciesandtheirfieldprojects;

• nationalandinternationalnon-governmentalorganisationswithingreataperange-

states;and

• researchers who may implement great ape tourism alongside primary research

activities.

Thepolicy makers, whosepolicieswehopewillbeinfluencedbytheseguidelines.includeallthose

responsible fordevelopingorapproving tourism-relatedpolicywithin the followingorganisation

types:

• greataperange-stategovernmentministriesordepartments;

• protectedareaauthoritiesingreataperangestates;

• conservationorganisationsactiveingreataperangestates;and

• donors (foundations,bi-andmulti-lateral)whofundormayconsider fundingpro-

grammesingreataperangestatesthatinvolvegreatapetourism.

Additional target audience—users and associates:

The ‘users’ of great ape tourism include the tens of thousands of tourists who visit great ape

tourismsitesannually,tourismindustryprofessionalsandtouroperatorassociations.Whileitwill

notbepossible to reachevery tourist through theseguidelines (and thatwould requireadiffer-

entstyleofproduct),wehavewrittenthisdocumentwithaviewtopromotinganunderstanding

amongthehigherlevel‘users’oftourismactivities,includingthetourismindustryandtouroperator

associations.Throughenhancedunderstandingbytourismindustryprofessionalsoftherisksto

greatapesandthemeansofreducingnegativeimpacts,weanticipatethatvisitorsarrivingatgreat

apetourismsiteswillbebetterpreparedandmorewillingtocomplywithregulations.Weencour-

agetheproductionofupdatedbriefingmaterialsfortourists,bothatindividualsitesashasbeen

doneforgorillas(IGCP2004;WCSFieldVeterinaryProgram2008;BRD2009),chimpanzees(JGI-

Uganda2006)andorangutans(Ancrenaz2006),orforbroadertaxonomicgroupsandgeographic

areas(Litchfield1997).Wewillpromotethedisseminationofbriefingmaterialsandbestpractice

conceptstotourismstakeholdersandlodgeoperatorsinboththeprivatesectorandcommunity

tourismenterprises.Someoftherecommendationshereincouldbeadaptedtoawidercontext

involvinglocalcommunitieslivingwithinoradjacenttogreatapehabitats.

Anumberofotherassociates workingwithgreatapes,suchasresearchers,willfindinformationin

thisdocumentofusetoguidetheiractivities.Greataperesearchersareineffectlong-termvisitors

withthesame,orhigher,potentialasothervisitorsfornegativeimpactsontheirsubjectsresulting

fromhabituationandextendedclose-rangepresence.Assuch,many of the recommendations for

tourism best practice can and should be applied or adapted to research situations.Anumber

of recommendations inthisdocumentweretrialled intheresearchcontextand, insomecases,

longer-termvisitorsareabletoapplycontrols(suchasquarantine)thatareevenmoreprotectiveto

wildapesthanispossiblewithtourists.Researchersstudyingtheimpactsoftourismwillsimilarly

findtheseguidelinesusefulandwill,wehope,beable tobroadenthescopeof impactassess-

mentstoprovidefurtherguidancetoapetourismmanagement.

2.4 Great ape tourism scenarios covered in this document

2.4.1 Wildvs.ex-captivesites

Thisdocumentisintendedforsitespracticingorconsideringtourismwithwildgreatapesintheir

naturalhabitats.Itisnotintendedtoaddresscaptivesituations.However,duetotheincreasein

thenumberofgreatapeorphansanctuaries,rescueandrehabilitationcentres(manyofwhichcarry

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outorareconsideringre-introduction),inrealityanumberofsitesdonotfiteasilyintothewildvs.

captivecategories.Tocomplicatematters further,someof thesesitesallowtourists tovisitex-

captiveapes.Toavoidconfusion,sitecategoriesarepresentedbelowandassessedforthedegree

towhichtherecommendationsinthisdocumentshouldapply

Type of ape population visited in the site

Notes

Wildapes–noex-captivespresent

• Themainfocusofthedocument.

Wildapeswithrareoroccasionalex-captivesrescuedfrompoachingeventsandreintroduced,ortranslocated,aftershortdurationincaptivity(one-offorveryrarecases)

• Over-habituationtohumansisariskfactorthatincreaseswithlengthoftimeincaptivityandleadstoincreasedpotentialforcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtourismvisits,withassociatedriskfordiseasetransmission,injuryordeath.

• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,asoutlinedinthisdocument.

Fullyrehabilitatedex-captivesco-rangingwithwildapesinnaturalhabitat:• nofoodprovisioning• nocontactwithany

provisionedex-captives

• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captivesintheforestincreasestheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedriskfordiseasetransmission,injury,ordeath.Anydiseasetransmittedviasuchcontactcaneasilyspreadtowildapes.

• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,asoutlinedinthisdocument.

Ex-captives–freerangingwithnorangeoverlaporcontactwithwildapesatpresent• notprovisioned

• Otherexpertgroupshaverecommendedthatex-captivesshouldnotbeusedfortourism.*However,iftourismiscarriedoutwiththeseindividuals,bestpracticeforwildapetourismasoutlinedinthecurrentdocumentshouldbeadheredto.

• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captiveswillincreasetheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedriskofdisease,injuryanddeath.

• Adjustmentinrangingpatternsmayinsomesitesresultinfuturerangeoverlapwithwildpopulationsandanydiseasetransmittedviatouristcontactwithex-captivesmayposearisktowildapes.

Ex-captivesprovisionedawayfromtourists• free-ranging• provisioned,butnotaspartof

touristvisit• tourismawayfromfeeding

platformsorareas

• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captiveswillincreasetheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedincreasedriskfordisease,injuryordeath.

• Apesthatassociatehumanswithfoodwillbemorelikelytoinitiatecontactwithhumanstosolicitorraidbagsforfoodandthiswillincreaserisksfordiseasetransmissionorinjury.

• Atsomesites,thereispotentialoverlapwithwildapes.• Seenote*regardingexpertopinionontourismwithex-

captives.• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,as

outlinedinthisdocument.

Ex-captivesprovisionedatfeedingplatformwithtouristspresent:• free-ranging• provisionedduringtourist

visits• tourismatfeedingstationor

platform

• Notthepurposeofthisdocument,especiallyastheanimalsarefed,whichiscontrarytotherecommendationsinthisdocument.

• Thesesiteshavedifferentriskfactorsrelatedtodiseasetransmissionandinjuryatfeedingsitesduetofoodattractinghumansandapesintocloseproximity.

• Atsomesites,thereispotentialoverlapwithwildapes.• Eventhoughexpertopinionrecommendsthattourismshould

notbecarriedouttoex-captives(seefootnote2),iftourismis takingplace,therecommendationsinthisdocumentmaybeausefulreferenceforreducingrisksatthesesites.

Fullyfencedsanctuarysites• nopotentialcontactwithwild

apes

• Notcoveredinthedocument

*ThePanAfricanSanctuariesAlliance(PASA)doesnotendorsetourismtoex-captivegreatapesduetohigherrisktotouristsandfieldassistants(Carlsenet al.2006).Inaddition,anIUCN-sponsoredworkshoprecommendedunanimouslythatnotourismbeallowedwithrehabilitantorangutansthatareeligiblefororhavealreadyreturnedtoforestlife(RosenandByers2002).Wehaveadoptedthisrecommendationasbestpractice.

7

2.5 Introduction to great ape tourism

Tourismisoftenpromotedasatoolforconservingapesandtheirhabitatsthroughthegeneration

ofrevenuetofundconservationefforts,whilealsoprovidingeducationalopportunities,andsocial

and economic development. Tourists are increasingly desirous of adventurous activities involv-

ingtraveltoremoteinternationalwildlifeareaswheretheycanviewendangeredspeciesintheir

naturalhabitatratherthanincaptivity,andmanyareespeciallydrawntoactivitiesmarketedas

ecotourismorsustainabletourism.Greatapesfigurehighonthelistofanimalsthatmanywould

liketosee,andpeopletravelgreatdistancestovisittheminthewild.Currently,thereareanumber

ofsiteswherepeoplecanviewchimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),westerngorillas (Gorilla gorilla),

easterngorillas(Gorilla beringei),Borneanorangutans(Pongo pygmaeus)andSumatranorangu-

tans(Pongo abelii).Afewbonobo(Pan paniscus)sitesareintheinitialstagesoftourismdevelop-

ment.Manytourismprogrammesinvolvehabituationtoallowtheapproachoftouriststoaviewing

distanceof7–20metres,whichwouldbeimpossiblewithunhabituatedapes.However,thisisnot

theonlymodelfortourism,astherearesitesofferingwalksthroughnaturalhabitatduringwhich

wildapesmaybeseen,viewingofapes fromplatformsorhidesat forestclearings (e.g., ‘bais’

inCentralAfrica),orsearchingforwildunhabituatedorangutansbyboat(e.g.,Kinabatanganin

Sabah)orbyvehicle(e.g.,forestreservesinSabah).

Many tourists will be satisfied with seeing only one group of apes and may choose to visit a

particularspeciesorsubspeciesbasedonitspopularityormediacoverage(e.g.,‘DianFossey’s’

mountaingorillas),which results inadegreeofcompetition in themarket.However,othersare

interestedinvisitinganumberofdifferentsitesandinfacttheideaofaprimatewatching‘life-list’

asiscommonforbirdwatchersisbeingpromoted(Mittermeieret al.2010).Thisideacouldapply

notonlytospecies,butalsotosubspeciesandindeedtodifferentpopulationsofeachsubspecies,

assuggestedinaregionaltourismplanfortheVirungaMassif(MehtaandGuchu-Katee2005).

2.5.1 Canwecallgreatapetourism‘sustainabletourism’or‘ecotourism’?

Many great ape tourism sites would like to market themselves as ‘ecotourism’ or ‘sustainable

tourism’destinations.However,thereisdebateastowhetherthetermsshouldapplytogreatape

tourism.Thedefinitionsofthesetourismtermsarequiteprecise,althoughtheirdetailsvaryslightly:

• Minimal-impact travel to relatively-undisturbed natural areas for the express pur-

poseofexperiencingtheseareasandtheirwildlife(Boo1990).

• Responsibletraveltonaturalareasthatconservestheenvironmentandimproves

thewell-beingoflocalpeople(TIES2005).

Inprincipal,greatapetourismprojectsshouldstrivetoattainthecriteriastipulatedinthedefini-

tionsofecotourism,andshouldalsobesustainable.Inpractice,however,thishasnotalwaysbeen

thecase.Thegeneraltrendistorefertogreatapetourismas‘ecotourism’,especiallybythosein

thetourismindustryandprivatesectorandbyotherswhoseektomarkettheactivityordestination

totouristswhomakechoicesbasedontheirdesiretobe‘ecotourists’.However,Caldecott(pers.

comm.)pointsoutthatgreatapetourismhasyettoqualifyasecotourisminthatithasnotbeen

shownthattheapesandtheirhabitatremainunharmed.

EplerWood(1996)suggestedthatecotourismshould:1)avoiddamagingordestroyingtheinteg-

rityorcharacterofthenaturalorculturalenvironmentsbeingvisited;2)educatethetravelleron

theimportanceofconservation;3)providerevenuesfortheconservationofnaturalareasandthe

managementofprotectedareas;and4)bringeconomicbenefitstothelocalcommunitiesinthe

area.Mostapetourismprojectsdonotfulfilthesefourcriteria.Tourisminvolvesriskstoapesand

itmaynotbepossibletosatisfythe‘minimalimpact’(Boo1990)criteria.Whileregulationsareput

inplacetominimisetherisks,astouristnumbersincrease,itmaybecomehardertoapplythem.

“Moreandmorevisitorsactastouristsratherthanasecotouristsandeventuallydestroy

whattheycametosee”(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004)

Sincegreatapetourismisnotwithoutrisktotheapesvisited,theterm‘sustainabletourism’may

bemoreappropriate.However,ifsufficientattentionispaidtominimisingrisks,andifthedevelop-

mentoffinancially-viableapetourismcancontributetothedevelopmentofassociatedconserva-

tionactivitiesandrisk-mitigationprogrammes,asrecommendedinthisdocument (i.e.,disease

8

monitoring,employeehealthprogrammes, improved lawenforcement, enhancedmonitoringof

apes),thenetbenefittogreatapeconservationwillbepositive.

Inadditiontorisk, therearealsofinancial issues.Greatapessurvive ina fewhighlyvulnerable

foresthabitats,andthecostsofmanagementprogrammestoprotectthemareextremelyhigh.If

tourismprovidessufficientfinancialresourcestocovertheoperationalcostsofconservation,this

maybeoneofthefewmeansofsustainablyfundingtheprotectionofthesepopulations.

“Apesdesperatelyneedallies,evenifthosealliesareinitforthemoney”(Wrangham2001)

However,financialsustainabilitywillnotbepossible inallcases.The initialdevelopmentcosts

andtheassociatedinfrastructureandservicerequirementscanbeextremelyhigh,especially in

remoteforeststhathavelittleornoinfrastructure(Blom2001).Inaddition,thetourismmarketmay

notberobustenoughtoprovidesufficientincometoanincreasingnumberofnewgreatapetour-

ismsites.Itisimportanttoconsiderfinancialsustainabilityandviabilityoftheoverallprogramme

beforetourismisinitiated.

Greatapetourismmustresultinimprovedconservationoftheapesandtheirhabitat,achievable

onlyiftourismsupportsconservationactivitiesinthehabitatandstimulatessupportforconserva-

tionthroughchangesinpoliticsorconsumerbehaviour,orthroughbenefitstolocalcommunities

sufficient tooffset their lostopportunitiesconcerning resourceextractionorhabitatconversion

(SingletonandAprianto2001).Monitoringprogrammestomeasuretheperformanceandimpacts

oftourismprogrammesshouldshedlightonwhetherthesegoalsarebeingachieved.

Theproductionoftheseguidelineswillprovideanopportunityforgreatapetourismsitestodevelop

andimprovetheirprogrammesinlinewithbestpractice.Theyshouldalsobeusedfortrainingand

awareness-raisingonhowtoavoidorminimisenegativeeffects.Intime,adherencetotheIUCN

Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourismcouldbecomeabadgeofhonourthatsitesmight

wish to adopt formarketingpurposes, or that tourismcertificationauthorities couldusewhen

evaluatinggreatapetourismsites.Insummary,wewillreferonlyto‘greatapetourism’;wewillnot

callit‘ecotourism’.

Section 3: Global Experience with Great Ape Tourism

3.1 History of great ape tourism

Tourismhasbeendevelopedatanumberofgreatapesitesallovertheworld.Throughdifferent

periodsinitshistoryandwithdifferentmethods,previousexperienceintourismdevelopmentand

management provides lessons learned to improve future tourism and to achieve conservation

objectives.

Eastern Gorillas:Mountaingorillatourismisamongsttheworld’sbest-knownwildlifeexperiences.

Mountaingorillashavebeenvisitedbytouristssince1955,althoughintheearlyyearsvisitswere

largelyunregulatedandpoorlymanaged(ButynskiandKalina1998).Habituationspecificallyfor

tourismbeganwitheasternlowlandgorillas(Gorilla beringei graueri)inKahuzi-BiegaNationalPark,

DRC,inthe1970s,andwithmountaingorillas(Gorilla beringei beringei)intheVolcanoesNational

Park,Rwanda, in1979.Programmes focusedonmountaingorillas in theDRC followed in the

1980s, then inUganda in the1990s.Tourismwas initiated toprovideeconomicalternatives to

convertinglargeareasofforestforotheruses,suchascattlepastureandagriculture(Weberand

Vedder2001).

WhileDRCsufferedfrompoliticalinstabilitythroughoutthe1990s,tourisminUgandaandRwanda

hasgonefromstrengthtostrength,providingpersuasivefinancialargumentsforcontinuedpreser-

vationofgorillahabitat,withtouristdemandprovingsurprisinglyresistanttobothpriceincreases

andpoliticalevents.Mountaingorillatourismprovidessignificantrevenuetotheprotectedarea

authoritiesandgovernments,resultingin improvedsurveillanceandincreasedprotectionofthe

gorillas (Harcourt 1986; Weber 1993; Macfie 2007a). Mountain gorilla tourism in Rwanda has

achieved global recognition, informing and inspiring the global ecotourism movement, and at

thesametimeprovidingfinancialsupportfortheconservationofgorillahabitat,andstimulating

9

politicalwill toprotectgorillas inperpetuity (WilliamsonandFawcett2008),withaproveneco-

nomicvalueexceedingthatofalternativeextractivelanduses(HatfieldandMalleret-King2006).

Western Gorillas:Tourismprogrammesfocusedonwesterngorillaswere initiated in the1990s

andareoftwodifferenttypes.Fivesitesnowofferviewingofunhabituatedgorillasfromfixedplat-

formsatlargeswampyclearingsor‘bais’(BoumbaBek,LobékéandNkiinCameroon,Langoué

inGabonandMbeliBaiintheRepublicofCongo),butonlytwositesoffertrackingofhabituated

westerngorillas(BaiHokouinCentralAfricanRepublicandMondikain theRepublicofCongo).

Theslowdevelopmentofwesterngorillatourismmaybeattributedtoanumberoffactors.Western

gorillasarewidelyacknowledgedtobedifficulttohabituatetohumanpresence,therebylimiting

tourismpotential.Thismaybeduetotheirdenserhabitats,infrequentvocalisations,largerhome

rangesandlongerdayranges(TutinandFernandez1991;Doran-Sheehyet al.2007),exacerbated

by previous exposure to hunting, and factors leading to less visible trail sign (Williamson and

Fawcett2008).AtourismprogrammeatLossi,intheRepublicofCongo,succeededwithhabitu-

ation(Aveling1999;Bermejo2004),butthisgorillapopulationwasdecimatedbytheEbolavirus

(Bermejoet al.2006).However,habituationhasbeenachievedatBaiHokouandMondika,whereit

isnowpossiblefortrackerstofollowgorillasdaily.Anotherfactorinwesterngorillatourismisthat

thetouristexperiencemaybeimpededbypoorvisibilityinthedensetropicalforeststhatmakeup

muchoftheirhabitat.LangouéandMbeliBaiuseplatformsforviewingat‘bais’asitisnotpossible

tofollowgorillasintotheforest.Inadditiontofactorsrelatedtothenatureofthegorillasortheir

habitat,westerngorillatourismprogrammeshavealsosufferedfrompoorinfrastructureandhigh

travelcostsrelativetootherdestinationsinAfricathathavepoliticalstabilityandadiversityoftour-

istattractions(WilkieandCarpenter1999).However,factorsthathaveledtotheslowdevelopment

ofwesterngorillatourismhavealsoprovidedopportunitiestodeveloptourisminwhichapesare

notthesolefocus,butareoneofanumberofattractions.Thisinitselfmayensurebettercontrol

overtourismdevelopmentandimprovedapeconservation.

Chimpanzees: Somechimpanzeeresearchsites(notablyGombeStreamandMahaleMountains

NationalParksinTanzania)havebeenreceivingvisitorsforover30yearsandsincethe1990s,a

numberofothersitesinEastAfrica(e.g.,KibaleandQueenElizabethNationalParksinUganda,

NyungweNationalParkinRwanda)haveofferedguidednaturewalksduringwhichvisitorshave

thepossibilityofviewingchimpanzeesfeedinginfruitingtrees.Overtheyears,tourismatthese

siteshasexpandedandthenegativeimpactsofincreasingtouristnumbersandproximitytochim-

panzees have been mitigated by stringent booking systems and tight controls on tourist con-

duct,includingthewearingofsurgicalmaskstoreducediseasetransmission(e.g.,Purcell2002;

Hanamuraet al.2006;TANAPAandFZS2007).Morerecently,anumberofsitesinbothEastand

Central Africa have been offering visits to chimpanzee groups habituated specifically for tour-

ism.Asanexample,inNyungweNationalParkhabituationeffortsarefocusedonthreegroupsof

chimpanzeesandonbringingtourismmanagementandoperationsinlinewithRwanda’smountain

gorillatourismprogramme(Hurst2007,2008a,b).SitesinCentralAfricathatofferforest-walkswith

achanceofviewingunhabituatedorsemi-habituatedchimpanzeesincludeLobékéinCameroon,

LoangoinGabon,TaïinCôted’IvoireandGolainSierraLeone.

Bonobos:Currently,nositesoffertourismwithbonobos,whichareendemictotheDemocratic

RepublicofCongo(DRC).BonobotourismisplannedatLacTumba/Malebo(WWF2008),andtwo

researchsitesintheLomakoYokokalaFaunalReserve(Dupain2007),whicharealsodeveloping

communityincome-earningactivitiesassociatedwithvisitingresearchers2.NotonlyisDRCemerg-

ingfromoveradecadeofconflict,butalsobonobositesareextremelyremote,sobonobotourism

willlikelycatertosmallnumbersofhardyenthusiastsorhigh-end(wealthy)tourists.Aswithany

otheraperesearchsites,westronglyrecommendthatbonoboresearchersconsulttheseguide-

linesandbeawareofthepotentialriskstheyposetoapesandofpossiblemitigationmeasures.

2 SomeresearchsitesinDRCandCameroonusetheterm‘scientifictourism’todescribetheirincome-earn-ingactivities,includingpaymentsforaccommodationandtechnicalservices,suchasfieldassistants,trackersandguides(Dupainpers.comm.;Taggpers.comm.).

10

Bornean and Sumatran Orangutans:Orangutan tourismwas launched inSepilok,Malaysia, in

the1960s,althoughithasfocusedonrehabilitantorangutansatornearrehabilitationcentres.This

beganasastrategytoprotectwildorangutanpopulationsandreflectedthedifficultiesofobserv-

ingtheleastsocialofthegreatapesinthecanopy.

Orangutanrehabilitationprojectshaveusedtourismtogenerateincometofinanceotherconserva-

tionactivities,whileprovidinglegalsanctuaryforconfiscatedorphansandwithhopesofadvanc-

ingconservationeducation(Frey1975;AvelingandMitchell1982;Rijksen1982).Tworehabilitation

centresthatbeganoperationsinthe1970s(SepilokinSabah,Malaysia,andBohorokinSumatra,

Indonesia)werethefirsttoaccepttouristsandhaveremainedthemost involvedinrehabilitant-

orangutan-basedtourism(althoughBohorokhasbeenclosedasarehabilitationcentreandhas

notreceivedanymoreorangutanssince1995).Thesesiteshaveexperiencedheavytouristinflux:

Bohorokreachedupto35,000visitors inoneyear,althoughnumbersdroppedbelow5,000fol-

lowingaflashfloodin2003thatdestroyedthetourisminfrastructure(RijksenandMeijaard1999;

SingletonandAprianto2001;Dellatore2007).In2006,Sepilokreceived97,000visitors,including

over55,000foreignnationals(Ambu2007).Whileannualrevenueshavebeensignificant(estimated

atbetweenUS$43,000andUS$240,000byRijksenandMeijaard1999),theproblemsarisingfrom

suchheavyvisitationhavebeenwelldocumented(Cochrane1998;SingletonandAprianto2001;

RosenandByers2002;Low2004;Singletonet al.2004;Dellatore2007).Theproblemsconsistof

thedifficultyofcontrollinglargenumbersofvisitors,proximitytoorangutans,illegalfeedingand

unregulatedtourism,allofwhichleadtoreducedorangutansurvivalandover-developmentinthe

localarea(SingletonandAprianto2001).Thesesitesconducttourismatfeedingplatformsnear

therehabilitationcentresorintheadjacentforest.Sometimesguidescallorangutanstoapproach

visitorsandprovidefoodrewards—adangerouspracticethatincreasesdiseaserisksandaggres-

sion,andcan leadto injuryofboth touristsandorangutans (Russon,SusiloandRussell2004;

Dellatore2007).Consequently,expertsrecommendthatnotourismbeallowedwithrehabilitant

orangutansthatareeligiblefororalreadyreturnedtoforestlife(RosenandByers2002).Despite

theIndonesiangovernment’sinvolvementinregulating,ifnothalting,tourismatrehabilitationcen-

tres,somecontinuetooperatetourismunofficially.Arecentanalysisoforangutantourismfound

that57%oftoursvisitedrehabilitantsexclusivelyand97%includedrehabilitants(Russon,Susilo

andRussell2004).Orangutantourismfocusedonrehabilitants,especiallywhenvisitedinunnatu-

ralcontextssuchascagesandfeedingplatformsandbyextremelylargenumbersofvisitors,does

notmeetmanyofthecriteriathatdefineecotourismandassuchshouldnotbepromotedaseco-

tourismorconsideredbestpractice.

Rehabilitant orangutans, Tan-

jung Puting National Park,

Central Kalimantan, Indonesian

Borneo. Photo © Anne Russon.

11

Commercialtourstovisitwildorangutanshavebeenoperatingsincethemid-1980s,butareless

commonthanrehabilitanttours.Theytendtobemoreexpensiveandrequiremoretimeinoran-

gutanhabitat(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Giventheremotenessofsitestypicallyinvolved

andthedifficultiesoffinding,habituatingandobservingwildorangutans,supportfromresearch-

ers,wildlifeornatureconservationagenciesandgovernmentauthoritiesiscriticaltodeveloping

thesetours.Theonlysitesthattouristsvisitregularlywiththeintentionofviewingwildorangutans

areKinabatanganinSabah,Malaysia(Ancrenaz2006)and,toalesserextent,theDanumValleyin

SabahandTanjungPutinginCentralKalimantan,Indonesia,whereafewtouristswalkintheforest

lookingforwildorangutansbutmostseerehabilitants.InKinabatangan,tourismtakestheformof

dawnorduskrivercruiseswithopportunitiestoviewwildorangutansfromaboat,orforestwalks

tovisithabituatedorangutans(Ancrenaz2006).In2008,theKinabatanganprogramme,whichis

operatedandownedbylocalcommunitymembers,receivedUS$95,000from249touristsof14

nationalities(Ancrenazpers.comm.).Therevenueandattentiongeneratedbytourismisprobably

oneofthereasonsthatKinabatanganretainsitsstatusasaconservationarea,demonstratingthe

potentialforviabletourismprogrammesbasedona‘wildernessexperience’andthepossibilityof

viewingwildorangutanswhileexploringtheirhabitat.

3.2 Lessons learned from existing great ape tourism programmes

3.2.1 Greatapetourism—conservationtoolorconservationthreat?

Ape tourism isoftenpromotedasa tool toenhance theconservationstatusandprotectionof

greatapesandtoserveasaprimarydrawtoattractvisitorstoanareaorcountry,therebyenhanc-

ing theprotectionofall speciessharing theirhabitat (Adamsand Infield2003;Litchfield2007).

Nationaltourismprogrammescentredontheopportunitytoviewgreatapeshavelaunchedafew

rangestates,suchasRwandaandUganda,intopremiertouristdestinationsandhaveprovided

significantfundingforconservationactivities,aswellasaccruingtourism-associatedrevenueto

localandnationaleconomies.However,thesesuccessesmaynotbereplicableatothersitesfor

anumberofreasons,andthetourismmarketmaynotbeabletosupportthenumberofsitescur-

rentlyproposingtodevelopgreatapetourism.

Policymakersoftenviewgreatapetourismasarichsourceofrevenue,whichmayruncounterto

theprincipleofkeepingtouristnumberssmallinlinewith‘ecotourism’andnaturetourismdefini-

tions(Macfie2007a).Animportantlessonliesintheprevalenceofbusinessinterestsdrivingpolicy

decisionsandthreateningtheconservationsuccessoftourismprojectsglobally(Kruger2005).In

thedevelopmentofanygreatapetourismactivity,conservationprinciplesmusttakeprecedence

overprofit toprivatesector stakeholdersandothergroups thatearn tourism revenue.Whilea

successful tourismprogrammewillprovidenumerousopportunities for incomegeneration,and

privatesectorengagement inserviceprovision is important (Maddison2004), theprimeaimof

developingandoperatingthisrevenue-generatingmechanismshouldbetosupportthecostsof

greatapeconservationandtoaddresstheneedsofcommunitieslivingadjacenttoapehabitats.If

theprioritiesareallowedtoinvert,withincreasingprofitsfortheprivatesectorbecomingthedriv-

ingforceforgreatapetourism,theprogrammewillhavegonecompletelyoffcourse.

Anumberofnegativeimpactsoftourismaffectnotonlytheapes,butalsolocalcommunitiesand

theenvironment(seeSection4fordiscussionoftheimpactsofgreatapetourism).Therefore,great

apetourismcannotbean idealsolutiontoaddresstheneedforsustainableconservationfund-

ingatallsites.Itmustbeapproachedcautiouslyandshouldonlybeinstigatedinareasthatcan

developandmaintainthestandardsrequiredtoattractaviablesegmentofthemarket,andthat

havethecommitmenttoprinciplesofconservationtoadequatelycontroltourismandmitigateits

negativeimpacts.Onlyifalltheseprerequisitesaremetcantherisksassociatedwithgreatape

tourismbepreventedsothatitdoesnotitselfbecomeaconservationthreat.

3.2.2 Globalinterestingreatapetourismasaconservationstrategy

Anumberofglobalinitiativeshaveadoptedorendorsedgreatapetourismasaconservationstrat-

egy,includingtheGreatApesSurvivalPartnership(GRASP),aUNEP/UNESCOinitiativetosave

greatapesfromextinction.TheKinshasaDeclaration,signedatthefirstGRASPintergovernmental

meetingin2005,promoteseconomicbenefitfromgreatapeecotourismasareasonforensuring

12

theirsurvival(UNEP-GRASP2005),andanumberofgreataperangestatesthatsigneduptothis

declarationarecurrently looking todevelop tourism.Theseeffortsarebeingactivelypromoted

bygovernmentofficials and technical advisors,whoareunderstandably interested in sourcing

sustainableincomefortheirprotectedareaandconservationprogrammes.Similarly,awiderange

ofconservationanddevelopmentdonorsshowinterestintourisminitiatives,sincetheyrepresent

amodelforsustainabilitythatcouldallowconservationareastobeweanedoffdonorfunding.It

isunlikelythattheglobaltourismmarketcansupportanever-growingnumberoftourismsites;

nevertheless,globalinterestbyconservationgroups,donorsandtouristsisanassettotourism

developmentasaconservationstrategyatsitesthatdemonstratebestpractice.

3.2.3 Speciesdifferencesrelevanttogreatapetourism

Thereareanumberofbiosocialandecologicaldifferencesamongthegreatapetaxaandsocio-

politicaldifferencesbetweentheirrangestateswhichcanaffectgreatapetourismasiscurrently

practiced.Itisimpossible,therefore,torecommendasinglemodelofgreatapetourismasbest

practice. Species-specific characteristics and habitat features will greatly affect what can be

achieved in a particular area. Consequently, these guidelines propose common best practices

applicabletoalltaxaandsitestogetherwithnotesonvariationsthatwouldapplyinspecificsitu-

ations(Section5),andpresentexamplesoftourismregulationsfromarangeofsites(AppendixI).

3.2.4 Greatapetouristprofiles

Theprofileofvisitorsattractedtodifferenttourismsitesvarieswitheaseofaccess,physicalfitness

requirements,typesoftourismofferedandinfrastructure.Thesefactorsalsodeterminehowmuch

touristsarewillingtopayfortheexperience(Chafe2004;BushandFawcett2008),howlongthey

stayinthearea,othertouristactivitiestheywillbeinterestedin,accommodationstandards,com-

munityprogrammestheyarewillingtosupport,andconservationawarenessprogrammesthatthe

siteshouldconduct.Theprofileoftouriststoaparticularsitemayalsochangeovertime(Duffus

andDearden1990).Earlyvisitorsaretypicallyknowledgeableandcarefultohavelowimpact,but

astourismbecomesestablished,morevisitorsarrivewhoarelessknowledgeableorconcerned.

Anyparticularsitewillthereforeneedtoevaluatehowitfitsintothemarket,anddesignitstour-

ismandassociatedprogrammesaccordingly,payingattentiontogeneralbestpracticeaswellas

guidelinesspecifictolocalfactors.

Itisalsoimportantthateachsitemaintainsaflexibleapproachtomarketing,pricingandservice

provision,sothatitmayreachouttoothersectorsofthetourismmarketwhenunexpectedsitua-

tions,suchaslackofsecurity,arise,whichmayalterthetypeoftouristwillingtovisitthecountry

orsite(seeSection3.2.8).Thiswillenhancethecontinuityofconservationfundingfromtourism.

Aerial view of Congo Basin

forest. Photo © Liz Williamson.

13

3.2.5 Differenttypesofgreatapetourism

Existinggreatapetourismsitesvaryintheexperiencetheyoffer,rangingfromessentiallyguaran-

teedviewing,whentouristsareabletoviewhabituatedapesthataretrackeddaily,viewingunha-

bituatedorsemi-habituatedapesfromaplatform,toforestwalksorrivercruises,duringwhich

unhabituatedapesmayormaynotbeencounteredbychance.

3.2.6 Managingtouristexpectations

Whendesigningandmarketinggreatapetourismprogrammes,itisimportanttoassesstheexpe-

riencetobeofferedtovisitors.Anyguaranteeofviewingwillheightenthetourists’expectations

andputpressureonfieldstafftomeetthem,evenattheriskoffailingtoadheretorulesandregu-

lations.Theexpectationsforaparticularsitewilldependonthetypeoftourist,thehabitat,the

particularspeciesorsubspeciesbeingvisited3andtheparticularactivityoffered.Activitiesmust

bemarketedappropriatelysothatvisitorsarenotdisappointed,andsothattheyunderstandthey

arecontributingtolower-impacttourismbystayingfurtherawayfromtheanimals,viewingfroma

platform,andnotclearingvegetationtoimprovetheirview(GreerandCipolletta2006).Forexam-

ple,mostwildorangutantoursmarketopportunitiestolookforwildorangutans,butfewpromise

seeingthem(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).

3.2.7 Replicationofsuccessstoriesisnotalwayspossibleordesirable

Thesuccessofmountaingorillatourismhas,overtheyears,stimulatedaflurryofprojectshoping

toreplicatethesesuccesseswithothergreatapesandespeciallywithwesterngorillas(e.g.,Gami

1999;Lanjouw1999a,b;DjohandvanderWal2001;Focken2002).Westerngorillatourismpro-

grammeswilllikelybelesssuccessfulforanumberofreasons,andshouldnotbepromotedpurely

foreconomicbenefits,duetoconcernsaboutfinancialviability(WilkieandCarpenter1999;Blom

2000,2001,2004;Wilkie,CarpenterandZhang2001;Williamsonet al.2002).However,ifsustain-

able long-termfinancial supporthasbeencommittedandsignificantconservationbenefitsare

expected,thentourismcouldbejustified(GreerandCipolletta2006).Expertshavealsodebated

whetherCriticallyEndangeredtaxa,suchastheCrossRivergorilla(Gorilla gorilladiehli),should

behabituated foranypurpose,whether tourismor research.Theseguidelinesarenotprescrip-

tive;ifthenetconservationoutcome,aspredictedbysuitablydesignedandconductedfeasibility

andimpactanalyses,isbeneficialtoaCriticallyEndangeredpopulation,tourismmaybeaviable

tool.Highlyfragmentedpopulationsthatarealreadyunderpressuremaynotbeabletowithstand

theimpactsoftourism,despitetheaspirationsofstakeholderswhoseetourismasameansof

development.

3.2.8 Insecurityaffectstourismmarkets

Manygreatapesliveincountriesthathavesufferedfromcivilwar(e.g.,Côted’Ivoire,Liberiaand

SierraLeoneinAfrica;theAcehProvinceofSumatrainIndonesia).Greatapetourismsites,espe-

ciallythosecateringprimarilytothemorerisk-averseluxurytourismmarket,willfindoccupancy

ratesplummetingfollowinghigh-profileincidentsinwhichtouristsareeithertargets(e.g.,Bwindi

in1999)orunintendedvictims,asintheBalibombingsin2002and2005,whichcanresultina

perceptionofregionalinsecurity.Duetotheficklenatureoftheluxurytouristmarket,itisimportant

nottoexcludeaverageorlower-budgettravellers,asthesevisitorswillreturnmorequicklytosites

thatmayhaveacquirednotorietyfor insecurityorcrime.However,onamorepositivenote, ifa

particularsitealreadyhasahighreputation,tourismmayreboundrelativelyquicklyafternegative

events,asevidencedbythespeedwithwhichtourismrecoveredinRwandaafterthegenocide,

andevenduringrebelactivityintheDRC.

3 Forexample,chimpanzeesaremoremobilethangorillasandorangutans,requiringgreaterphysicalexer-tionforthevisitortokeepup,whilephotographicopportunitieswillbelimitedbytheapes’location(intrees,ontheground,orindensevegetation).Thereforemanagingexpectationsmusttakeintoaccountthespecificconditionsofthesite.

14

3.2.9 Globaleconomyaffectstourismmarkets

Whilenotspecifictogreatapetourism,globaleconomicswillaffecttheviabilityoftourismpro-

grammes.Occupancyratescanfallfollowingeconomicinstability,aswasseeninfallingbookings

andincreasingcancellationsatmanyinternationaldestinationsfollowingthe2008-09globaleco-

nomiccrisis(UNWTO2009).Thetypesoftouristthattendtovisitaparticularsitewilldetermine

thatsite’svulnerabilitytoeconomicfluctuations.Asitethatreliesonlower-budgetbackpackers

andadventuretouristsmaybelessaffectedasthesepeopledonotusuallyusetheirlifesavings

tofundtheirtrips.Thishighlightsthevalueofofferingservicesandactivitiesthatappealtoawide

varietyoftourists,astherisksofmarketfluctuationswillbebuffered.

3.2.10 Habituation—aninvariablylongandriskyundertaking

Greatapetaxadifferwidelyintheeffortrequiredtohabituatethem:mountaingorillagroupshave

beenhabituatedinaslittleasoneyear,buttakeonaveragetwoyears;westernlowlandgorillas

andchimpanzeeswillallowhumanstoapproachtoreasonableviewingdistances(10–20metres)

aftertwotofiveyearsofconsistentfollows(WilliamsonandFeistner2003;GreerandCipolletta

2006).Theeaseofhabituationdependsonthespecies/subspecies’characteristics,thenatureof

theirpreviousexperiencewithhumansandstructureoftheirhabitat(TutinandFernandez1991;

vanKrunkelsvenet al.1999).Visibilityinlowlandforestispoorandgreatapesareusuallyobscured

evenwithin10metresofanobserver,whilstsuddencontactsaredifficulttoavoidindenseforest

andmayhinderhabituationbyfrighteningtheanimalsorcausingphysicaldangertoapesandvisi-

torsalike(Williamson1988).However,itisimportanttonoteexperienceswithmountaingorillas,

wherelowvegetationanduneventopographyprovideidealconditionsforobservation,occasion-

allyfromtheoppositesideofaravine;orwitheasternchimpanzeesthatcanbeobservedacross

avalleywithbinoculars.

Habituationoforangutansisalsoachallengingendeavourduetotheircrypticandsemi-solitary

nature.Wildorangutansareelusiveandoftendifficulttolocateintheforest.Habituationinvolves

followingloneindividuals,requiringskilledanddedicatedstafftodonest-to-nestfollows.When

first encountered, most orangutans display agonism by kiss-squeaking or long calls (flanged

males),andbreakingandthrowingbranches.Someorangutanshideinthecanopywithoutmoving

forhoursorevendays,aslongaspeopleremainnearby,whileothersfleerapidlyalongtheground

or from tree to tree. In Kinabatangan, habituation can take only 10–14 days (but this may be

due to lownatural fearofhumans resulting fromtheabsenceofhunting in thearea,Ancrenaz

Care should be taken to prevent

access to tourist infrastructure

by habituated apes! Photo ©

Uwe Kribus.

15

pers. comm.) and Sumatran orangutans have been habituated in as few as 3 days (Singleton,

pers.comm.).Nevertheless,someorangutansseemresistanttohabituationandtheseindividuals

shouldnotbepursued(Ancrenazpers.comm.).

Habituationcarriesanumberofrisksforbothgreatapesandhumans(WilliamsonandFeistner

2003;Goldsmith2004,2005a).Oneknownnegativeimpactisstress,whichcanbebothinferred

frombehaviouralreactions(e.g.,orangutansstayingintheirnestsfordaystoavoidhumans)and

confirmedwithcorticosteroidmonitoring (CzekalaandRobbins2001;Nizeyi2005).Stresscan

havemanyconsequences,includingdeleteriousimpactsonreproductivesuccessandonhealth,

such as reduced immunity to illness, and may cause aberrant behaviour. Whether from stress

or fromotherbehavioural reactions tohumanpresence,habituationmayresult in temporaryor

longer-termalterationstonormalrangingpatternssuchashome-rangeuseandday-rangelength

(Goldsmith2005b;McFarland2007). If thispushestheanimalsoutofprotectedareasand into

contactwithadjacentareasusedbyhumans,thepotentialforincreasedhuman-greatapeconflict

andexposuretohumandiseaseswillrise(Macfie2007a;HockingsandHumle2009).Ifapesasso-

ciatehumansettlementswithfood,thiswillalsoresultinbehaviouralchangeandrangealteration.

Riskstohumansconductinghabituationeffortscanbepredictedfromthereactionsoftheapes

underhabituation.Whilehabituationisdesignedtoslowlyreducethedistancesatwhichhuman

observersaretoleratedwithoutaggressionorfearfulreactions,initsearlystagessomeindividuals

mayattackthoseworkingtohabituatethem,resultingininjuryandexposingbothtohigherrisks

ofdiseasetransmission.Bestpracticesforthehabituationofgreatapesareneededtoguideape

researchortourismsites.

Nonetheless,itisimportanttobalancetherisksagainstthepositivesideeffectsthathabituation

canhaveontheabilityoffieldstafftomonitorandprotectgreatapes.Withtourismprogrammes,

the fact thatguidesandtrackers followapegroupseveryday facilitateshealthmonitoringand

surveillanceofillegalactivities,allowingforpromptattentiontoanypoachingorencroachmentin

thearea,andveterinaryinterventions,suchassnareremovals.

ReportsfromtheVirungaspresentthepercentageofimmaturegorillasinthepopulationasanindi-

catorofreproductivehealthandtoassesshabituationimpact.Long-termrecordsshowthatthe

percentageofimmaturemountaingorillashasbeenhigherinhabituatedvs.unhabituatedgorillas

(WeberandVedder1983;Kalperset al.2003).Thismaybeconfoundedbytheselectionoflarge,

reproductivegroupsfortourismorresearch,orby improvedlawenforcement inthehabituated

groups’homeranges,butasaconsistentfindingover20yearsofconservationefforts,atleast

suggeststhathabituationdoesnotautomaticallyleadtoreproductivefailureinagroup.

3.2.11 Enforcementoftourismregulationsiscritical,butoftensuboptimal

Sitesofferinggreatape tourismoperateunderanumberofbookingsystems, rulesandregula-

tionsdesignedtoprotecttheirtargetspeciesfromthenegativeimpactsoftourism.However,at

somesitestheserulesandregulationsareignoredmuchifnotallofthetime(Sandbrook2006;

SandbrookandSemple2006;Dellatore2007;Whittier2009).Atanumberofsiteswitheasyaccess

andahighchanceofviewingapes,tourismmanagementthatatfirstenforcedstrictadherence

to tight controls has relaxed over time, suggesting that continued reinforcement of the ration-

alebehindtourismrulesandregulations isneeded.Controls failbecauseconservation isoften

not thefirstpriorityofkeyactors,suchasbookingclerks, tracker-guides,or the tourists them-

selves,whoseprioritiesmayruncountertoconservation,eitherthroughignoranceorselfishness.

Problemsincludepressurefromprivatesectoroperatorsonharriedbookingclerks,whichresults

inoverbooking;trackersandguideswhorelaxorignoreregulationstoobtainbettertips,tourists

whodonotunderstandorcareabouttherisksandputpressureontheirguidestogetcloser,and

evenunscrupulousstafforcommunitymembersoperatingadditionalvisitstohabituatedapesto

earnextraincomewithoutdepositingthetrackingfeeswiththeappropriateinstitution.Allofthese

examplesincreasethepotentialfornegativeimpactsontheapeswithoutprovidinganyconserva-

tionbenefits.Continuous improvementandenforcementof rules, regulationsandsystems that

supportapetourismasaconservation-basedactivityarethereforecritical,asisawareness-raising

amongtouristsandtourismprofessionalspriortotheirarrival.Withoutimprovedenforcementof

16

therulesandregulationsdesignedtoprotectapesfrompotentialrisk,apetourismwillnotbea

viableorevenanacceptablecomponentoftheconservationtoolkit.

3.2.12 EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentsandfeasibilitystudies

Aswithanyproposeddevelopmentthathasthepotentialtoimpactwildlifeandnaturalprocesses,

feasibility and impact assessments are critical in theplanningphaseof anygreat ape tourism

project. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) are mandated by many range-state environ-

mentalmanagementauthoritiesand,iftailoredtotheparticularcontext,willallowstakeholdersto

evaluateanumberofimpacts.Wheneverhabituationisbeingconsidered,itisextremelyimportant

toconductafullcost-benefitanalysis,astherearemanyadvantagesanddisadvantagestohabitu-

ation,bothforthegreatapesthemselves,aswellasfortheinstitutionsthatwillmanageitsout-

comes.TheInternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP)hasdevelopedastandardised

tooltoguidethisanalysisbyaskingalltheappropriatequestions,sourcingallthenecessarydata,

andundergoingabalancedreviewtomakeinformedrecommendations.Thisprocesshasbeen

dubbed the ‘Habituation ImpactAssessment’orHIA (Macfie2007a).A recentstudy inNigeria

lookedatthefeasibilityofdevelopingCrossRivergorillatourism(Macfie2007b).Conductingsuch

studiesandanalysescanbeexpensivebut the investment is favourablecomparedto thehigh

costsofdevelopingtourismatasitethatturnsouttobeunviable,andthecostinconservation

termsofcarryingoutanactivitythatcauseshardshiptotheveryspeciesitwasdesignedtoprotect.

3.2.13 Impactstudiesandmonitoringarecritical

Thenon-extractivenatureofviewingwildanimals intheirnaturalenvironmentoftenleadstoan

assumptionof sustainability, yet theseprogrammesaregenerallyestablished in fragileenviron-

ments,openingthemuptoamassmarketinwhichwildlifeisrepeatedlyandactivelysoughtout

(JacobsonandFigueroaLopez1994;Tapper2006).Littleisknownofthetrueimpactsoftourism

ongreatapes,theirphysicalenvironment,orotherresidentwildlife,andevenless isquantified.

Difficultiesarecompoundedbyalackofbaselinedata,problemsofseparatingouttheeffectsof

tourismfromotherimpactssuchasnaturalenvironmentalchange,andthelengthoftimeforsome

effectstobecomeapparent(Briassoulis1991).

Giventheseconstraints,impactstudiesconductedduring35yearsofgreatapetourismprovide

valuabledatatoinformtherecommendationsforbestpracticeinmanaginggreatapetourism:

Western lowland gorilla, Loango

National Park, Gabon. Photo ©

Josephine Head/MPI-EVAN.

17

• Studiesassessingthebehaviouralimpactsanddiseaserisksincurredbymountain

gorillatourismhaveledtomorerestrictiverules,suchasanincreaseintheminimum

viewingdistancefrom5to7metres(Homsy1999),andtheimportanceoflimiting

thedurationoftouristvisits(Fawcett2004;Muyambi2005).

• Chimpanzeeresearchandtourismprojectshavedocumentedknownhumanpatho-

genscausingmortalityinwildchimpanzees(WallisandLee1999;Leendertzet al.

2006;KaurandSingh2008;Köndgenet al.2008)andhaveproventhatthewearing

ofsurgicalmasksisbothfeasible(TANAPAandFZS2007)andeffectiveindisease

prevention(Boesch2008;Lukasik-BraumandSpelman2008).

• Evaluation of three decades of orangutan tourism has provided opportunities to

documentandimprovemanagementpractices(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).

Recent research (Dellatore2007)hasshown that thebehaviouroforangutans is

significantlyalteredbytourisminBukitLawang,whichincludesbothwildandex-

captiveorangutans.Themainchangesrecordedincluderestrictedranging(staying

inareasofhightourismuse),alteredactivitybudgets(lessforaging),increasedinci-

denceofaggressiontowardspeople,andhighinfantmortality.Ofparticularconcern

isthepracticeoffeedingorangutanstoeitherenticethemtoapproachtouristsorto

appeasethemwhentheyapproachandattempttostealfood.Thisstudyconcluded

thatbehaviouralhealthandreproductivesuccessarepoorandthattourismmustbe

restructuredtobettermanageandprotecttheorangutanpopulation.

• The implementation of programmes monitoring the movements, behaviour and

healthstatusofgreatapesaffectedbytourismisvitaltodetectandmitigateknown

and emerging impacts (e.g., Kaur and Singh 2008) and to inform the design of

impactmitigationmeasuressuchasemployeehealthmonitoring(Aliet al.2004).

• Bio-monitoringactivitiescontributetomoreeffectiveandsafertourismprogrammes.

For example, part of the success of the mountain gorilla tourism programme is

due toextensiveknowledgeofgorilladiet,daily-traveldistanceand rangingpat-

ternsthatmakeitpossibletopredictgroupmovementsandlocatethegorillaswith

relativeease.Predictabilityofdaily-activity rhythms isalso important for thetour-

ismprogrammeandvisits are timed tocoincidewithgorillas’ restperiodswhen

possible,facilitatingexcellentobservationconditionsforthevisitors(Plumptreand

Williamson2001).

• Onegapinthestudyofgreatapetourismtodateisthelackofmonitoringofnega-

tiveimpactsonthehabitat,especiallyincaseswhererelativelysmallareasofforest

areusedintensively.Itisalsopossiblethatprotectionandlawenforcementefforts

carriedouttosupporttourismmayresultinpositiveimpactsonforesthabitat,and

theseshouldbemonitoredanddocumented.

3.2.14 Greatapetourismasadevelopmenttoolforlocalcommunities

Benefitsfromgreatapetourismthataccrueatthelocallevelcanbeconsiderable.Revenue-sharing

schemeshavebeensuccessfullyestablishedatanumberoftourismsites(Ancrenazet al.2007;

ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves2001).Around themountaingorilla tourismhubofBuhoma in

BwindiImpenetrableNationalPark(BINP)inUganda,thevalueoftourismrevenuereachinglocal

peopleismorethanfourtimesthevalueofallotherrevenuesourcescombined(Sandbrook2008;

Blomley et al.2010).Directemploymentasaguideortrackerisamuch-valuedbenefitinareas

whereformalemploymentopportunitiesarescarce:TheBaiHokouprojecthiresover60BaAka

pygmiesonarotationalsystem(Hodgkinson2009),whilstmountaingorillaconservationorgani-

sationsareestimatedtoemployaround150people(MGVP2004).Indirectbenefitsmayalsobe

stimulated,suchaslocally-ownedenterprises,orrevenue-sharingschemesthatfundinfrastruc-

turesuchasschoolsandhospitals(Sandbrook2006).Tourismcanalsogiveresidentsasenseof

prideandownership—importantfactorswhichcontributedtoparkstaffremainingattheirposts

duringperiodsofextremeinsecurityintheVirungas(PlumptreandWilliamson2001).

Yetcautionshouldbeexercisedbeforeassumingthat thesebenefitswillbothcompensatepro-

gramme-related costs and lead to altered behaviour towards conservation efforts. Adams and

18

Infield (2003) concluded that a revenue-sharing scheme around the Mgahinga Gorilla National

Park inUgandadidnotpromotepro-conservationattitudes,afindingrepeatedinotherstudies

(Hodgkinson2009).Blomleyet al.(2010)reportedapositiverelationshipbetweencommunityatti-

tudesandcommunitydevelopmentprogrammesaroundthesameUgandanparks,althoughthis

impactwasconcentratedinthetourismhubsandwasnotwidespread.However,themostcom-

monlyreportedcausebehindanobservedreductioninthelevelofillegalactivitieswasincreased

law-enforcementeffort, indicating the importantandcomplementary role that lawenforcement

playsinachievingconservationoutcomes.

Wheresignificantbenefitsaregenerated,seriousconsiderationmustbegiventotheirdistribution,

to avoid disbursing benefits in a manner unconnected with conservation objectives, thus limit-

ingtheireffectivenessincontributingtocostreparationorpovertyreduction.Aclearexampleis

accesstoemploymentopportunities,usuallydictatedbyeducationlevel,gender,ageanddomi-

nationbylocalelites(Sandbrook2006).Thesechallengesareexacerbatedbythesheerscaleof

povertyandhighhumanpopulationdensitiesaroundsomegreatapetourismsites.Forexample,

whiletheSabyinyoLodgeinRwandageneratedover$100,000for localcommunities in itsfirst

yearofoperations,whenviewedinlightofthenumbersofpeoplelivinginthearea,thistranslated

toonly$10perperson(Mwinepers.comm.).Blomleyet al. (2010)reportthatwhiletheBwindi

tourismprogrammeappearstohavebeeneffectiveatdeliveringbothindividualandcollectiveben-

efits,andmakingthelinkbetweenthesebenefitsandthepresenceofgorillas,ithasfailedtoreach

thepoorestmembersofthecommunity.Furthermore,benefitsmaynotbeviewedasadequate

compensationiftheyareprovidedinaformwhichisinappropriateorthatindividualsfailtovalue.

Insummary,ifgreatapetourismistobeeffectiveasadevelopmenttool,thereneedstobevery

carefulconsiderationofboththecostsandbenefitsbeingaccrued,andhowtheyaredistributed

amonglocalresidents,whoaretoooftendisenfranchisedandlivinginextremepoverty.Tourism

programmesshouldemphasiseactiveparticipationofthepoorestmembersoflocalcommunities.

3.2.15 Importanceofeconomicvaluationsandtourismdemandstudies

Whendevelopingormonitoringgreatapetourismitistempting,especiallyforgovernmentsand

theprivate sector, to regard theeconomicbenefitsas the raison d’être for theseprogrammes.

However,itisimportantthatincomefromgreatapetourismisnotseenastheultimateobjective,

butasanadditionalbenefitofthisconservationtool.

Bonobo, Lui Kotale, Salonga

National Park, DRC. Photo ©

Caroline Deimel/MPI-EVAN.

19

Somecountrieshaveexpandedtheirtourismprogrammesbyincreasingthenumbersoftourists

visitingeachgroupofapesand/orincreasingthenumberofapegroupsvisitedbytourists,which

exacerbatestheriskstotheapesandtheirhabitats.However,researchshowsthatmanytourists

wouldbewillingtopayhigherfeesforanexperiencethatismoreexclusiveandappearslessintru-

sive,withsmallergroupsoftourists(BushandFawcett2008).

Inaddition,anumberofstudieshavepointedoutthefallacyintheassumptionthattourismrev-

enuesstayin-countryand/ortrickledowntobenefitthelocalpeoplewhobearthecostsofliving

near toapehabitats.While tourismrevenuesdo fund theparkauthorities, themostsignificant

revenuesaccrue internationally (Cochrane1998;Moyini2000;HatfieldandMalleret-King2006;

Sandbrook2008).Tourismdevelopmentactivitiesshouldthereforeaddressmeansofmaximising

therevenuethatisretainedin-country,andespeciallylocally.

Studiesoftourismeconomicsareusefultodemonstrateissuesoftheviabilityofapetourism,which

isthoughttobeunviableatmanysites(Font,CochraneandTapper2004;WilkieandCarpenter

1999;Baboulene2008).AcasestudyofDzanga-Sanghaconcludedthattourismwasunlikelyto

covermanagementcostsortoplayasignificantroleinthelong-termfinancingoftheprotected

area(Blom2000).However,tourismisasignificantsourceofemployment inthatregionandis

increasinglyimportanttothelocaleconomy,involvinglocalpeopleinsustainableeconomicdevel-

opmentactivities.Tourismrevenuehasalsocontributedtogreateracceptanceoftheconservation

projectbylocalpopulationsandsubsequentlyhasimprovedcompliancewithconservationregula-

tions.Therefore,itisimportanttoconsiderhowapetourismrevenuesareaccruedanddisbursed,

andtoadjusttheperceptionthatapetourismexistsprimarilytogenerateincomeforrangestate

governmentsandparkauthorities.

3.2.16 Importanceofmanagementevaluationsoftourismstaffconduct

Apetourismsitesmightbewelldesignedandstrivetowardsbestpractice,withstrictrulesand

regulationsdeveloped,disseminatedandprominentlydisplayed.Nonetheless,itiscommonthat

evenafterpresentingtheregulationsdirectly to tourists,staff thenmanagea touristvisit invio-

lationofoneormore regulations,mostcommonlyconcerning theminimumdistance rule (e.g.,

SandbrookandSemple2006).Thismaybesimplyduetothedifficultyofmanagingtourists,or

unpredictablemovementsbytheapes,butinmanycasesitisduetotheabsenceofsupervision,

monitoringandenforcement,andattimesexacerbatedbythedesiretogeneratelargertips.Ifstaff

areregularlymonitoredandevaluatedontheirconductofatouristvisit,andresultsarediscussed

openlybytheevaluator,staffwillimprovetheirtourismmanagement.

3.2.17 Location,location,location

Touristsseekinggreatapetourismopportunitiesmaybedrawntoaparticularsitebyitseaseof

access,orpreciselytheopposite;locationisthereforekey.Proximitytowell-establishedwildlife

tourismcircuits,suchasthesavannahsafarisinEastAfrica,mayboostoccupancyratesforape

tourismsites.ThismayhelptoexplainwhytourisminCentralAfricahasbeenslowertodevelop

eveninthebetter-establishedandrelativelyaccessiblesites,despitetheirabundantandcharis-

maticwildlife.Conversely,forsometouriststheopportunitytogetawayfromtheusualcircuitsis

appealing,andtheywillconsidertheextraeffortrequiredtogettonewsitesinremotelocations

worthwhile.

3.2.18 Provisioning/feedingisnotappropriateforhabituationortourism

Intheearlyyearsofprimateresearchanumberofsitesusedfoodtofacilitatehabituation.Over

time,anumberofriskfactorsdevelopedwithprovisioning,includingbehaviouralalteration,aggres-

sionbetweengroupmembers,aggressiontowardsobserversleadingtoinjury,reduceddistance

orcontactthatincreasesdiseaserisks,andparasitecontaminationoffeedingsites(Wrangham

1974;WallisandLee1999;BertolaniandBoesch2008).Aperesearchsitesdiscontinuedprovi-

sioningbecauseoftheserisks,butitiscontinuedatsomeex-captiveorangutansites,wherethe

parkauthorities feedorangutansatdesignatedplatformsand insomecases localguidesflout

therulesbyfeedingorangutansinother,unregulatedlocationswheretheyenticeorangutansto

approachwithfood,puttingbothorangutansandtouristsindanger(Dellatore2007).Thepotential

fornegativeimpactsontheapes,orforlitigationincasesoftouristinjury,suggestthatprovisioning

20

shouldbestopped,evenwhencarriedoutbygovernmentbodies.Ifunregulatedfeedingoccurs,

monitoringandenforcement,combinedwitheducation,arecriticaltohaltingthisdangerousactiv-

ity.Itwouldalsobeadvisabletoreducethefeedingofex-captivesatplatformstotheminimum

necessaryfortheirsurvivalandmonitoring,andtheseplatformsshouldnotbeusedasatourist

attraction.Oncefeedingisnolongerasurvivalrequirement,itshouldbediscontinued.

3.2.19 Reducingdisease-transmissionwithN95surgicalrespiratormasks

Thewearingofsurgical facemasksbypeoplecoming intoproximitywithapes in researchand

tourismprojectshasbeenmuchdebated,sinceoneofthebiggestrisksofhuman–apedisease

transmissioncomesintheformofair-bornepathogens(Cranfield2006).Respiratorydiseaseis

themostprevalentcauseofmortalityinsomeapepopulations(WallisandLee1999;Nutteret al.

2005;Hanamuraet al.2007;Kauret al.2008;Whittier,NutterandStoskopf2009).In1999,IGCP’s

assessmentofthemountaingorillatourismrules(Homsy1999)recommendedincreasingthemin-

imum-viewingdistancefrom5to7metres,onthebasisofresearchondistancesthatrespiratory

dropletsandaerosolisedparticlescantravel.However,duetoconcernsaboutmaskmanagement

andcompliance,thedecisiontousemaskswaspostponed,pendingfurtherevidenceofthelink

betweendiseasetransmissionandhumanpresence.

When reviewingmaskeffectiveness, it is important to remember thatmuchof the literatureon

facemasksassessesprotectionofthewearerfrominfection,butinthecaseoftourismapoten-

tially-infectious person is wearing the mask and our concern is to keep infectious particles in,

notout.Thereareanumberofprosandconsassociatedwiththeuseofmasks.Positivefactors

includethatunderidealconditionsmasksareaneffectivebarriertoexhaledpathogens.Although

maskeffectivenesslessensovertimeorinlessthanidealconditions,thereductioninlargeparticle

aerosolisationisstillfarmoreeffectivethanwearingnothing.Argumentsagainsttheuseofmasks

includethefactthatapesmustbehabituatedtovisitorswearingthem.Touristsalsomustbeedu-

catedtoensurecompliance,especiallyasanydiscomfortassociatedwiththemaskcouldreduce

compliance.Undercoolersituations,suchasathighaltitude,poorlyfittingmasksmaycausefog-

gingofglassesandinterferewithphotographyandbinocularuse4.Theburdenofensuringmask

supply isalsoaconcern,asmasksvary ineffectiveness,andmasksofappropriatequalityare

essentialtotheprotectiveproperties.Wastemanagementisalsoanissue,asmasksdroppedin

theforestwouldbecomefomitescarryingconcentratedpotentially-infectiousparticleswithsignifi-

cantdiseaserisk.

Anumberofhigh-profilediseaseoutbreaks inapepopulationshavebeen reported (Wallisand

Lee1999;Ferber2000;Leendertzet al.2004;Hanamuraet al.2007;Hosaka2008;Köndgenet

al.2008),aswellasdatashowingthat, intherightwindconditions,contaminateddropletscan

traveluptothreetimestherecommended7metreminimumdistance(Cranfield2006).Reports

frommultiplesitesconfirmthattherulesestablishedtoprotectapesfromdiseasetransmission

arenotenforcedadequatelyorconsistentlyandthatsafedistancesarenotmaintained(Sandbrook

andSemple2006;Dellatore2007;NakamuraandNishida2009).Consequently,thereisincreasing

advocacyfortheuseoffacemasksbygreataperesearchers,touristsandstaff,inadditiontoother

diseasepreventionmeasures.Thispracticeiscurrentlymorecommonatresearchsites,especially

thosethathaveexperiencedfataldiseaseoutbreaksintheirstudypopulation(e.g.,TaïNational

Park,Côted’Ivoire);however,useofmasksisalsoontheriseattourismsites(e.g.,chimpanzee

tourisminMahaleMountainsNationalPark,Hanamuraet al.2006;mountaingorillatourisminthe

DRCandRwanda,Hurst2008c;MGVP2008,2009).

Masksvaryinqualityandefficiency.Themaindifferencesbetweenamaskandarespiratorarethat

masksfitrelativelylooselyandprotectthewearerfromlargeaerosolparticletransmissionwhereas

respiratorshaveasealingsurfaceandfittightlyoverthenoseandmouth—theyaredesignedto

preventbothsmallandlargeparticleaerosoltransmission(CDC2004;CDC2006).N95respirators

areofbetterqualityandhaveabetterfitandsealthanbasicsurgicalmasks,therebyproviding

4 MGVP(2008)testedN95‘duck-bill’shapedrespirators,whichprovidemorebreathingroom,andfoundthattheyaremorecomfortable,notashotanddonotcauseeyeglassestofogupasoften.

21

improvedpreventionofaerosolisedparticletransmission.ThebettersealofanN95maskmaypro-

videsomerelieffromfoggingofcameralensesorbinoculars,butconverselythesealmayreduce

comfortandcomplianceiftouristsfeelitismoredifficulttobreathe.Facialhairisalsoaproblem,

astheseal isnolongerensured.Guidanceonfittingandwearingofmasksmustbepresented

beforeapproachingagroupofapes,whenthetouristswillberushing.Masksareonlyeffectiveif

theyarewornproperly.

Werecommendthatmulti-layered,surgical-qualityN95(orhigher5)respiratorsbewornwhenever

touristsorstaffapproachapestoadistanceof10metresorless,thatthesemustbeproperlyused

anddisposedof,andthatwearingamaskmustnotbeconsideredjustificationforweakeningother

diseasepreventionrules.IfN95masksarenotavailable,papersurgicalmasksmaybeused.N95

respiratormaskscostapproximatelyUS$0.40eachplusthecostofshipping.Thisissmallcom-

paredtotheoverallcostofgreatapetourismoperations,althoughthereliabilityofsupplychains

hastobeassured.Issuesofcomplianceandeffectivenesswillbecriticalinthemanagementof

masksaspartofadiseasepreventionprogramme.Compliance,comfort,touristacceptanceand

maskdisposalshouldallbemonitoredandtheresultsusedtoinformandimproveregulationsand

procedures.FormoreinformationonN95respiratorsseeAppendixII.

3.2.20 Theproblemoftourismwithformerly-captivegreatapes

Tourismtoviewex-captivegreatapes,whilenotthemainfocusofthisdocument,takesplaceata

numberofsites.Ex-captiveandwildapes,especiallyorangutans,interactatsomesites,sothere

maynotbeaclearwildvs.captivedistinction(seetableinSection2.4.1).Duetotheparticularrisks

posedbyoverhabituation,specialistsrecommendthattourismbediscontinuedwithrehabilitants

eligibleforrelease,oralreadyreleasedtofreeforestlife,andinforestswhererehabilitantsrange

(RosenandByers2002).SimilarlythePanAfricanSanctuaryAlliance(PASA)doesnotendorse

tourismwithex-captivesduetothehighriskstotouristsandfieldstaff(Carlsenet al.2006).

5 Respiratorsthatfilterouthigherpercentagesofaerosolisedparticlesarealsoacceptable(N99orN100),butmoreexpensive.

Tourists wearing N95 surgical

masks, Virunga National Park,

DRC. Photo © Virunga National

Park.

22

Despite the Indonesian government’s agreement to halt tourism with ex-captives, it still takes

placeatanumberoforangutansites(e.g.,severalsitesinTanjungPutingNationalParkandaround

NyaruMentenginCentralKalimantan,BohorokinSumatra).Tourismtoex-captiveorangutansis

oftenpoorlycontrolled,whichjeopardisesbothorangutanconservationandtheeducationration-

aleofsuchvisits,and reduces the likelihoodofsuccessful rehabilitation (RijksenandMeijaard

1999;Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Recentanalysessuggestthatexistingsitesmustprohibit

the feedingof free-rangingrehabilitantorangutansbytouristguides,andenforcementmustbe

ensuredbypatrolstopreventillegalfeedingandenticingoforangutansontotouristtrails(Dellatore

2007).Formaleducationprogrammestargetinglocaltourguides,rangers,andtouroperators,as

wellasthetourists(local,nationalandinternational)shouldpromoteawarenessofthedangersof

feedingfree-rangingorangutans,especiallyex-captives.Thiswillservetoregulatehumanbehav-

iourintheforest(Dellatore2007).

3.2.21 Conclusionsfromlessonslearned

Giventhehighcostofdevelopingtourismandtheassociatedinfrastructure,alongwiththeneed

toensureprotectionofhabituatedapesinperpetuity,theestablishmentofnewapetourismsites

shouldneverbeundertaken lightly. In addition, themanagement requirements todevelopand

effectivelyimplementtourismarelabour-intensiveandneedmajorcommitmentsintermsoffinan-

cialandhumanresources.Addedtotheequationisconsiderationofthemultitudeofimpactsof

greatapetourism.Itisimperative,therefore,thatanypotentialapetourismprojectbesubjectto

afull,objectiveanalysisof itsfeasibility, impactandsustainability, includingamulti-stakeholder

review,beforefundingiscommittedandbeforepromisesaremadetolocalcommunitiesastothe

arrivaloftourismanditsassociateddevelopment.Onlysitesthathaveagoodchanceofsuccess,

asjudgedbyindependentfeasibilityandimpactanalyses,andthatdemonstratethecommitment

necessarytoexertmaximumcontrolandimpactmitigationinlinewiththesebestpracticeguide-

lines,shouldbedeveloped.

Volcanoes National Park,

Rwanda. Photo © Lynn Barrie

and Frances Broussard

23

Benefits Assumptions Notes

Monitoring:Regularvisitationenhancesmonitoring.

• Fundingformonitoringprogrammesissecured.

• Monitoringplanmustbeinplacebeforehabituationbegins.

Veterinary surveillance and care: Habituationandregularvisitsfacilitatehealthmonitoring,resultinginquickerdiagnosisandrapidintervention.

• Fundingforveterinarysurveillanceandresponseteamissecured.

• Humanexpertiseandlaboratoryfacilitiesareinplaceandaccessible.

• Finalisehealthmonitoring,treatmentanddiseaseoutbreakcontingencyplansbeforehabituationbegins.

Law enforcement:Knownhomeranges,habituationandincreasedobserverpresenceimproveprotectionofapegroupsorindividualsbylaw-enforcementteams.

• Securityintheregionallowslaw-enforcementmonitoring.

• Finance,logisticsandstaffareinplacetosupport/implementenforcement.

• Increaseenforcementpresenceinareabeforehabituation.

Revenue generation:Potentialsourceoftourismrevenuefortheprotectedarea,throughfeesforapeviewing,trackingandassociatedactivities(e.g.naturewalks,accommodation).

• Local,regional,internationalsecuritysituationallowstourism.

• Financialsystemsareinplacetoensuresufficientrevenueremainswithapehabitatmanagementtocoverconservationcosts.

• Touristsareinterestedandwillingtovisitandtakeuppermits.

• Tourismiswellmanaged.

• Financialanalysisofpotentialrevenuetobegeneratedthroughgreatapetourismactivitiesisessentialtoimpactassessment.

Community benefits:Potentialsourceofmonetaryandnon-monetarybenefitsforcommunities.

• Methodstoensurerevenuestreamstocommunitiesinplace.

• Projectdesignedsothatcommunitiesareinvolvedatallstagesofprojectdevelopment.

• Developorexpandbenefit-sharingsystemstoabsorbrevenue.

• Buildcapacitytoensurethatcommunitiesplayanactiveroleinbenefitsharing.

Benefits to private sector: Tourismrevenuesaccruingthroughmultipliereffectstoprivatesectorintourismandserviceindustries—state,national,regional,international.

• Touristsareinterestedandwillingtovisit,takeuppermitsandvisitotherattractions.

• Privatesectortourismindustrywellmanaged,withtrainingensured.

• Marketingtoenhancerevenuestreamsthatspin-offfromtourismpermits.

National economic benefits: Increasedgovernmentearningsfromtaxes,visasandotherincomeassociatedwithtourism.

• Effectivenationalfinancesystems.• Transparency.

Community participation and support:Increasedparticipationbyandsupportfromlocalcommunitiesforprotectedareas,forestmanagementandapeconservationasaresultofcommunitybenefitstreams.

• Methodsareinplacetoensurecommunityparticipationintourismdevelopmentandtomaximisetourismbenefitstreamsflowingtocommunities,throughrevenuesharingandotherspin-offs.

• Promoteandfacilitateactiveengagementinhabitatconservationandtourismbylocalcommunities.

• Ensuresupportforcommunitycapacitytoruntheseprojects.

• Ensuretourismbenefitsareunderstoodaslinkedtoprotectingforestandapes’existence.

Research and learning:Potentialforincreasingknowledgebaseaboutapes.

• Researchandranger-basedmonitoringprovidedataforcentraliseddatabasesandinformationsystems.

• Researchopportunitiesmaybemorelimitedintourismgroups.

Political goodwill, local and national pride and image: Apesandhabitatvaluedasameanstoenhancedevelopmentandlocaland/ornationalimage.

• Politicalvalueoftourismrevenueoutweighsperceivedvalueoflandconversionawayfromconservation.

• Decisionnottohabituatemayresultinlossofpoliticalgoodwilland/orlossofsupporttoprotectedareaorforest.

Regional cooperation: Regionaltourisminitiativescanstimulatefurtherregionalcollaborationonapeconservationactions.

• Politicalwillandtransboundaryrelationssupportiveofregionalcooperation.

International awareness and support: Donorsinterestedinfinancialself-sustainability.Internationally-recognisedprogrammewillenhancelong-termcommitmentbygovernment.

• Tourismiswell-managedandseenassustainablesourceofrevenue.

• Documenttourismimpactstudiesanddistributetointernationalorganisations.

• Internationaltouristsoftenreturnhomeaslong-termsupporters.

Enhanced conservation of apes and their habitat as a result of all the above.

Section 4: Potential Impacts of Great Ape Tourism

Thelargenumberofimpactsofgreatapetourism,bothpositiveandnegative,aresummarisedin

thetablesbelow.

4.1 Table of potential benefits of great ape tourism

24

4.2 Table of potential costs and disadvantages of great ape tourism

Disadvantages Mitigation measures Notes and Action Points

Poaching:Habituatedapesaremorevulnerabletopoachingandconflictifnotadequatelyprotected,duetotheirlossoffearofhumans.

• Oncehabituated,apesmustalwaysbeprotectedthroughdailymonitoringandpatrolsintheirrange.

• Protectionforhabituatedorpreviouslyhabituatedgroupsbyrangersurveillancepatrols–inperpetuity.

• Assumption—managementcontinuityandsecurity.

• Discussionrequiredonpotentialforde-habituation,ifany.

• Asorangutansaremoresolitary,itisnotpossibletomonitoreveryhabituatedindividualdaily.Orangutansitesmuststrivetowardsazero-poachinggoaltoprotecthabituatedorangutans.

Disease – 1:Habituatingmakesapesmorevulnerabletotheintroductionofdiseaseduringhabituationprocess.

• Diseasepreventionactivitiesforapes.• Stricthabituation-teamprotocols.• Mitigation,ifpossible,tobediscussed

furtherwithveterinaryadvisors.

• Veterinaryadviceonminimisingstressanddiseaseriskduringhabituation.

Disease – 2 a:Habituationallowscloseapproachofhumanstoapes,thereforeincreasesriskofdiseasetransmissionthroughongoingdiseaseexposure.

• Strictenforcementofrulesandregulationsontouristandresearchvisitstoapes.

• Trainingandcontinualevaluation.• Regularreviewofprotocolsinlightof

newresearch.• Educationoftouristspriortovisit.

• Designandimplementvisitevaluationstoassesscompliance.

• Developveterinaryresponseandoutbreakcontingencyplan.

• Distributeanddiscussdisease-riskdocument(orsynthesis)totourism-developmentteamandstakeholders.

• Continualanalysisofapemorbidityandmortalitydata.

Cost implications – 1:Financialimplicationsofthecostsofhabituationarehigh—timeframeofyears.b

• Financialsupportforhabituationprocessmustbeguaranteedbeforelaunch.

• Ensureadequatefundingbeforehabituationlaunch.

Cost implications – 2: Operatingcosts(staff,equipmentandinfrastructure)arehighfortourismactivitiesandforprotectionandmonitoringofhabituatedgroupsinperpetuity.

• Tourismdevelopmentstakeholdersneedtoensurethatthereisalong-termfinancialplantocovercostsevenifthereisaslumpinthetourismmarket.

• Carryouteconomicandmarketsurveystoanalysesustainabilitybeforedevelopingtourismplan.

• Developemergencysupportplantocoveroperationsinperiodsofunstabletourismmarket.

Diversion of management attention: Tourismmaytakeresourcesawayfromcoreconservationfocus.

• Reinforceconservationasprimarygoalinstrategicplansandtourismdevelopmentplans.

• Sourcetourismdevelopmentfundsfromadditional/newsources.

• Recruitadditionalpersonnel.

In-migration: Successfultourismdevelopmentmayencouragegrowthofhumancommunitiesaroundapehabitat.

• Local/districtdevelopmentplansshouldlimituncontrolledgrowth

• EIAprocessshouldaddresspotentialforover-developmentandpopulationincrease.

Range alteration: Habituatedapesmayaltertheirrange.Thiscouldresultingroupsorindividualsrangingoutsideprotectedareasintoareaswithheightenedpoachingpressure,orintoproximitywithhumaninfrastructure,resultinginincreasedrisksofdisease,poaching,injuryandconflictwithhumans.

• Dailymonitoringofallindividualsisessential,bothwhileunderhabituationandafterhabituationduringtourismoperations.Thismonitoringmustcontinueinperpetuity.

• Lawenforcementpatrolsinentirehomerangeofhabituatedindividuals/groups.

• Monitoringofgroupsorindividualsunderhabituationiscriticaltojudgetheextenttowhichrangeadjustmentmaytakeplaceasaresultofhabituationprocess.

Human-great ape conflict – 1: Potentialforincreasedconflictwithhumansandlivestockifapesleaveprotectedhabitats(eveniftheyrangedoutsideprotectedareasbeforehabituation)oriftheyoverlapwithhumanactivities(forexampleinmultiple-usezones).

• Sensitisation.• Revenuesharing.• Human–greatapeconflictmitigation

programmes.• Community/livestockhealthoutreach.• Assessmentofhomerangeduringgroup

choice.

• Additionalresearchneededonwhetherhabituationleadstoincreaseincrop-raidingbehaviour.

Human-great ape conflict – 2: Conflictheightenediftourismisconductedwithapesthatcrop-raidonprivateland.

• Exploreideaof‘entry’feeiftourismvisitsmightbeconductedoncommunityland/farms.

Over-habituation:Long-termhabituationmayleadtoover-habituationc,withpotentialformorecontactwithhumans,injurytohumansandapes,andincreaseddiseaseriskthroughproximity.

• Researchreducingover-habituation.• Enforcerules!• Deterapproachofapes.• Reviewguidelinesforhumanbehaviour

whenclosetoapes.

• Continuedassessmentandresearchintotheeffectsoflong-termhabituation.

25

Disadvantages Mitigation measures Notes and Action Points

Stress – 1:Habituationisastressfulprocessforapes—initialstressduringhabituationmaypotentiallyleadtoincreasedvulnerabilitytodisease,aswellasreducedreproductiverates.

• Developanduse‘bestpractices’forhabituationtominimisestress.

• Developandimplementresearchprotocolforstressmonitoringduringhabituation.

• Developbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapehabituation.

• Ifnewhabituationundertaken,designmonitoringprogrammetoassessstressfactors.

Stress – 2:Chronicstressdfollowinghabituationduringoperationoftourism.Stressfulsituationswouldincludenaturalbehaviours(e.g.,fightingandinteractions)andhumaninteractions.

• Strictadherencetoreviewedregulationstominimisechronicstress.

• Reviewtourismmanagementtominimisestressinducers.

• Developstress-monitoringplan.

Behaviour change and social disruption: researchhasrevealedsignificantimpactsoftourismonapebehaviour.

• Designvisit/visitorregulationsinlightofbehaviouralchangesobserved.

• Strictadherencetoregulations.

• Synthesiseandpresentresearchresultstostaffanddecision-makers.

• Tourismmanagementreviewtoreduceimpactonbehaviour.

• Ongoingresearch/monitoringofhabituatedgroups.

Reduced reproductive success: behaviouralimpact,stress,diseaseandimmunosuppressionmayallleadtoreproductivefailure,withimpactsonpopulationsizeovertime.

• Researchonhabituationimpactonreproductivebehavioure,maternalcareandinfantmortality.

International condemnation: Lackofsupportifperceptionisofexcessivetourism.

• Carryoutafeasibilitystudyandimpactreviewbeforeanynewtourismhabituationisinitiated.

• Circulatefeasibilitystudyreportifhabituationisrecommended.

• Fundingforfeasibility/impactstudiesshouldbeincludedintourismdevelopmentinitialscopingplan.

Habitat impact:Negativeimpactoftrackingactivitiesonhabitat—vegetationandotheranimalspecies.

• Conducttrackingwithonlyessentialcuttingoftrails.

• Limitnumberoftouristsinagroup.• Limitnumberofgroupsinanarea.

• Developprotocolfortrackersandguidestominimiseimpactsonhabitat.

Pollution and habitat impact of tourism infrastructure and activities.

• ConductEIApriortodevelopmentoftourisminfrastructure.

• Additionalregulationstominimisewasteassociatedwithtourism.

Military escorts for tourists, if required, increase all impacts

• Developcodeofconductformilitaryescortstominimiseimpact.

Uncontrolled development: Tourism,ifnotcontrolledwithconservationobjectives,maystimulateconstructionofunplanned,unsightlylodgesandcampswithnegativeenvironmentalimpacts.

• Zoningplanstobedevelopedtocontrolinfrastructureintouristarea.

• Marketsurveyswillprovidepotentialdeveloperswithoccupancyestimatestoinformplans.

Knock-on effect to other ape sites: Developmentofapetourismatonesitewillleadtorequests/raisedexpectationsfortourismtobedevelopedatothersites.

• Manageexpectationsinnearbysites.• Conductmarketsurveystoanalyse

potentialmarketforapetourisminanysiteunderconsideration.

• Failedexpectationsmayresultinbacklashagainstconservationofapesandhabitat.

Negative impact on local people: Lackofbenefitscompoundedbyrisingcrimeandcosts,socialorculturalimpacts,etc.

• Developandimplementplanstooptimisecommunityimpacts.

• Communityimpactswillaffectattitudestowardsconservation.

Negative impact on apes and habitat as a result of all the above.

aNotethebalancebetweendiseaseriskandveterinarycare:Habituationallowsforincreasedveterinarycare/diseasemonitoringandenhancedop-portunityformedicalcare.Leavingunhabituatedgroupsresultsinreduceddiseaseexposurebutless/noopportunityforveterinarysupport.bHabituationforsomespeciesorsubspeciestakes2yearsormore,andtourismdevelopmentshouldoperateona5-yeartimeplan.cProlongedexposureandoverhabituationmayestablishahierarchybetweenhumansandapes,resultinginapotentialforinjury.dAcutestressvs.chronicstress—inchronicstress,evenwhennolongeracutelystressed,researchinmountaingorillashasshownthatstresshormonelevelsremainhigherthanpre-exposure(Nizeyi2005).eDatafromBwindigorillasshowaslight(non-significant)reductioningrowthofhabituatedgroupsvs.unhabituatedgroups(Robbinspers.comm.).Conversely,duringrepeatedcensusesintheVirungas,theproportionofimmaturemountaingorillashasbeenhigherinhabituatedthanunhabitu-atedgroups.Notethatthismaybeconfoundedbyselectionofgroupswithmorefemalesandjuvenilesfortourism/research,and/orthefactthatthesegroupsarebetterprotected.

26

4.3 Discussion of key tourism impacts

Asshowninthetablesabove,thereareanumberofbenefitsandadvantagesofgreatapetour-

ism,aswellasalonglistofpotentialrisksanddisadvantages.Prominentamongstthebenefits

is the potential for some sites to earn significant revenues and to promote local, national and

internationalgoodwill,whichtogethermayprovidesignificantsupportforconservationeffortsin

apehabitats(Harcourt2001).However,thismustbeweighedagainstanumberofcosts,amongst

whichthepotential fordiseasetransmission,behaviouralchangeandhuman-greatapeconflict

standoutassignificantchallengestotheoften-voicedopinionthatgreatapetourismshouldbe

widelydeveloped.

4.3.1 Keypositiveimpact—sustainableconservationfunding

Greatapetourismhasthepotentialtogeneratesignificantrevenues,notonlyforsitemanagement

authorities,butalsoforlocalcommunities,localandnationalgovernmentsandtheprivatesector.

Oncethecostsofdevelopingtourismhavebeenmetthroughgrants,loansorotherinvestments,

asuccessfulape tourismsitewillcoveroperationalcostsaswellas thecostsofconservation

managementofthesite.Tourismcanalsoproduceenoughrevenuetosupportwiderconservation

efforts.Greatapetourismhasthepotential,therefore,toprovidesustainableconservationfunding.

However,whenconsideringtheeconomicbenefitsoftourism,whichmaybesignificantatsome

sites,itisimportantforplannersanddecisionmakerstofactorinthehighcostofdevelopingand

operating tourism programmes. The costs of developing ape tourism as a conservation activ-

ity includesignificantexpendituresduringhabituation,whichcantaketwoyearsor longer,and

duringwhichnoincomecanbeexpected.Atthesametime,fundingmustbesourcedtocover

theestablishmentofappropriateinfrastructurefortourismoperations,aswellasstaffrecruitment

andtraining.Itisalsoessentialthatacontingencyplanisinplacetofundcontinuedoperations

ofkeyprotectionandmonitoringactivitiesattimeswhentourismlevelsmaybelow,duringboth

predictable lowseasonsand incaseofunforeseenevents,suchassecurity issuesandglobal

economictrendsthatimpacttourism.Oncegreatapesarehabituated,theymustbeprotectedin

perpetuityandthisisexpensive.Certainlynotallsiteswillbeabletomeetthesecoststhrough

tourismincomealone,asmanyfactorsdeterminetheabilitytoattractandmaintainasectorofthe

limitedglobalmarketforapetourism.Thusthereisalimittothenumberofsitesinanyonecountry

orregionandforanyonespeciesorsubspeciesthatwillbeviable;thereforenationalandregional

planning,communicationandcollaborationarerequiredtoensurethattourismisnotdevelopedat

sitesthatultimatelyproveunviable.

Sumatran orangutan, Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Photo © Perry van Duijnhoven

27

4.3.2 Keypositiveimpact—enhancedmonitoringandprotectionofapes

Certainlywhenapesarehabituatedandfollowedregularly,foreithertourismorresearchpurposes,

thelevelofprotectionandlaw-enforcementeffortintheirhomerangeisgreatlyenhanced,asisthe

potentialforveterinarianstointervenetomanagediseaseandhuman-causedinjuries.Additionally,

tourismenhanceslocal,nationalandinternationalawarenessoftheneedtoconservegreatapes

andthethreatstheyface,leadingtoincreasedfinancialandpoliticalsupportfortheirprotection.

4.3.3 Criticalnegativeimpact—diseasetransmission

AmongthenumerousimpactsofapetourismoutlinedinTables4.1and4.2,allofwhichrequire

attention,twostandoutnotonlyashavingpotentiallydisastrousconsequencesbutalsobecause

theyaretoalargeextentpreventablethroughstrictadherencetobestpracticeasdescribedinthis

document.Thesearediseasetransmissionandbehaviourchange.

Thepotential fordisease transmission isanothersignificant riskassociatedwith tourism.Great

apes are susceptible to human-borne diseases due to our close phylogenetic history and are

particularlyvulnerabletodiseasestowhichtheyhavehadnopreviousexposureandthushaveno

naturalresistance(Ferber2000;Walliset al.2000;Woodfordet al.2002;Garber2008).Habituation

producesstressinapesandstressmayincreasesusceptibilitytodiseases,includingthosecarried

byhumans,whethertourists,parkrangers,researchersorlocalresidents.Thediseasesofgreatest

concernarethosethatareeasilytransmittedwithoutdirectorprolongedcontact(Leendertzet al.

inpress).Anumberofsiteshaveexperienceddiseaseoutbreaks,somewithmultipleapefatali-

ties,thatwereeithersuspectedorproventobeassociatedwithhumans(Macfie1991;McNeilage

1996;Homsy1999;WallisandLee1999;Woodfordet al.2002;KaurandSingh2008).

Therisksofdiseasetransmissionhavedrivencautioninthedesignofrulesandregulationscontrol-

lingtourismmanagementandtheconductofvisits,includinglimitsontouristnumbers,timespent

withapesandviewingdistances(Hastingset al.1991;Macfie1991,1996;Kortlandt1996;Wallis

andLee1999;Mudakikwa2001).Althoughanumberofexpertshavewarnedofdisease risks

(Homsy1999;Walliset al.2000)andprovidedindirectevidenceofdiseasetransmission(Lonsdorf

et al.2006;Hanamuraet al.2007;Hosaka2008),until recentlyevidenceofdirect transmission

towildapeswaslimitedtobacterialandparasiticinfections(Graczyket al.2002;Goldberget al.

2007;Rwegoet al.2008).

However,newresearchprovidesmoreconvincingevidenceofvirustransmissionbetweenhumans

andwildapes (Kauret al.2008;Köndgenet al.2008),addingconsiderableweight to theargu-

mentsforstrictprotocolsguidingtheuseofapesfortourismandresearch.Whilediseasemay

beintroducedintothehabitatbyadjacentcommunities,refugees,militaryandsoon,touristsand

researcherspresentaparticularconcernduetotheirclose,relativelyprolongedcontactwithgreat

apes,andmoralresponsibility.Touristsalsorepresentthegreatestnumberofnewcontactsfora

groupofapes,rangingfromsixnewvisitorsperdaytomanymoreatsitesnotyetimplementing

strictlimits.Fieldstaffandresearchersmustadheretobestpracticeandfollowstrictemployee

healthmonitoringprotocols.Internationaltouristscomefromdiverseandoftendistantcountries,

haveusuallybeenincloseconfineswithothertravellers(e.g.,onaeroplanesandothertransport),

andtheresultingexposuretopathogensmaybeexacerbatedbythestressoftravel(Wilson1995;

OstroffandKozarsky1998;Adamset al.2001).Astourismcanresultinpersistentpsychological

stressandincreasedsusceptibilitytodiseaseingreatapes(Hudson1992;HoferandEast1994;

Meder1994),diseasetransmissionriskswillbeexacerbatedbyclosecontactswithinfectedtour-

ists(SandbrookandSemple2006).However,fewtouristscanbegivensystematichealthchecks,

therefore,itiswithgoodmanagementthatwehaveanopportunitytominimiserisks.Mostgreat

apetourismsitesrequestthattouristsself-reportanyclinicalsignsofillnessanddefertheirvisit,

nonethelesstouristsmanifestingsymptomshavebeenknowntovisithabituatedapes(Ostroffand

Kozarsky1998;AdamsandInfield2003;Sandbrook2006;Muehlenbeinet al.,2008),therebycar-

ryingdiseasepathogensintotheapes’environment.

Diseaseprocessesaffectingapes,butnotoriginatingwithtourists,canalsoaffecttourism.Atragic

exampleofthisisthedevastatingimpactofEbola,whichkilled95%ofknownindividualgorillasin

outbreaksinGabonandRepublicofCongo(Walshet al.2003;Caillaudet al.2006),includingtwo

groupsatLossithathadbeenhabituatedfortourism(Bermejoet al.2006).Ebolahasalsokilled

28

habituatedchimpanzeesintheTaïNationalPark(Formentyet al.1999).Ebolaisamonganumber

ofdiseasesthataretransmittedfromapestohumans,althoughmostarenotasdeadly.Thisrein-

forces,however,thepointthatdiseasecanmoveinbothdirectionsandtouristsvisitinggreatapes

haveavestedinterestinfollowingdisease-preventionprotocols.

Healthexpertscanprovideadviceondiseasepatternsandoutbreaks,toinformapetourismman-

agement.Forexample, investigation intoa recentcaseofMarburgvirus inUganda (ahaemor-

rhagic disease similar to Ebola, thought to be carried by bats and highly lethal to great apes)

concludedthatabatcavewasthelikelysourceofinfectionofaDutchtourist(Timenet al.2009).

Sevendayslatersheviewedmountaingorillasfromadistanceofafewmetres.Thisgivescause

forconcernaboutanyapetours that includebatcaves—cavevisitsshouldbescheduledafter

viewinggreatapesoravoidedaltogetherincountrieswithahistoryofMarburg,duetothepublic

healthrisk(Timenet al. 2009).

Diseaserisksunderpinmanyoftherulesandregulationscontrollinggreatapetourismandindeed

areconsideredoneofthethreegreatestthreatstothelong-termsurvivalofgreatapes(alongwith

poachingandhabitatloss).Attentiontodiseasecontroliscriticaltoanytourismprogrammeand,

asakeycompaniontothisdocument,thereaderisstronglyencouragedtoreadtheIUCNBest

Practice Guidelines for Health Monitoring and Disease Control in Great Apes(Leendertzet al.in

press).

4.3.4 Criticalnegativeimpact—behaviouralchange

Habituation tohumans isknowntoaffectgreatapebehaviourandbestressful,andcanresult

indisplaysofaggressiontowardshumans,alteredactivitybudgetsandchangesinrangingpat-

terns(GrieserJohns1996;Cipolletta2003;WilliamsonandFeistner2003;Blomet al.2004;Nizeyi

2005;Goldsmithet al. 2006;Doran-Sheehyet al.2007;BertolaniandBoesch2008;Klailovaet

al. 2010).Aberrantbehaviour is anotherpotential side effect of stress.Only a handful of stud-

ieshaveassessedbehaviouralchangeinthepresenceoftourists:westerngorillasshowhigher

ratesofaggression,withdominantmalesspendingsignificantly less timesleepingand resting

(HodgkinsonandCipolletta2009),whilemountaingorillasdisplayalteredactivitypatterns,includ-

ingmoretimespentmovingandincreasedmonitoring(Fawcett2004;Muyambi2005).Orangutans

inBukitLawangspend less time foraging, travellingandsocialising in thepresenceof tourists

(Dellatore2007),althoughthesechangescouldbecausedbyguidesattractingorangutanswith

food—apracticejudgedinappropriateinthesebestpracticeguidelines.Tourismcanalsohavean

Mountain gorillas, Virunga

National Park, DRC. Photo ©

Russ Mittermeier/CI.

29

indirectnegativeimpactonsocialinteractions,ashabituatedapesmayhavereducedopportuni-

tiestointeractwithunhabituatedindividuals(Ancrenazpers.comm.;Williamsonpers.obs.).

There is clearly a need to minimise impacts on behaviour, not only for the primary reasons of

preservingthehealthandwelfareof theapes,butalsobecausetouristsarepayingtoobserve

naturalbehaviourandthisshouldnotbeinfluencedbytourismitself.Thelong-termimplications

oftheseimpactsarenotyetknown.Theprecautionaryprinciplesuggests,however,thatevenin

theabsenceofdirectproofofnegativebehaviouralimpactweshouldenhancetourismcontroland

adaptivelymanagetourismactivitiestoavoidbehaviouralchange.Thefactthatstresscontributes

torangealterationwillinevitablyaffecttourismlogistics,ashasbeenobservedwithtransbound-

arymountaingorillagroups,andshouldbeanadded incentive toensureenforcementof rules

designedtominimisesuchimpacts.

4.3.5 Criticalnegativeimpact—vulnerabilitytopoaching

Oncegreatapeshavebeenhabituatedfortourismorresearchtheyaremorevulnerabletoapproach

byhumansingeneral,whomaygetclosebeforetriggeringaflightresponse.Thisexposeshabitu-

atedapestoincreasedrisksofcapture,injuryordeath,deliberateoraccidental,atthehandsof

poachersorsoldiers.Theapes’vulnerabilityduringperiodsof insecuritywasdemonstratedby

theslaughterofhabituatedgorillasinKahuzi-BiegaNationalPark(Yamagiwa1999)andVirunga

NationalPark(Kalperset al.2003),includingthehighprofilegorilla‘executions’in2007(Williamson

andFawcett2008).Consequentlyhabituatedapesmustbemonitoredeveryday,andprotectedby

teamsconductinglaw-enforcementpatrols.GovernmentsandNGOsmustfulfiltheirresponsibility

toprotecthabituatedgroupsandtheirhabitatbyimplementingwell-structuredlawenforcement

and monitoring programmes, although such activities may be compromised during periods of

insecurity.Thepresenceoflaw-enforcementteamsnotonlydetersillegalactivities,butalsoena-

blesmanagementandveterinaryteamstorespondimmediatelyshouldanyillegalactivitiestake

place.Commitmenttodailymonitoringisanessentialrequirementforanyandallhabituatedapes

andmustbecarriedoutinperpetuity,asde-habituationmaynotbeachievable.

4.4 Conclusions on tourism impacts

Toaddressthelargenumberofnegativeimpactsoftourism,especiallythosehighlightedabove,

it is imperative that great ape tourism management and associated rules and regulations are

designedwith impactmitigation inmind,and that theycanwithstand thepressureofgrowing

demands for increased revenueand increaseddevelopmentof tourist ‘opportunities’. It isalso

essentialthattrainingoftourismfieldpersonnel,enforcementofregulations,anddisseminationof

thecontentandrationalefortheserecommendations,aregivenhighestprioritybyorganisations

developingandoperatinggreatapetourism.Keyaudiencesarenotjustthetouristsandthestaff

ofthetourismenterprises,butalsodecision-makersintheprotectedareaauthoritiesandrelevant

ministries. In addition, services that protect habituated apes from illegal activities and disease

mustbe fundedand implemented.Thisdocumentshouldprovideauseful resource, layingout

thekeyconceptsformitigatingnegativeimpactswhileatthesametimeoptimisingthepositive

impactsofgreatapetourism.

Section 5: Guidelines for Best Practice in Great Ape Tourism

Atthispointinthedocument,thereaderwillbeawareofthelessonslearnedthroughglobalexpe-

riencewithgreatapetourism(Section3)andthelargenumberofpotentialimpactsofgreatape

tourism (Section4).This informationshould fosteranunderstandingandwillingness toaccept

andimplementtheguidelinesformulatedhereinSection5,whichrepresentbestpracticeinthe

designandmanagementoftourism.Theserecommendationsarebasedontheguidingprinciple

thatgreatapetourismmustbenefitgreatapeconservation.Allpotential impacts,bothpositive

andnegative,mustbeunderstood,evaluated,andconsideredintheplanningandmanagement

oftourisminitiativessuchthatpositiveimpactsareexploitedandmaximisedtotheirhighestlevel,

whilenegativeimpactsareminimisedor,betterstill,avoidedaltogether.

30

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ALL GREAT APE SPECIES

5.1 Guiding principles for using tourism as a great ape conservation tool

5.1.1 Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration

Tourismcancontributetogreatapeconservationbutwillnotbeviableatallsites.Sitesmustmeet

thecriterialistedinSections5.2and5.3,ortheyarenotappropriateforgreatapetourism.Sites

thatfailtogeneratetherevenueanticipatedmaysufferabacklashagainsttheconservationeffort,

socareshouldbetakentoavoidraisingfalseexpectationsamongpoliticians,managersandlocal

communities.

5.1.2 Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportforconservation

Greatapetourismmayenhancethefinancial,aestheticandculturalvalueofapesandtheirhabi-

tatsasperceivedbylocalcommunities,policy-makersandpoliticalleadersinthegreataperange

states,therebypromotinglong-termsupportforconservationofapesandtheirhabitats(Harcourt

2001).

5.1.3 Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism

Conservationmustbegivenpriorityovereconomicandpoliticalconcernsatallgreatapetourism

sites.Anysitethatundertakesgreatapetourismmustplacecontinuedandenhancedemphasison

protection, lawenforcement,environmentalawareness-raisingandotherconservationactivities.

Theeffortandresourcesrequiredtodevelopandoperatetourismshouldnotdivertresourcesand

attentionawayfromtheconservationfocus.

5.1.4 Conservation benefits must significantlyoutweighrisks

Great ape tourism development proposals should

undergo full feasibility and impact assessments,

andshouldnotbeimplementedunlessthebenefits

anticipated outweigh the potential risks. Tourism

and its associated impact mitigation measures

must significantly improve the conservation out-

comecomparedtoano-tourismscenario.Onlypro-

grammesthatwillenhanceconservationeffortsand

improve protection of the ape population should

go ahead. While this is a general guideline for all

greatapes,itiscrucialforCriticallyEndangeredand

smallpopulationsduetotheirprecariousconserva-

tionstatus.

5.1.5 Conservation investment and action mustbeassuredinperpetuity

Anti-poaching activities must be launched in par-

allel with habituation efforts, especially in Central

Africawherepoachingofgreatapesfor food isat

itshighestlevels.Oncehabituated,greatapesand

their home ranges must be protected and moni-

toreddailyby lawenforcementteamswithon-call

veterinaryexpertise.Theseactivitiesarenecessary

notonlyforconservation,butalsotosupporttour-

ism development and management, and must be

continuedinperpetuity.Financialcontingencyplans

forperiodsoflowtourismshouldbeinplacebefore

tourismisdeveloped.

Gorilla model at headquarters of Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Photo ©

Martha Robbins/MPI-EVAN.

31

5.1.6 Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundobjectivescience

Greatape tourismcanbecontroversial, andnotall conservationistsagree that it isanaccept-

ableactivity.Todefendgreatapetourismasasustainablecomponentofaconservationstrategy,

conservationmust takepriorityovereconomicandpolitical interests (Section5.1.3),decisions

affectingtourismmustberesults-ledandbasedonsoundandobjectivescience,andregulations

governingvisitsmustbescientifically-formulatedand rigorouslyenforced (Butynski andKalina

1998).

5.1.7 Benefitsandprofitforlocalcommunitiesshouldbemaximised

Forgreatapetourismtoproperlymeetthecriteriaforsustainabletourism,itmustmaximiseboth

directandindirectbenefitstoadjacentcommunitiesthatbearthecostsofconservation,including

opportunitycosts(Grosspietsch2007).Whileconservationmusttakepriorityoverotherinterests,

tourismshouldstrivetocontributetopovertyreductionwhereverpossibleand,attheveryleast,

shoulddonoharmtolocalcommunities(SGLCP2009).Directbenefitsincludelocalrecruitment

oftourismstaffandsharingapercentageoftourismrevenuewithadjacentcommunities.Indirect

benefitsincludemarketingandsupportforservicesthatearnadditionalincomeforcommunities

(suchastourisminfrastructurewhichispartiallyorwhollycommunity-ownedandoperated).Care

shouldbetakentoensurethatbenefitsarenotfocusedonasmallsectionofacommunitybutare

accessibletothemajority.Fullconsultationsshouldbeconductedtoensurethatbenefitsarepro-

videdinamannerbothrecognisedandvaluedbylocalresidents.Guidanceoninvolvingcommuni-

tiesintourismactivitiesisavailable(e.g.,Gutierrezet al. 2005;Ancrenazet al.2007;Rajaratnamet

al.2008),asarelessonslearnedthroughthedevelopmentandimplementationofrevenue-sharing

andothercommunityprogrammescentredongreatapetourism(ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves

2001;AdamsandInfield2003;Blomleyet al.2010).

5.1.8 Profittoprivatesectorpartnersmustnotbeadrivingforce

Inthedevelopmentofanygreatapetourismactivity,conservationprinciplesmusttakeprecedence

overprofitgenerationforprivatesectorstakeholders.Whileasuccessfultourismprogrammewill

provideopportunitiesforincometoaccrueatvariouslevels,theprimaryaimofdevelopingand

operatingthisrevenue-generatingmechanismistosupportthecostofconservationefforts.The

needsofcommunitieslivinginoradjacenttoapehabitatsmustalsobeaddressed;however, if

theprioritiesbecomeinverted,withprofittotheprivatesectorbecomingthedrivingforcebehind

greatapetourism,thenstakeholdersmustanalysehowtheprioritiescouldhavegoneastrayand

howtorebalancethem.

5.1.9 Comprehensiveunderstandingofimpactsmustguidetourismdevelopment

Greatapetourismhasanumberofadvantagesanddisadvantages,allofwhichmustbeclearly

understoodbyeveryone involved in theplanningand implementation.These issuesshouldbe

keptinmindatallstagesofthedesign,developmentandmanagementofgreatapetourism.The

guidelinesinthisdocumentarefoundedontheprincipleofoptimisingimpactsforconservation.

Anysitethatcannotsustain impact-optimisingactivities,financiallyor institutionally,shouldnot

initiateagreatapetourismprogramme.

5.2 Assessment phase

Allproposedgreatapetourismactivitiesmustbeevaluatedastotheirsuitability,feasibilityand

impacts.Onlyifasiteisjudgedappropriateatthisstageshouldplanninggoahead.

5.2.1 Stakeholderawarenessofcostsandbenefits

Prior to developing a tourism site, all stakeholders in the decision-making and design phases

shouldbeguidedthroughadiscussionthatallowsforconsiderationoffullspectrumofadvantages

anddisadvantagestomakesurethattheirdecisionsarewellinformed.Thiswillhelptoensurethat

iftourismdevelopmentgoesahead,thereissupportfor,andcommitmentto,thetimeandfunding

requiredtoimplementactivities,andthatcontrolsareinplacetomaximisebenefitsandmitigate

negativeimpacts,ascoveredinSections3and4.

32

5.2.2 Criteriaforgreatapetourismsites

Thefollowingcriteriamustbemetforgreatapetourismtobeconsideredasaconservationstrategy:

a. Presenceof a sufficientnumberof apes6,with rangingpatterns thatwill allow for

reasonable year-round or predictable seasonal viewing. In the absence of site-

specificresearchtoinformthiscriterion,surveysshouldbecarriedouttoassessthe

densityanddistributionofapespresent.7

b. Fundingalreadycommitted tocover tourismdevelopmentalongwith the required

impact-optimisingactivitiesandlong-termobligations(includingthecostsofgreat

apehealthmonitoring,treatmentofdisease,andemployeehealthprogrammes).

c. Bothsiteandprogrammeconformtonationallegalandregulatoryrequirements(e.g.,

EIA,zoning)forallactivitiesandassociatedinfrastructure.

d. Tourismmarketforthisapetaxon,country,locationandsoon,issufficienttosupport

the recurrentcostsofconservationactivitiesand tourismoperations,asanalysed

throughabusinessplanincorporatingfinancialmodelsofincomeandexpenditure.

e. Preliminary analysis suggests that the addition of this site fits within the tourism

carryingcapacityfortheparticulartaxonorregion.

f. Physicalhabitat (forest/vegetationstructure, topography,waterways)allowfor low-

impactandsafeaccesstoviewapes,eitheronfootorfromboats,asappropriateto

thesite.

g. Research suggests that habituation to the appropriate viewing distance will be

possible(notlessthan7–10metres,withorwithoutmasksrespectively).

h. Awarenessofkeyconservationissuesorthreatsthatposearisktohabituatedapes

andthattourismcouldhelptoaddress(e.g.,poaching,human-greatapeconflict).

i. Abilityofthesite’smanagementtoabsorbtheaddedresponsibilityofoperatingand

maintaininga tourism initiative (additionalstaffing, infrastructure, lawenforcement,

and control measures to optimise booking systems and prevent unauthorised

tourism).

j. Credible indications that effective management will be put in place to maintain

conservation priorities over the long term, to address and mitigate all recognised

negative impacts, and that acceptable education and economic benefits will be

deliveredtolocalcommunities.

k. Presenceof,orabilitytodevelopthroughcapacity-buildingprogrammes,sufficient

humanresourcesintermsofskilledguides,wardensandimpact-monitoringstaff.

l. Understandingofwhether andhow tourismcouldaffect existing levelsof human-

greatapeconflict,eitherpositivelyornegatively.8

m. Awareness of disease in both humans and livestock that might be transmitted to

apesthroughtheactivitiesofstaffand/ortourists.9

n. Knowledgeofsocioeconomicandpoliticalcontextthatmighteithersupportorpose

arisktogreatapetourism(e.g.,Plumptreet al.2004).

o. Abilitytoprovideappropriateinfrastructurerequiredfortouriststoaccessandstayat

ornearthesite,includingroad,riverorairtransport,hotels,lodgesandcampgrounds.

6 A‘sufficient’numberofapeswouldbedeterminedbyfactorsspecfictothetaxonandsiteunderreview.7 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape Populations (Kühlet al.2008).8 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes, (HockingsandHumle2009).9 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for Health Monitoring and Disease Control(Leendertzetal.inpress).

33

p. Abilitytocontrolthedevelopmentoftourism-relatedinfrastructureintheareathrough

zoningorotherregulation,topreventover-developmentinoradjacenttogreatape

habitat.

q. Willingnessofnationalauthoritiesandinstitutionstodevelopandimproveservices

that would support and stimulate tourism programmes, including immigration,

security,touroperatornetworks,marketingandtouristinformation,andinfrastructure

(e.g.,airports,domesticflights,roadsandhotels).

r. Knowledgeofexistingorpotentialapere-introductionprogrammes,andawareness

of how these would affect tourism development10. Note that we endorse the

recommendation of other expert groups that tourism programmes should not be

developedwithex-captiveapesbecauseofthepotentialdangerstobothapesand

tourists.

McNeely (1992) included ‘guaranteedwildlifeviewing’asageneralcriterion fornature tourism;

however,inthisdocumentwerecommendthatgreatapetourismsitesdonotofferviewingguaran-

teesduetothedifficultyofobservingwildapesandthepossibilityofincreasedbehaviouralimpact

anddiseaserisksifdistanceandotherprotectivemeasuresareviolatedtosatisfyaguarantee.

5.2.3 Feasibilitystudiesandimpactanalysisofpotentialsites

The optimum method of deciding whether ape tourism is an acceptable and appropriate con-

servation strategy, and meets all criteria in Section 5.2.2, is to subject the proposed site and

programmetoafullfeasibilitystudyandimpact(cost/benefit)analysis.Greatapesshouldnotbe

habituatedorexposedtotherisksassociatedwithtourismatasitethathasbeenjudgedunviable,

unsustainable,or inappropriateforanyreason.AfeasibilityandimpactstudyshouldfollowEIA

models,examiningbiological,physical,social,political,behavioural,disease,economic,market,

infrastructure,policyandinstitutionalfactorsrelevanttotheproposedsiteandtourismactivities

(Section3.2.12).Impactassessmentsmusttakeintoaccounttheresultsofpreviousimpactstud-

iesandongoingresearch,andrequirestakeholdercommitmenttoabidebytheconclusionsofthe

study,eveniftheprogrammeorsiteisultimatelyfoundtobeinappropriateorunviableforgreat

apetourism.Fundingforthistypeofanalysisshouldbebuiltintoprogrammedesignbudgets.

5.2.4 Furtherassessmentsrequiredfordecisionsontourismexpansion

Onceagreatapetourismsitehasbeenestablishedandisoperatingsuccessfully,therewillbe

agrowingawarenessorperception—eitherrealorinflated—ofthefinancialbenefitsaccruingto

institutions,businessesandindividuals.Asaresult,apetourismsites,eventhosenotatoptimum

ormaximumoccupancy,willeventuallycomeunderpressurefromvarioussourcestoexpandthe

numberoftouristsallowedpervisitorvisitsperday.Thedemandmaybeforanincreaseinthe

maximumnumberofpeopleallowedtoviewalreadyhabituatedgroups,oritmayrequesthabitua-

tionofadditionalgroupsinthesamearea,orinnewareas,orinsomecasesmayinvolveallowing

touriststoviewgroupsstudiedbyresearchers.

Anydecisionstoexpandoperationsshouldbemadewithcaution,asmanyofthenegativeimpacts

ontheapesincreasewitheveryadditionalvisitor(Homsy1999;Macfie2005).Theoptionofexpos-

ingadditionalapestohabituationandtourismshouldbesubjecttoarigorousimpactandfeasibil-

ityanalysis,similartothefeasibilitystudyrequiredforanewsite.Theintentionofsuchanalyses

istoreducetheimpactsontheapesandhabitat,tosuggestmitigationmeasures,andtoguide

choiceofgroupifadecisionismadetoproceed.Themotivationforexpansionshouldbeanalysed

to judgewhetheralternativeactions,suchasenhancedbookingsystems,mightaddressstake-

holderrequirementswithoutincreasingtouristnumbersorthenumberofapesvisited.Additionally,

thetourismprogrammeatitscurrentlevelshouldbeevaluatedforsignsofweakness,forexample,

suboptimaltourismmanagementandcontrol.Itwouldbeunwisetoexpandandsubjectadditional

apestotherisksofpoormanagementbeforeaddressingthecurrentsystembyimprovingbooking

10 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for the Re-introduction of Great Apes(Becket al.2007).

34

and tourismcontrolmeasures.Amethodology for this typeofanalysishasbeendeveloped to

guidetourismandresearchhabituationdecisionsformountaingorillasintheVirunga/Bwindiland-

scape(Macfie2007a).TheHabituationImpactAssessment(HIA)includesprocessesanddecision

treesthatarerelevant,orcouldbeadapted,toothersitesandgreatapetaxa.

5.3 Planning phase

Onceasiteisjudgedappropriateforgreatapetourism,thefollowingrecommendationswillensure

bestpracticeinprogrammedesign.

5.3.1 Impactoptimisationasacorecomponentofprogrammedesign

Beyondbuildingawarenessoftourismimpacts,asdiscussedabove,itisessentialthatactivities

andcontrolstomaximisetheconservationbenefitsoftourismandminimisenegativeimpactsare

builtintotheprogrammefromtheoutset.Acost-benefitanalysismustconsiderthefinancialimpli-

cationsofoperatingalltherequiredimpact-optimisingactivitiesproposedinthisdocument(such

as enhanced law-enforcement monitoring, disease surveillance and treatment, and employee

healthprogrammes).Impactoptimisationmustbeplannedandfunded,tosetthestagesuchthat

atourismprogrammecanbeviableandrootedinpreservation,notexploitation,oftheapes.

5.3.2 HabituationImpactAssessment(HIA)

Asacomponentofanimpactanalysisandfeasibilitystudy,ananalysisoffactorsspecificallyasso-

ciatedwithhabituationofaparticulargroupofapesshouldbeconducted.AnHabituationImpact

Assessmentshouldanalysethepotentialimpactsofhabituatingagroupofapes,suggestpossible

alternatives, recommend specific sites for tourism development, and provide guidance on the

impact-mitigationmeasurestoputinplacealongsidetourismactivities(Macfie2007a).

5.3.3 Criteriaforchoiceofsiteorgroup

Followingafeasibilitystudyand/oranHIA,ifgreatapehabituationandtourismdevelopmentare

toproceed,itisvitalthatappropriatechoicesaremadeconcerningwhichindividuals,groupsor

communitiesofgreatapeswillbeviewedbytourists.Themostimportantcriteriatoconsiderin

choosingagrouporcommunityarethefollowing:

a. For African apes – size and composition of group or community:

• Minimum size of group or community: For tourism operations where visitors

approachgroupsofhabituatedchimpanzees,bonobosorgorillastodistances

of7–10metres(withorwithoutmasksrespectively),thetotalnumberofpeople

Chimpanzee, Kibale National

Park, Uganda. Photo © Alain

Houle.

35

includingguidesandtrackers,shouldnotbegreaterthanthenumberofapes

>1yearold in thegroup.During theirvulnerablefirstyear, infantapesarenot

countedingroup-sizecriteria.Foratourismprogrammedesignedfor4tourists

+2staff(seeSection5.5.6),atargetgroupofapesshouldcompriseatleast6

individualsaged>1year.

• Maximum size of group or community:Atsiteswithmultipleapegroupsorcom-

munitiestochoosebetween,thelargestgroupsandthosewithhighgrowthrates

shouldnotbeexposedtotourism.Thesegroupsrepresentalargerpercentage

ofthepopulationandthereforepresentagreaterriskifaseriousorfataldisease

were introduced.Atsiteswith fewgroups tochoose from,decisionsmustbe

basedonfactorsrelatedtoconservationimpact.

• Composition of group or community: ‘Ideal’ groupcompositionwill bedeter-

minedbyspecies-specificbehaviouralanddemographicfactors,suchastypical

immigration/emigrationpatterns,andintra-groupaggressionandcohesiveness.

Agroupthatappears likely todisintegrateshouldberuledoutasacandidate

forhabituation.However,onceagrouphasbeenhabituated,it(andanysplinter

groups)mustbeprotectedinperpetuity,eveniftourismisdiscontinued.

b. For semi-solitary Asian great apes – behavioural and demographic criteria:

• Group size:Orangutantourismoperationsaregenerallybasedonviewingindi-

vidualsintreesfromthegroundorfromboats,thereforegroupsizeguidelines

donotapply.

• Social structure:Orangutansocialstructureshouldbeconsideredwhenchoos-

ingsites:Orangutanindividualsaremembersofloosely-organisedcommunities;

femalesandtheirdependentoffspringaremembersof‘kinclusters’withoverlap-

pinghomeranges(Singletonet al.2009).

• Gender and age:Adultmaleorangutans travel longdistancesandmay leave

theircorerangeformonthsatatime,duringwhichtheywillbe‘lost’totourism.

Adultfemaleshavesmallerhomeranges,arethereforeeasiertofindand,make

moreappropriatecandidatesforhabituation.Stress,however,mayaffectbreed-

ingsuccessandthedecisiontohabituatebreedingfemalesshouldbemadewith

caution.Femaleswithyounginfantswhoshowdistressshouldnotbefollowed.

• Individual sensitivity to habituation and viewing activities:Orangutans show

strong individual differences in their reactions to being followed by humans.

Somehabituaterelativelyeasilywhileothersdonot.Individualsshowingobvious

signsofstress(hidingbehaviour,fleeing,kiss-squeaking)after10daysofregular

contactshouldnotbepursuedfurther.

c. Percent of population exposed to tourism: Expert advice will dictate the maximum

percent of a given population to be subject to the risks of tourism; some groups or

individualsshouldbeleftundisturbed.Somestakeholdershaveproposedanabsolute

maximumof50%groupsandindividualsinsmallpopulations(e.g.,Bwindi),wherethe

protectiveeffectsoftourismmaybalancetherisks.However,50%ofalargepopulation

could not be supported by the tourism market. Given wide variations in great ape

populationsize,preciserecommendationswillbesite-specific.

d. Trends in group size: Agroupthatisgrowinginsizeislikelytobeabetterchoicefor

tourismthanonethat isshrinkingforanyreason.Thefinancial implicationsofhalting

tourismifanhabituatedgroupbecomestoosmallincludenotonlythecostsoftourism

developmentbutalsothecostsofprotectingthegroupindefinitely.Thecontinuationof

tourismmightbe justified if theassociated law-enforcementandmonitoringactivities

couldreverseadownwardtrend.

36

e. Home-range location and ranging patterns: The location and sizeof an individual’s,

group’sorcommunity’shomerangeiscriticaltothefeasibilityoftourismforthereasons

givenbelow:

• Accessibility: Depending on how the tourism programme will operate (daily

returnhikeorboattripvs.amobilecamping/trackingexperience),theabilityto

reachandobserveatargetgroupwithinthedurationofastandardvisitwillaffect

thechoiceofgroup.

• Access to and from tourism infrastructure:Factorssuchasproximitytoexisting

orplanned tourism infrastructure (trails,bookingoffices,visitorcentre,accom-

modation)shouldenterintogroupselection.

• Seasonal and annual or supra-annual reliability: Seasonal and annual varia-

tionsinrangingpatternswillaffecthowtourismismanaged,suchthatdeparture

pointsandaccommodationrequirementsmayvarythroughtheyear.

• Risks of human-great ape conflict: Habituating apes that range into commu-

nityareaswouldexacerbateexistingconflictswithhumans,andthesewouldbe

heightened if income were generated by crop-raiding apes. Therefore groups

knowntohavesuchtendenciesshouldnotbehabituated.

• Ranging in areas subject to illegal activities: If a group ranges into an area

thatexperienceshighlevelsofillegalactivities,theenhancedmonitoringandlaw

enforcementthatcomewithtourismmaydiminishtherisksofpoachingorinjury.

However,ifhuntingisaknownthreat,habituationtohumanswillputtheapesat

greaterrisk;insuchcases,habituationshouldproceedonlyifeffectiveprotection

canbeassured.

• Beneficiaries:Groupchoicemaybe influencedby factors relating towhowill

benefit—from local employment or provision of tourism services, to revenue-

sharingmechanisms.Thedistributionofbenefitsoverawidearea,ortoanew

location,shouldbeconsidered.

• Zoning and other policy issues:Policyissuesmaydictateorpreventtourismin

certainareas,therebyrulingoutgroupsthatrangethere.

• International boundaries: Unless regional agreements are in place, apes that

range across international or other significant geo-political boundaries should

notbechosenfortourism,duetotherisksof‘losing’them,orotheradministra-

tivecomplications.

f. Home-range overlap and ape density: Agrouporcommunitywhose rangehas less

overlapwithadjacentgroups,orisinanareaofrelativelylowdensity,wouldbeatlower

risk from some negative impacts of tourism, such as the introduction of infectious

disease.

N.B.Whenviewingfromhidesorplatforms(westernlowlandgorillas)orfromboatsor

vehicles(orangutans),manyoftheabovefactorsarenotrelevant.

5.3.4 Developingandrefininghabituationprotocols

Habituationisdefinedastheacceptancebywildanimalsofahumanobserverasaneutralele-

mentintheirenvironment.Theprocessofhabituationdependsonthespeciesunderconsidera-

tion,itssocialorganisation,density,previousexperiencewithhumans,andstructureofthehabitat

(WilliamsonandFeistner2003).Whilehabituationoforangutanstypicallytakesfromafewweeks

toaseveralmonths,habituationofAfricanapesgenerallyrequires2to5years.

Mostgreatapetaxahavebeensuccessfullyhabituatedforresearchortourism,resultinginasig-

nificantaccumulationofknowledgeandexperience.Thoseleadingnewhabituationeffortsshould

familiarisethemselveswithlessonslearned,andtailortheirtechniquestothetargetpopulationor

site.Habituationprotocolsshouldaddresstechnicalandlogisticalissuestoenhancehabituation

whileminimisingimpactsonbehaviour,healthandhabitat.Protocolsshouldprovideadviceonthe

size,compositionandconductofhabituationteams,andtheteam’sapproachshouldbeguided

37

byknowledgeoftheapes’feedingecologyandrangingpatterns.Proximity,postureandbehaviour

ofhabituatorsshouldbemodifiedinresponsetoalarmanddisplaybehaviours.Ingeneralthepre-

ferredapproachistoaimforadistanceatwhichtheapesareawareoftheteam’spresencewithout

pushingthemintoflightmode.Anyflightorincreasedfrequencyofalarmoraggressivebehaviours

shouldcausetheteamtoretreat,andmaintainagreaterdistanceuntilthesebehavioursreducein

frequency.Thisdistanceshouldbemaintainedforapre-determinedlengthoftimeeachday,with

incrementalattemptsonsuccessivedays,weeksandmonths togradually reducethedistance

withoutinducingaflightresponseortriggeringaggressionandalarmbehaviours.Asbestpractice

isdesignedtominimisebehaviouralimpactsanddiseaserisks,habituationshouldneverproceed

todistancescloser than theminimumdistanceapproved for tourism (seeSection5.5.13),and

physicalcontactshouldneverbeinstigatedbyanhabituator.

How a group is approached is one of the most important elements of successful habituation.

Certainbehavioursshouldbeavoided,suchasmakingloudnoises,suddengesturesorsurrepti-

tiousmovements.Typicalreactionstoobserverpresenceincludeflight,avoidance,curiosity,dis-

playandignore,andoccasionallyattack.Thekeytohabituationistomaximiseregularpositive

interactions, when the animals’ first reaction is neither fear nor alarm. Systematic records are

necessarytoassessprogresstowardshabituationandshouldincludeinformationondurationof

contact,distance,reactionsandactivitybudgets(WilliamsonandFeistner2003;Ancrenazpers.

comm.).

5.3.5 Tourismdevelopmentplansforsitesjudgedappropriateandfeasible

Onceasitehaspassedthroughalltheassessmentsdetailedaboveandbeenjudgedsuitablefor

greatapetourism,afulldevelopmentplanshouldbeprepared,documentingtheactionsneeded

toimplementtourism.Plansshouldsummariseallsiteandimpactassessmentrecommendations,

addressingeachtoensurecompliance,andaddressthedevelopmentandimplementationguide-

linesdetailedonpage38(seeSections5.4and5.5).

Chimpanzee, Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda. Photo © Julian Easton.

38

Contents of a Typical Tourism Development Plan:

a. Objectives

b. Guidingprinciplesandpolicies

c. Siteassessmentandimpactstudyresults

d. Sitedescription

e. Habituationprotocols

f. Apetourismlimits

• Numberofgroups/individuals

• Percentageofpopulation

g. Siteaccess

• Roadandtrailaccess

• Boatandairaccessiffeasible

h. Infrastructureplans

• Localzoningplans

• Accommodationplans

~ Accommodationpolicies

~ Lodge/hotel/tentedcamps

~ Huts,chalets,campsites

• Trails

• Offices

• Visitoreducationcentre

• Gatesandrangerposts

i. Staffingrequirements

• Managementstaff

~ Wardens

~ Financestaff

~ Bookingstaff

• Fieldstaff

~ Trackers

~ Touristguides

~ Hospitalitystaff

~ Visitorinformationstaff

• Recruitmentplans

• Trainingplans

• Policiesonexternalstaff(e.g.,externalguides)

j. Equipment

• Communications

• Fieldequipment

• FirstAid

k. Apemonitoringandhealthprotocols

l. Bookingsystemsandpricingstructure

m. Guidesandguideservices

n. Visitorinformation

o. Publicity,marketing,etc.

p. Transport,emergencies

q. Visitorregulations

r. Veterinarycover

s. Diversificationoftouristactivities

t. Communityconservationprogramme

• Revenuesharingtobenefitlocalcommunities

• Otherbenefit-sharingprogrammes

• Awarenessandoutreach

• CommunityImpactmonitoringplan

u. Regionalcooperation(ifapplicable)

v. Impactmitigationplan

w. Finances:

• Budgetandfundingplanfortourismdevelop-

mentcosts

• Operationsbudget

• Tourismincomemodels

• Communityincomemodels

• Incomemodelsforotherstakeholders

x. Emergency/ContingencyPlans:

• Securityplan

• Diseaseoutbreakresponseplan

• Fundingplanfortourismclosure

• Human-apeconflictmitigation

Tourist lodge, Bwindi Impen-

etrable National Park, Uganda.

Photo © Liz Macfie.

39

5.4 Development phase

Guidelines during Habituation:

5.4.1 Noprovisioning

Inthepast,provisioningwithfoodwasusedtokick-starthabituationatafewchimpanzeeresearch

sites.Feedingisstillpracticedtodraworangutanstotouristaccessibleareaswiththeapprovalof

conservationauthoritiesand,althoughnotauthorised,isoccasionallyusedtoenticeorangutansto

approachtourists.Lessonslearnedfromthesesitessuggestthatthispracticeheightensaggres-

sionbothbetweenapesandtowardsobservers,andsuchclosecontactorinjuryincreasesthe

risksofdiseasetransmission(WallisandLee1999).Diseaserisksalsoincreasewithprovisioning

asfooditemscanactasvehicles(‘fomites’)forinfectiousagentstoentertheapepopulation.In

addition,provisioning facilitatesparasitecontamination, if apesare repeatedly fed in thesame

areas.Therefore,provisioningisnolongerpracticedatgreataperesearchsitesandshouldnotbe

usedingreatapetourism.Tourismsiteswherefeedinghasoccurredinthepastshouldhaltthis

activityandstepupenforcement,togetherwithrisk-awarenesstrainingforanystaff,touristguides

andtouristswhothinkthatfeedingapesisacceptable.

5.4.2 Adherencetohabituationprotocols

AsdescribedinSection5.3.4,habituationofgreatapesshouldfollowprotocolsfoundedonexpe-

rience. This will be an iterative learning process—lessons learned should be incorporated into

protocolrevisionsandmadeavailabletootherprojects.

5.4.3 Habituationtargetdistances

Thehabituationtargetdistanceforapesthatwillbeviewedbytouristsonfootshouldbe10metres.

IfobserverswillbeprovidedwithN95masks,thenthetargetdistancemaybereducedto7metres.

5.4.4 Habituationtoobserverswearingsurgicalmasks

Sincewerecommendasbestpracticethatobservers(tourists,staff,researchers)whoarelikelyto

approachapestolessthan10metresshouldbewearingN95surgicalrespiratormasks,habitu-

ationteamsshoulddothesametoallowapestobecomeaccustomedtothemasks.Inaddition,

habituatorsthemselvesposediseaserisksiftheapeslackpriorexposuretohumanpathogens,so

wearingmaskswouldbeanaddedprecaution.

Chimpanzee, Nouabalé-Ndoki

National Park, Republic of

Congo. Photo © Ian Nichols.

40

5.4.5 Avoidanceofoverhabituation

Excessivehabituationisindicatedbyunacceptablycloseproximity,physicalcontactandaggres-

siontowardshumans,withincreasedrisksofinjury,diseaseandevendeath.Overhabituationcan

resultinapesapproachingtourists,initiatingcontactandinsomecasesattemptingtoobtainfood,

allofwhichcanbedangerousforbothhumansandapes.Mountaingorillaandorangutantourists

oftenreportbeingapproachedor touchedbyapes,andstaffmust try toprevent these interac-

tions.Extremelossoffearofhumanscanleadtoapesrangingandevennestingincommunity

areas,andtoincreasedcrop-raiding.Inafewcases,localpeoplehavebeenphysicallyattacked

bywildgreatapes(HockingsandHumle2009),andtouristshavebeenattackedbyrehabilitant

orangutans(SingletonandAprianto2001;Dellatore2007).Insummary,overhabituationmustbe

preventedatall costs, feedingshouldnotbeallowed,andhabituationeffortsshouldnevergo

beyondpredeterminedlevelsspecifiedinthetourismdevelopmentplan.Anyattemptsbyapesto

approachcloserthantheminimumdistanceortotouchhumanobserversshouldbediscouraged

withmeansappropriatetothecontext,andthehabituationteammustmoveawaytomaintaintheir

distance.

Young eastern lowland gorilla,

Kahuzi-Biega National Park,

DRC. Photo © John Martin/CI.

41

Impact Mitigation:

5.4.6 Healthmonitoringandveterinaryresponse

Allgreatape tourismsitesshouldparticipate in,andbenefit from, long-termhealthmonitoring

programmes.Awealthofreferencematerialonconservationmedicineandtreatmentprotocolsis

available(e.g.,Cranfield,GaffikinandCameron2001;Deem,KareshandWeisman2001;Kriefet

al.2005;Cranfield2008)andissummarisedinLeendertzet al.(inpress).

Ape tourism operations should include veterinary response teams, either on-site or available

to respondtoemergencies.These teamsshouldhaveclearlydefinedrolesandresponsibilities,

includingdiagnosticandtreatmentprotocols.Itisimportanttoestablishguidelinesonthedegree

ofinterventionappropriatefordifferentsituations:totreatdiseasesandinjuriesthatareprovenor

suspectedtobehuman-caused,butperhapsnotthoseconsideredtobenatural(unlessthereisa

risktothepopulation,orwhentreatmentisjudgedappropriateforhumanereasons,DecisionTree

WritingGroup2006).

5.4.7 Employeehealthprogrammes

Greatapetourismprojectsshouldprovidehealthscreeningandtreatmentforallfieldstaff,espe-

ciallystaffthatarelikelytocomeintocloseproximitywithhabituatedapes.Provisionofhealthcare

helpstoaddressabasicneedoflocalstaff,whileatthesametimeenablingscreening,prevention

andtreatmentofcommondiseasesthatposearisktogreatapes.TheMountainGorillaVeterinary

Programme (MGVP)operatesemployeehealthprogrammes in threecountriesandservesasa

resource forotherswishing todevelopsimilarservices (NutterandWhittier2001;MGVP2002;

Aliet al.2004;EmployeeHealthGroup2004).Whendesigningsuchprogrammes,itisessential

toassessstaff livingconditionsand toconsiderextending theprogrammetocover immediate

householdmembers,althoughthiswouldincreasecosts.Commoncomponentsincludevaccina-

tionagainstpreventablediseases,diagnostictests,routinechestx-raysortuberculosistests,first

aidprovisionandtraining,andhealtheducation.

5.4.8 Communityhealthprogrammes

Healthoutreachtomonitordiseaseandimprovehygieneinlocalvillagesisanimportantadjunctat

greatapeprojects.Fieldstaffandtouristsoftenspendtimeincommunityareasbeforetheyenter

apehabitat(Guerreraet al.2003).Therefore,devotingattentiontocommunityhealthwillprovide

additionalprotectiontotheapes,whileatthesametimeprovidinganeededservicetoneighbour-

ingcommunities.

5.4.9 Communityoutreachandinvolvementingreatapetourismactivities

Inlocationswhereapesliveincloseproximitytohumancommunities,itisimportanttofindways

toinvolvelocalpeopleintourismactivities.Thiswillbeameansofgainingtheirsupport,whichis

keytothelong-termsuccessoftourism(Ancrenazet al.2007;Rajaratnamet al.2008).

Environmental Education:

Thesuccessofapetourismwillbegreatlyenhancedbywell-designedenvironmentaleducation

and awareness activities, both to promote understanding and acceptance of the conservation

programmeanditsassociatedtourism,aswellastostimulatethedevelopmentofvalue-added

communityincomegenerationlinkedtotourism.Thedesignofeducationprogrammeswillnotbe

detailedhere,asthereisawealthofreferencematerialavailable.Sufficeittosaythateducation

shouldnotstopwithsimplyrelayingfacts,butgofurther,toexplorethecomplexitiesofconser-

vationandtoexplainthevalueofwildlifeandtheirhabitats.Awarenessprogrammesshouldbe

developedbyprofessionaleducatorsinpartnershipwithcommunitymemberstoidentifyappropri-

atecampaignmessages(WallisandLonsdorf2010),andshouldthemselvesundergocost-benefit

assessmentas theymustnotcompromisegreatapeconservation throughexcessivevisitation

(SingletonandAprianto2001).

42

Revenue Sharing:

Oneexcellentmeansofstimulatingcommunitysupportforconservationisviaasystemforsharing

aproportionoftourismrevenuewiththeadjacentcommunitiesthatcarrymostoftheburdenof

livingclosetoapehabitat.Revenuesharingencouragessustainableconservationbycontributing

totheimprovementofthelivingconditionsofneighbouringcommunities.Thiscanbeachieved

through:

• Conservation impacts:toreduceillegalactivities;toensuresustainableconserva-

tion;andtoincreasecommunityresponsibilityforconservation

• Livelihoods impacts: to improve livelihoods by supporting projects that contrib-

utetopovertyalleviation;tocompensateforlossofaccesstoapehabitatand/or

cropdamage;toprovidealternativestoresourcesinapehabitat;andtoencourage

community-basedtourism

• Relationship impacts (between tourism project and local population): to build

trust;to increaseownership;toreduceconflicts;to increaseparticipation;andto

empowercommunities

Thepositiveeffectsofrevenuesharingcanbeincreasedbyensuringthefollowing:

• Programmeidentity—fundsmustbeseentobe linkedtocontinuedconservation

ofapehabitat.

• Partnershipswithlocalgovernment—thekeyplayerinlocaldevelopmentandpov-

ertyalleviation.

• Communityparticipationinthedesign,implementationandmonitoringofrevenue

sharing.

• Revenues shared complement and supplement, rather than substitute for, other

funding.

• Transparencyandaccountability.

Adheringtotheseguidingprincipleswill leadtospecificprogrammecomponents, includingthe

amountstobeshared (typicallyapercentageofgrossrevenue)andthebeneficiary targetarea

(typicallythecommunitiesthathaveanimpactonapehabitatand/orareasinwhichcrop-raiding

orotherhuman-wildlifeconflictsoccur).Aboveall,revenue-sharingprogrammesshouldprovide

benefitstogroups(entirecommunitiesifpossible)ratherthanindividuals,andshouldtargetsec-

torsrepresentingthe‘poorestofthepoor’andotherdisadvantagedgroups,astheyarepriorities

forpovertyalleviation,aswellasbeingthemostlikelytoexploitnaturalresourcesinapehabitat,

whetherlegallyorillegally.

Supporting Community-Owned and Operated Tourist Services and Products:

Thefeasibilityofsupportinglocally-ownedcompaniesorassociationsthatwillbecomeinvolved

with,or takechargeof,greatape tourismorassociatedservicesmustbeassessedandgiven

priority.Indeed,iflocalcommunitiesbearthecostsoflivingclosetoprotectedareasandwildlife,

itseems logical togive themasenseofownershipwheneconomic incentivescanensuefrom

greatapetourism.Communityinvolvementmightbeintheprovisionofguidingservices,transport,

accommodationandfood,orthesaleoflocalproductstotourists.Examplesofsuccessfulcom-

munity-ownedenterprisesincludeRed Ape Encounters,acompanywhichoffersorangutanview-

ingintheKinabatangan(Rajaratnamet al.2008),andtheNkuringoConservationandDevelopment

Foundation,whichco-ownsanareaofmountaingorillahabitatattheBINPboundaryinUganda

onwhichacommunity-owned luxurytourist lodge isco-managedwithaprivate-sectorpartner.

Lessonslearnedunderscorethatcaremustbetakentofostergoodrelationswithprivatesector

operatorstoavoidtheperceptionofamonopolybeneficiary.Whileaprotectedareaauthoritymay

alreadyviewthecommunityasapriority,itmustalsopromoteawarenessofthisprincipleamong

theprivatesector,whichmightotherwiseexercisepoliticalorfinancialcloutthatcouldjeopardise

thecommunity’sbenefits(Kazooba2008;Tentena2010).

43

Other Community Conservation and Benefit-Sharing Programmes:

Anumberofothercommunityprogrammescanbemutuallybeneficialtogreatapetourism.As

conservationandpovertyalleviationcanbecomplementarygoals,acomprehensiveprogramme

thatinvolvesandbenefitsadjacentcommunitieswillhaveagreaterchanceofsuccess.Thismay

includetargetedlocalrecruitment,participationinbusinessenterpriseslinkedtotourism,agricul-

turalextension,micro-creditschemes,andcontrolledaccesstoforestresources(if localregula-

tionsallow).

A Conservation Basis for All Community-Development Programmes:

Aswithallcommunity-developmentprogrammeslinkedtoconservation,managersshouldaimto

maximisebenefitstoneighbouringcommunitieswithoutencouraging immigration,whichwould

exacerbatedevelopmentissuesandhavenegativeconsequencesforconservation.

Management Systems:

5.4.10 Tourismbookingsystems

Greatapetourismbookingsystemsshouldadheretothefollowingprinciplestomaximisebenefits

toconservationandtostakeholders:

• Robust and foolproof:Asbestpracticeingreatapetourismrequiresstrictapplica-

tionofrulesandregulations,bookingsystemsmustberobustenoughtoprevent

over-booking,whichcouldleadtoconflictatdeparturepointsandpressureonstaff

tobreaktherules.Systemsforbookingsheldwithaninitialdeposituntiladeadline

forfullpayment,orlossofdepositifnotconfirmed,shouldbeclearlyspelledoutso

thatallvisitors,whetherbookingdirectlyorthroughatourismagency,canaccessa

fairandequitablesystemforobtainingpermits.

• Internet-based bookings: Internet-based systems will foster improved bookings

and occupancy rates as long as they are professionally designed and managed,

andallowtouristsasafeandsecuremethodtoreserveandpayforpermits.Small

projects,orthosejustenteringthemarket,maynothavethecapacitytomaintainan

electronicbookingsystem,butastheiroperationsgrowtherewillbeadvantagesto

movingawayfromtraditionalmeans(post,telephone,radio)towardsanelectronic

systemthatpreventsover-booking.

• Tourist diversity:Bookingsystemsshouldbedevelopedtoaccommodatethespec-

trumoftourists,fromhigh-endclientsbookingthroughtouroperatorswhohandle

permits,accommodation,transportandguiding,tolow-budgettouristsorganising

theirownlogistics.Low-budgettourismtendstobenefitlocalenterprisesandtobe

morereliableduringtimesofinsecurityorothermarketdepressors,whereashigh-

endtourismexpendituresareoftenhigher,butaccrueatnational/internationallevels

ratherthanlocally.Inaddition,localcitizensshouldbeencouragedtoexperience

theirownheritagethroughafavourablepricingstructure.

• Local and national tourism providers: Whilethereareoftenexpectationsthatgreat

apetourismwillmakeeveryonerich,theseareunlikelytobefulfilled.Tourismbusi-

nesseswithstrong regionalor international linkageshaveanunfairadvantage in

thetourismmarket.Thereforebookingsystemsshouldallowsmalleroperatorsto

acquireashareofpermits if theywish to tap into themarket for linkedservices,

suchasaccommodation,transportandtransfers.

• Informative:Communicationswiththosewishingtobookapetourismpermitsmust

clearlyexplaintherationalebehindrulesandregulations,especiallythosethatrestrict

bookingssuchaslimitsonvisitornumbersandtheminimumvisitorageof15years.

• Seasonality: Programmedesignshouldincludeevaluationofseasonalmarketingor

low-seasonrates(e.g.,NishidaandMwinuka2005)toalleviatepressureduringhigh

seasonsthatmightleadtoviolationoftourismrules.However,itisalsoimportant

toconsiderthatlowseasonscanallowforrestorreduced-exposureofhabituated

apestothestressorsandrisksoftourism.

44

• Stand-by systems:Atsiteswithmultiplegroupsofapesavailablefortourism,book-

ingsystemsthatallowpermitsforonegrouptobeheldbackas‘stand-by’only(not

bookedinadvance)canresolvetheproblemofagroupbeingunavailableonapar-

ticularday(havingrangedtoofaroraveterinaryinterventionrequired),oraccidental

overbooking.

5.4.11 Pricingstructures

Appropriate pricing is vital to maximising revenue and should follow the guiding principle that

conservationistheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism.Whenestablishingapricingstructure,itis

importanttoconsiderthefollowing:

• Unique experience: Feeschargedforgreatapetourismmustreflecttheexclusive

natureofapeviewingandshouldnotbeunder-valued.Marketsurveysshowthat

peoplearewillingtopaylargefeesforthisprivilege(e.g.,$500totrackmountain

gorillas,BushandFawcett2008).

• Conservation impact:Theoveralltourismcost-benefitratioisgreatestwhensmall

numbers of tourists pay high prices. Low prices could lead to excessive visitor

demandthatwouldultimatelyjeopardiseconservationobjectives.

• Type of tourism:Feesshouldalsoreflectthenatureoftourismonoffer(trackingwith

essentiallyguaranteedviewingatcloseproximityvs.observationatabaivs.forest

walkwithachancetoseeapesvs.riverexcursion).Inaddition,sitesorcountries

trying to recover from a tourism slump could consider a temporary reduction in

charges.

• Tiered pricing structures:Pricingshouldprovideincentivestolocalvisitors,aswell

as citizens and residents of range states. These visitors will improve occupancy

rates,especiallyinlowseasonsortourismmarketslumps,andwillenhancelocal

andnationalawarenessofapeconservationissues.

• Pricing structures guided by occupancy rates:Asanape tourismsitegrows in

popularity,itmaybecomefullybookedatcertaintimesofyear.Thiscouldresultin

pressurefromtourists,touroperators,andevenconservationauthoritiesandgov-

ernmentministries,toincreasevisitornumbers,eitherbyallowingmoretouristsper

grouporperday,orthroughadditionalhabituationefforts.However,thefirstcourse

ofactionshouldbetoraisethepermitpricesothatadditionalconservationfunding

issourcedwithoutincreasingtheriskscausedbyexpandingtourism.

• Market studies and visitor surveys:Itisimportanttopriceactivitiesappropriately,

particularlyatnewsites,anddecisionsshouldbeinformedbymarketsurveystar-

getingsectorsofthetouristmarketthatasitehopestoattract.Asoperationsgrow,

visitorsurveysandadditionalevaluationsshouldguidepricingreviews.

5.4.12 Marketingefforts

Onceatourismsitehasbeenestablishedandhabituation(ifappropriate)isunderway,theprocess

ofmarketingshouldbegin.

• Identify key players in the tourism market: Market surveys will help to identify

stakeholdersandmeansofattractingappropriatesectorsofthetourismmarket.

• Prepare and distribute marketing materials stressing conservation principles:

Materialsdesignedtoattracttouroperatorsandtouriststoasiteandtoinformthem

ofwhattoexpectmustemphasisethatconservationistheprioritygoaloftourism.

Thiswillsensitisetouristsbydemonstratingthatactivitieswillbemanagedtomini-

miseriskstotheapes,andwillbetterpreparetouroperatorstoinformtheirclients

oftherulesandregulationsintendedtoprotecttheapesfromtourismimpacts.

• Marketing must moderate tourist expectations: Manypeopleconsidergreatape

tourism to be a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Marketing must generate realistic

expectationssothattouristsunderstandandappreciatethetypicaltouristexperi-

enceinagivensite.Thepressuretoguaranteeobservationsofwildapesshouldbe

45

resisted,asitraisesexpectationssignificantly,anditisimpossibletoguaranteea

100%chanceofobservingwildanimals,eveniftheyarehabituated.Itispreferable

tomarkettrackingratherthanviewing,stipulatingthatstaffwill followtracksand

attempt to locate theapes,butcannotguarantee theywillbevisible.Alternative

activitiesshouldbeinplaceandofferedtovisitorsiftheapesarenotlocated(e.g.,

ifagrouphasmovedtoofaraway).

• Marketing must manage tour operator and other partner expectations: Greatape

tourismisviewedbymanyprivatesectorpartnersasanopportunitytoselllucrative

tourismpackages.Marketingeffortsmustaddressthetendenciesoftouroperators

toregardapetourismasa‘product’ratherthanaconservationopportunity,asthe

formerattitudemayleadtodisregardofregulations,abuseofvisitingprivilegesand

pressuretoexpandoperations.

• Marketing should promote broad tourism circuits:Greatapetourismoftenoper-

ateswithinconstraintsofuncertainsightings (orpoorqualityviewing), in remote

locationswithbasicvisitorfacilities,allofwhichmayreducetouristinterest,occu-

pancyandsatisfaction.Whilestrivingtoimprovevisitorfacilities(alongbestpractice

guidelines),itisimportanttobuildapetourismintocircuitsthathighlightaregion’s

wildlifeandnaturalhabitats,aswellasspecialistinterests,suchasbird-watchingor

culturaltours,toencouragelongerstaysintheregionorcountry.

5.4.13 Staffingissues

Tourismmanagementrequiresprofessional,competentandefficientstaff,whoarewellpaid,well

trainedandwellequipped.Thefollowingareissuestoincorporateintorecruitmentplansforgreat

apetourism.

• Local recruitment: To maximise benefits to communities adjacent to great ape

habitat, it is important toprovide local employmentopportunities.Knowledgeof

theforestenvironmentisusuallyadvancedinlocalpeoplewhousetheforestand

itsresources.Manyhaveskillsthatareessential fortrackinggreatapes,andare

familiarwithlocalcommunitycultureandtraditions,whichcanenhancethevisitors’

experience.Formaltraining(seenextpage)todevelopskillsthatlocalstaffdonot

havewillrequirefundingandtimecommitments.

• Importing skilled staff as trainers:Onlywhenparticularskillscannotbesourcedor

developedlocallyshouldstaffberecruitedfurtherafield.Thismightbethecasefor

functionssuchashospitality,managementandaccounting,orpositionsrequiring

anabilityinaparticularforeignlanguage.Skilledstaffshouldthenprovidetraining

tolocalrecruits.

• Staff affiliation:Ideallyallstaffguidingtouristswillbehireddirectlybyaprotected

area management authority, or officially recognised by that authority. If staff are

employees,theirstrictadherencetoregulationswillbeeasiertoenforce.

• Remuneration: Ape tourism has the potential to attract high fees, and must be

adequately controlled to protect the apes from the negative impacts of strong

monetary incentives. This will require loyalty to the conservation goals of a tour-

ismprogramme,andstaffmustnotbetemptedtodeviatefromestablishedrules

forpersonalgain.Oneofthebestwaystoavoidcorruptionistopaysatisfactory

salaries.Inmanycountries,thelegally-mandatedminimumwageisnotenoughto

guaranteeanappropriatestandardofliving;thustourismprojectsshouldassessthe

costoflivingandprovidea‘livingwage’sufficienttomaintainastaffmemberwith

anaverage-sizedfamily.(SeealsotippingpoliciesinSection5.5.16).

• Equipment and uniforms:Fieldstaffmustbeprovidedwithappropriatefieldand

communicationsequipmentandattiredinprofessionaluniformsthatclearlyidentify

themastourismstaff.Diseasetransmissionshouldbeminimisedbyassigningspe-

cificstaffmemberstoparticulargroups,withanadequatesupplyofcleanuniforms

andappropriatebootwashingfacilities(Whittier2009).

46

5.4.14 Stafftraining

Forgreatapetourismtobeeffectivelymanagedwithconservationasitsmainpurpose,itmustbe

runbyskilledandknowledgeablestaffwhounderstandtherisksinvolved,thatconservationisthe

primaryobjective,andwhohavetheauthoritytoenforceregulationsinthefaceofpressuresfrom

bothtouristsandtouroperators.Thefollowingissuesmustbetakenintoaccountwhendesigning

andfinancingstafftrainingprogrammes:

• Great ape behaviour and forest ecology:Staffshouldbeknowledgeableaboutthe

ecosysteminwhichtheywillguidevisitors.Manytouristsarekeentolearnwhile

hikingandtracking,andstaffshouldbecapableofansweringquestionsaboutgreat

ape biology and behaviour, and the ecology of their habitat. Tourism staff could

improvetheirknowledgebyparticipatinginresearchactivities.

• Language skills:Staffmustbeabletoexplaintherationalebehindregulations,to

controltouristsandtocommunicateeffectivelyduringanemergency.Theytherefore

needtobecompetentinspeakingthemostcommonlanguageofasite’stourists.

• Empowerment: Aswellasenforcingprotectedarearegulationsandnationallaws,

staffmusthavetheabilitytocontroltouristswithoutconcernforanyperceiveddif-

ferentialinsocialstatus,andtheymustnotgiveprioritytotouristsatisfactionover

apeprotection.Stafftrainingshouldincludetechniquesfordealingwith‘problem’

touristswhoresist theirauthorityandwhomayaggressivelypushforrulestobe

broken.

• First aid: Trainingandequipmentshouldpreparestafftorespondappropriatelyin

casesofaccidentorinjury,totreatandtransporttouriststosafety.

5.4.15 Emergencycontingencyplans

Alltourismsitesmustdevelopplanstorespondtoemergenciesthatmayaffecttheviabilityoftheir

programmes:

• Funding contingency plans: While successful tourism will be a good source of

funding,itmaynotbereliable,giventheficklenatureoftheindustryandthattrends

aredifficulttopredict.Slumpsinvisitationwillresultinlowerrevenuesforconserva-

tionandlawenforcement,buttheseactivitiesmust continueevenintheabsenceof

tourism.Financialcontingencyplanscanincludeemergencysupportfromdonors,

endowment funds or revenue set-asides to cover core conservation operations

duringlow-tourismperiods.

Tourism staff training, Budongo

Forest Reserve, Uganda. Photo

© Debby Cox.

47

• Disease outbreak contingency planning: Great apes are vulnerable to disease

transmittedby tourists,fieldstaff, localcommunities, livestockandotherwildlife.

Thereforeveterinarysupportprogrammesshouldworkwithsiteauthoritiestoputin

placediseasesurveillanceandresponseplanssothatquickactioncanbetakento

preventspreadoroutbreaks.11

• Human–great ape conflict response plans: Tourismcanexacerbateconflictswith

localpeopleif,forexample,habituationincreasestheincidenceofcrop-raidingand

incomeisnotseentobefairlydistributed.Planstoavoidormitigatesuchconflicts

mustbeinplace(seeHockingsandHumle2009).

• Security or natural disaster planning:Anyareathat ispronetonaturaldisasters,

cross-border conflict, civil war, crime or terrorist attacks should not selected for

tourismdevelopment; however, unforeseenevents canaffect any site. Thus it is

importantthatevacuationplansandsecurityprotocolsareinplacetoprotecttour-

ists,staffandgreatapesduringanysuchevent.

5.5 Implementation phase—regulations

Greatapetourismsitesshoulddevelopdetailedregulations incorporating lessons learnedfrom

othersites,andshouldmonitor,reinforceandimprovetheseregulationsthroughoutthelifespan

oftheirprogramme.Site-specificregulationscanbedevelopedinconsultationwithmedical,vet-

erinary, travel and ecotourism practitioners (Muehlenbein and Ancrenaz 2009). However, good

plansaremeaninglesswithouteffectiveenforcement,andpoorenforcementhasbeenaperennial

problemforgreatapetourism.Therefore,itiscriticalthatconservationmanagershavetheauthor-

itytoinstitutetourismregulations,toexerciseauthorityoncetourismisunderway,andtomaintain

thatauthorityoverthelong-term.Thiswillhelptofostercompliancebybothstaffandtourists.The

generalregulationsgivenbelowarerelevanttomostgreatapetourismsites.

Regulations – Pre-Visit

5.5.1 Disseminationofregulationsviatouroperatorsandbookingagents

Prior to theirarrivalatagreatape tourismsite,visitorsshouldbepresentedwith the rationale

behind measures intended to minimise disease risks and other negative impacts of tourism.

Printedregulationsshouldbesenttotouroperators,marketingorbookingagentsand,ifpossible,

postedonawebsite.

5.5.2 Immunisation

Manygreatapesitesrequirethattouristspresentproofofvaccination,oracurrentnegativetest,

foranumberofdiseases.Vaccinationrequirementsmayincludepolio,tetanus,measles12,mumps,

rubella,hepatitisAandB,yellowfever,meningococcalmeningitis, typhoidandtuberculosis (or

proofofnegativeskintestwithinthelastsixmonths).Thisregulationhasanumberofadvantages:

besidespreventingthespreadof theseparticulardiseases, it reinforcesthevisitor’sperception

thattourismposesarisktotheapes.Thisshouldstimulateanyresponsibletourist’swillingnessto

adheretoguidelinesfortheirvisit.Relyingonproofofvaccinationoranegativetestalonewillnot

controlallinfectionsofconcern,suchasthecommoncoldandinfluenza,forwhichthereiseither

novaccineoravaccineforcertainstrainsonly.

Therecanbeproblemswithvaccinations:Vaccinatedtouristsmaydevelopafalsesenseofsecu-

rityandfeelthattheycanviolateotherregulationsbecausetheyareimmunised.Inaddition,lead-

times for vaccination mean that vaccination requirements may not be easy to administer (e.g.,

vaccinatingonlyonedaybeforeavisitisgenerallynotprotective,andamodifiedlivevaccinemay

11 Disease contingency plans are available for mountain gorillas (UWA and IGCP 2000; MGVP 2004). Inaddition,simpleproceduressuchaspreventingstafffromvisitingmultiplegroupswillpreventdiseasespread(Whittier2009).12 Laboratorytestsshowthatimmunitytomeaslescansubstituteforproofofvaccination(BudongoForestProject2006).

48

infectothercontacts,apesincluded).Toavoiddisappointment,vaccinationandhealthregulations

shouldbeprovidedatthetimeofbookingsothattouristsareabletoorganiseanyimmunisations

ortestsrequiredandobtainthenecessarydocumentation.SeeLeendertzet al.(inpress)formore

information.

Regulations – On Arrival

5.5.3 Presentationoftourismimpactsandsafetyissues

Appropriateinformationonthevariousimpactsoftourismongreatapesshouldbegiventotourists

onarrival.Presentationshouldbethoroughandconsistofbothactivediscussionoftheregulations

that minimise risks and passive information transfer (such as written materials in accommoda-

tion facilities, displays and signage in check-in areas). This can be reinforced with demonstra-

tionsoftherequiredsafedistanceandrole-playwithguidesshowinghowtheywouldmanagean

approachingapetopreparetouristsonhowtheyshouldrespond.Ifactedout,touristswillbemore

likelytorememberwhattheyhavebeentold.Safetyprecautionsshouldalsobeexplainedatthis

timeand,ifrequired,visitorliabilitywaiverssigned.

5.5.4 Guidedhealthevaluationpriortodeparture

Duringfinalcheck-inforatouristvisit,staffshouldinspectvaccinationcertificatesratherthanrely

onself-reporting(Muehlenbeinet al.2008).Touristsshouldthenbeguidedthroughaself-evalu-

ationdesignedtohighlightwhethertheymightbeinfectiousorotherwiseunabletoparticipatein

thevisit.Thisshouldincludeachecklistofsymptomssuchassneezing,coughing,feverordiar-

rhoeawithintheprevious48hours,andexposuretoanysignificantrisks(e.g.,disease,batcaves).

N.B.Self-evaluationisnotenoughtoensurecompliancebecausesometouristswilltrytoconceal

symptoms;however,theprocesswillidentifythosewillingtodeclineavisitonhealthgrounds,and

facilitatetheprocessofrefundingtouristswhoself-reportillness.

5.5.5 Professionalhealthevaluation

Ahealthprofessionalon-sitecouldperformroutinehealthchecks,suchasmeasuringbodytem-

perature,heart rateandrespiratory rate.Thiswillnotbepossibleatallsites,but large tourism

programmesshouldconsiderhavinganurseordoctoronstaff,inconjunctionwithanemployee

healthprogramme.Healthprofessionalswillalsobeabletoadviseonlocalandglobaldiseasepat-

ternsandproposeadditionalprecautionsasneeded.Guidesshouldalsobetrainedtorecognise

touristswhoareunwell,andgivenauthoritytoexcludethemfromgreatapetourismactivities.

Regulations – During Visit

Unfortunately, touristswhohave travelled longdistances (usually atgreat expense)may try to

hide illness, while others could be infectious without knowing it. Consequently everyone who

approachesgreatapesposesadiseaseriskandmustactaccordingly.Strictregulationsarealso

importanttominimisethebehaviouralimpactsoftouristvisits.Anysiteclaimingthattheyadhere

tobestpracticeingreatapetourismmustimplementthefollowing:

5.5.6 Maximumnumberoftouristspergroup

To minimise behavioural disturbance and disease risk, strict limits on the number of tourists

allowedtovisiteachdaymustbesetandadheredto.Indenseforestwherevisibilityispoor,any

suddennoiseormovementcouldcausealarmandunpredictablereactions. Inaddition,finding

agoodviewingspotforeachtouristcanbechallenging.Touristsmuststaytogetherandavoid

encirclingtheapesbeingviewed.Tofacilitatethecontrolofvisitors,minimisedangerandenhance

visitorsatisfaction,thenumberofpeopleperpartyshouldbenomorethan4touristsaccompanied

by2guides/trackers.Thisshouldachieveareasonablebalancebetweenapesandhumans,and

reducestressanditsknock-oneffects.Smallnumbersalsofavourhighpermitprices,astourists

tendtovaluebeingpartofasmallandexclusivegroupofvisitors.

Thisgeneralguidelineshouldbeimplementedbyallnewsites.However,notethatspecies-specific

recommendationsontouristnumbersarediscussedinSection5.7.Anumberofsitesoperatewith

fewerthan4tourists,includingthesitesofferingviewingofhabituatedwesternlowlandgorillasand

49

someorangutansites—thecontinuedviabilityofthesesitessuggeststhatnumberscanremain

low.Mountaingorillasitesandsomechimpanzeesitescurrentlyoperatewithmorethan4tour-

ists,andthesesitesshouldassesswhetherreducingtouristnumberstowardsthisrecommended

maximumcouldbefeasibleinfuture,andanynewapegroupsopenedfortourismshouldhavea

smallernumberoftourists.

5.5.7 Onetouristvisitperday

• Thereshouldbenomorethanonevisitperdaytoeachgroupofapes(orindividual/

party/forestareainthecaseofchimpanzeeandorangutantourism).

• Anysite thatcurrentlyoperatesmorethanonevisitperdayshouldtry toreduce

thescheduletoonevisitadaypergrouporindividual.Thiscanbedonebyclosing

second-visitbookingsover time,orbyhabituatinganewgroup (guidedbya full

impactassessment).

• Tourismaccommodationlocatedinornearapehabitatmustlimitvisitormovements

awayfromthefacilitytopreventuncontrolledapeviewing.

5.5.8 Novisitsbypeoplewhoaresick

• Peoplewhoareunwellwillnotbeallowedtovisittheapes,andthismustbemade

veryclearatthetimeofbooking.It iscriticalthattouristsareencouragedtoself-

reporttheirillnessesandbegivenincentivestorefrainfromvisitingifnecessary.This

shouldnotbeapostponedvisit(itisprobablethatthepersonwouldcontinuetobe

infectiousforafewdays),butcouldbearefundon-siteorvouchersforothertour-

ismservices(e.g.,accommodation,hiking).

• Similarly,staffmemberswhoareillmustnotparticipateinapevisits,andmustbe

givenincentivestoremainawayfromapes,suchasguaranteed‘sickdays’anda

policyofnon-discriminationiftheycannotworkbecauseofillness.

5.5.9 N95respiratormasks

• Alltouristsandstaffwhoarelikelytoapproachhabituatedapestowithin10metres

shouldwearasurgicalqualityN95respiratormaskforthedurationoftheirone-hour

visit.Respiratorsthatfilterouthigherpercentagesofaerosolisedparticlesarealso

acceptable(i.e.,N99orN100).

• Masksshouldbecarriedbytracker/guidesinappropriatewaterproofcontainersso

thattheyarenotdamagedandrenderedlesseffectiveduringtransport.Theyshould

bedistributedtotouristsjustbeforetheybeginactuallyviewingtheapes.

• Masksaredisposableandshouldnotbere-used.Theyshouldbecollectedbythe

trackers/guidesimmediatelyafterthevisitanddisposedofappropriatelyafterthe

visit,astheyposeadiseaserisktoapesandotherwildlifeifaccidentallydropped

intheforest.

• Masksmustbeburneduponreturnto tourismadministrationoraccommodation

facilities,awayfromareaswhereapesrange.

• Masks that become damp or wet are less effective at blocking pathogens and

shouldbeexchangedforanewone.

• Staffmustreceivetraininginmaskmanagement,includingproperfit-testing,wear,

useanddisposal.

• Appropriateuseofmasks(includingfitting,handlinganddisposal)shouldbedem-

onstratedinfulltotouristsatthedeparturepoint,withareviewbeforetheyreachthe

10-metredistance,sothatmasksarenotputonincorrectlyinarushtoseetheapes.

• Asurgicalmaskshouldnotgivethewearerafalsesenseofsecurity—allotherregu-

lations(concerninghygiene,distancefromtheapes,timespentwiththem)mustbe

enforcedalongsidemaskprovision.Appropriateeducationmustbegiventostaff

andtouristsalike.

50

• Touristsfeelingtheurgetosneezeorcoughwhileinproximitytotheapesshould

turntheirheadawayevenwhenwearingasurgicalmask,butshouldnotremovethe

mask,althoughstaffshouldofferareplacementmaskifnecessary.

• Maskmanagementshouldbemonitoredaspartofabroadertourismmonitoring

programme,andresultsusedtoinformandimproveprocedures.

• Tourist compliance and feedback should also be taken into consideration when

reviewingmaskmanagementprocedures.

• Procurementsystemsmustensureareliablesupplyofappropriatemasksonsite.

• IfN95 respiratormasksarenot available, surgicalqualitymulti-layermasksmay

beusedwhileN95respiratorsareprocured,assurgicalmasksprovideabarrierto

large-droplets.Theiruseshouldonlybetemporary,assurgicalmasksarenotas

effectiveasN95respirators.FurtherinformationonsurgicalmasksandN95respira-

torscanbefoundinAppendixII.

5.5.10 Childrenyoungerthan15yearsoldprohibitedfromvisiting

• Childrenbelow15yearsoldmustnotbeallowedtovisitgreatapes.Whileparents

mayargueagainstthisregulationonthebasisthattheirchildiscapableofthehike

ormatureenoughtocontroltheirfear,thissafeguardisprimarilyforhealthreasons.

Youngpeoplearemorelikelytobeinfectedwithcommonchildhooddiseases,even

whenproperlyvaccinated,andthereforeposeamuchgreaterhealthrisktohabitu-

atedapes.

5.5.11 Non-essentialpersonneltoremainatadistancefromapes

• Non-essentialpersonnelsuchasmilitaryescortsorportersmuststayasfaraway

asfeasible,outofsightand earshotduringthetouristvisit.

• Non-essential personnel should remain in contact with guides via walkie-talkie

radios,sothattheycanbeinstructedtomoveiftheapesheadintheirdirection.

5.5.12 Preventcontaminationofthehabitatwithfoodwaste

• Eatingisnotallowedduringavisit.Foodanddrinkmustnotbevisiblewhileobserv-

inggreatapes,butshouldbeleftwithportersorotherpersonnelwhoremainoutof

sensoryrangeoftheapes.

• Foodmustnotbeconsumedwithin500metresofapes.Thiswillminimisetheacci-

dentalcontaminatedwasteandpreventtheapesfromdevelopinganassociation

betweenhumansandfood.

• Foodwasteandallotherrubbishmustbestowedinbackpacksandcarriedoutof

theforesttopreventdepositionofinfectiouswasteinthehabitat.

• Foodmustneverbeusedtoattractapestowardstourists.

5.5.13 Minimumdistancetohabituatedgreatapes

• For visitors wearing N95 surgical masks, the minimum distance permitted is

7metres(22feet)

• ForvisitorsnotwearingN95masks,theminimumdistancepermittedis10metres

(33feet)

5.5.14 One-hourtimelimit

• Touristsmustspendnomorethanonehournearhabituatedapes.

• Thislimitcombinedwithrestrictionofonevisitperdaymeansthatnoapeshouldbe

visitedbytouristsformorethanonehouronanyday.

• Ifapesarenoteasilyvisiblewhenfirstapproached,staffshouldescorttouristsaway

toadistanceof200metrestoawaitatimewhentheapesarerestingorhavemoved

intomoreopenvegetation,andthenbeginthepermittedhour.

51

5.5.15 Hand-washingandhygiene

• Basin facilities and soap should be provided at departure points, and tourists

encouragedtowashtheirhandsbeforedeparture.

• Latrinesmustbeprovidedatdeparturepoints,andtouristsencouragedtousethem

before departure. Latrines should be constructed at appropriate distances from

watercourses(atleast30metres).

• If touristsorstaffhave tourinateordefecatewhile in the forest, faecesmustbe

buriedina30-centimetrehole.Thisshouldbeatleast500metresfromapes’loca-

tionandawayfromwatercourses.

• Guidesshouldcarryhanddisinfectantspray(suchaschlorhexidine),gel,orwipes

forallvisitorsandstafftousebeforeapproachingapes.

• Smokingisprohibitedinapehabitatduetotheriskoffire,andofdiseasetransmis-

sionviacontaminatedcigarettebutts.Thesmellofsmokewillalsoscarewildlife.

• Spittingandnoseblowing/clearingonthegroundareforbidden—staffandtourists

shouldusehandkerchiefs asneeded, and theseactivities shouldnot takeplace

neartheapes.

• Thesamebootsandclothingshouldnotbeworntovisitadifferentgroupunlessit

hasbeenwashedanddriedbetweenvisits.

5.5.16 Tippingpoliciesandstaffsalaries

• Touristsmustbeinformedthattipscannotbeusedtoencouragestafftobreakregu-

lations,andstaffmustnotviewtipsasjustificationtoignoreregulations;thiswould

alsoreducetheprofessionalismoftheoperation.

• Touristsdislikehavingrulespresentedtothemandthenseeingthembroken––this

reducesrespectforbothstaffandregulations.Thismessagemustbecommunicated

tostaffthrougheducation,trainingandmonitoring,toenhancetheircompliance.

• Tippingpoliciesshouldbeclearlydisplayedsothattouristsareawareoftheissues

beforestartingtheiractivity.

• Tourismstaffshouldbepaidsatisfactorysalaries(atleasta‘livingwage’andprefer-

ablyhigher)tominimisetemptationstoviolateregulationsforhighertips.

• Regularmonitoringandstaffsupervisionshouldbeusedtoreinforcetippingissues.

Scaled-model of the mini-

mum 7-metre distance allowed

between tourists and mountain

gorillas, Volcanoes National

Park, Rwanda. Photo © Maryke

Gray.

52

• Alltourismstaff,fromcheck-inclerkstotrackersandguides,shouldbenefitfrom

tipsviaasharedtipboxwithtipsdistributedequallyamongallstaffeachday.

• Policiesspecifyingthatpooledtipswillbedividedamongalltourismstaffwillhelp

preventirregularitiesandshouldbepostedwheretheyarevisibletovisitors.

• Touristsappreciateguidanceontipping,andappropriateamountscanbesuggested.

• Ano-tippingpolicyshouldbeconsiderediftipsarejudgedtobeaprimefactorin

staffrelaxingregulations.

5.5.17 Monitoringandenforcementofrules

• Itisimperativethatallstaffunderstandtherules,canexplaintheirrationaletovisi-

torsandenforcethem.

• Tourismstaff shouldbe regularlymonitoredandevaluatedon theirconduct,and

resultsshouldbediscussedopenlybetweenevaluatorsandstaff.

• Apost-visitchecklistprovidedtotouristsandstaffcouldhelptoreinforcestaffcom-

pliance,andspecificcaseswherestaffhadproblemsenforcingrulescouldbeused

instafftrainingexercises.

• Regularrefreshercourseswillreinforcestaffunderstandingandadherencetotour-

ismregulations,andshouldincludetrainingonenforcementtechniques.

Regulations – Site Management

5.5.18 Infrastructuredesignedtominimiseimpactonapesandhabitat

• EIAsshouldbecarriedout forall tourism-related infrastructuredevelopments, in

keepingwithnationalenvironmentallegislation.

• Tourism infrastructure, such as lodges, campsites and visitor centres, should be

constructedinareaswhereimpactsonapesandtheirhabitatsareminimal.

• Ifpossible,tourisminfrastructureshouldbelocatedoutsideorontheedgeofape

habitat,andanydisruptiontonativevegetation,especiallyforest,shouldbekept

toaminimum.

• Tourisminfrastructureshouldnotbebuiltinareasfrequentedbyapes,duetorisks

ofencounteringpeople,foodpreparationareas,wastedisposal,orsanitationfacili-

ties,andriskofinjuryfromelectricalcablesorotherhazards.

A viewing platform, Mbeli Bai,

Republic of Congo. Photo ©

Fiona Maisels.

53

• Tourism infrastructuremust not introduceadditional disease risks to apepopula-

tions.Attentiontoappropriatesanitation,hygieneandwastedisposaliscriticalin

thisregard.

• Tourisminfrastructureshouldnotincludeinstallationsthatcouldattractapes,such

astheplantingofcropsorfruittrees.

• Ifinfrastructureonanyscaleisnecessaryinapehabitat,attentionshouldbepaid

toreducingtheimpactoftreefellingontheapes’feedingandrangingrequirements

(seeMorganandSanz2007).

5.5.19 Staffhousingandadministrativeinfrastructure

• Staffandadministrativebuildingsshouldbesited tomaximise theoversightand

control of tourism programmes. Managers and law enforcement teams should

bepostedon-siteso thatmonitoringandprotectionactivitiescanbecarriedout

routinely.

• Staff and administration buildings must be located and designed to minimise

impactsonapesandtheirhabitatfromnoiseandotherhazards(e.g.,fuel,power

lines,toxins).

5.5.20 Tourismaccommodationshouldbenefitlocalcommunities

• Accommodationinlodgesorcampsitesshouldbemanagedtomaximisecommu-

nitybenefitsthroughcommunity-ownership,employmentopportunities,orrevenue-

sharingschemesthatprovideincometomembersofthecommunityorfundingfor

socialservices.

• Touristaccommodationthatbenefitslocalcommunitiesshouldbeprotectedfrom

external competition.This canbeachieved throughzoningso thatonly a viable

numberoffacilitiesareallowedtooperateatthepreferredlocations.

5.6 Monitoring and evaluation phase

5.6.1 Appliedresearch

Tourism programmes should be supported by independent impact-assessments to inform and

improvetourismpolicyandmanagementsystems.Formalmechanismsofreviewandincorpora-

tionof research results intomanagementandpolicywill ensure that conservation impactsare

optimised.Researchprogrammesshouldinclude:

• Disease monitoring: Disease is the most serious risk associated with great ape

tourism.Healthmonitoringrecordswillshowpatternsofdisease,andallowman-

agementtodesignpreventionmeasures(e.g.,quarantine,touristvaccinationregu-

lations,communityhealthprojects)andtorespondtodiseaseoutbreaks.Routine

observationsby trainedpersonnel andnon-invasive screening shouldbe supple-

mentedbyopportunisticsamplingofimmobilisedanimals(seeLeendertzet al.in

press).

• Behavioural monitoring: Tourism can also have serious negative impacts on

the behaviour, physiology and social dynamics of habituated apes. Independent

researchwillhighlightpotentialor incipientproblemsbefore theybecomesevere

andwillallowadaptivemanagement(seeFawcett2004;Muyambi2004;Hodgkinson

andCipolletta2009).

• Ecological monitoring:Heavy tourist trafficmaycause soil compaction, erosion,

tramplinganddamagetovegetation.Controlstominimisedegradationofthehabi-

tatshouldincludeprohibitionofthecuttingorremovalofseedlingsandvegetation,

walkingofftrails,andfire.

• Population monitoring: Population monitoring is an essential adjunct to tourism

management. Tourism should stimulate the development of research projects to

meettourism-impactmonitoringandappliedresearchrequirements.

54

• Law–enforcement monitoring: Thedevelopmentandoperationoftourismmustnot

divertattentionandresourcesawayfromthecentralgoalofprotectinggreatapes

andtheirhabitat.Itis,therefore,importanttomonitortrendsinillegalactivities,and

assesstheperformanceandresultsoflaw-enforcementactivities.Law-enforcement

monitoringwillhighlightareas for improvementor theneed for increasedsurveil-

lance,andcaninformmanagementwhenapesarerangingintoareasofillegalactiv-

ity,sothatpreventionandresponsetothoseactivitiescanbeenhanced.

• Conflict monitoring:Human-greatapeconflictscanbealleviatedthroughtheprovi-

sionoftourismbenefitstolocalcommunities,orexacerbatedbytourismalteringthe

apes’rangingbehaviourandbringingthemintoconflictsituationsmorefrequently.

Itisimportantthatconflictsaresystematicallymonitoredandthesuccessofmitiga-

tioneffortsmeasured.

• Economic assessments:Themotivationforinitiatinggreatapetourismisoftenthe

economicbenefitsanticipatedbyvariousinstitutional,localandnationalstakehold-

ers,inboththepublicandprivatesectors.However,ashasbeenstatedthroughout

thisdocument,conservationmustbetheultimategoalofgreatapetourism,and

shouldbegivenpriorityoverother interests.Therefore, it is important tomonitor

theeconomic impactsof great ape tourism tobetter justify its existenceand to

inform management decisions, such as pricing structures and booking systems.

Methodology can be adapted from previous studies (e.g., Wilkie and Carpenter

1999;HatfieldandMalleret-King2006;BushandFawcett2008;WCSGabon2008).

5.6.2 Staffmonitoring

Staffworkingingreatapetourismmustbefullysupportedintheirroleastheprimedefendersof

greatapesagainstthenegativeimpactsoftourism.Theyneedtobe,andfeel,abletodiscussand

enforcetourismrulesandregulations.Theirrolesmustbeevaluatedregularlytoassesseffective-

nessandmodifymanagement,asneeded.Thiscanbeachievedbyregularsupervision,including

evaluationinthefield,evaluationduringtourismimpactresearch,andfeedbackfromtourists.

5.6.3 Programmemonitoringandevaluation

• Financial monitoring and transparency:Asatooltoprovidefundingforconserva-

tion,itiscrucialthatsystemsareinplacetomonitorrevenuegeneration.Financial

controllers must be able to demonstrate that income is supporting protected

area management and operations, community projects and revenue-sharing pro-

grammes.Transparencywillgoalongwaytoreassuringcriticsofgreatapetourism

thatthisisanappropriateconservationmeasure.

• Programme reporting:Progressreportsandtheresultsoftourismimpactmonitor-

ingandappliedresearchshouldbeproducedatregularintervals(preferablyquar-

terly,butat leastannually) tostimulate internalreviewandtimely identificationof

issuestobeaddressed.

• Programme evaluation: Regular medium-term (every two years) internal assess-

ments of the performance, management and impacts of great ape tourism pro-

grammes must be carried out to accurately monitor progress and to allow for

programmereviewandimprovement.Theresultsofmanagement-relatedresearch

(Section5.6.1)shouldbeusedtoguideimprovementandadaptationintourismpro-

grammemanagement. In the longer-term,externalevaluationsshould takeplace

every 5 years to ensure appropriate implementation and to foster learning and

exchangewithothergreatapetourismsites.

55

GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFIC SITUATIONS OR SPECIES

5.7 Species-specific guidelines

InadditiontothegeneralguidelinesinSection5.5,thefollowingarespecifictoeachtaxonand

tailoredtotheirsocio-ecology,habitat,and/orthetypeoftourismoperatingwheretheyoccur.

5.7.1 EasternGorillas

Lessonslearnedfromover30yearsofexperiencewitheasterngorillatourismformthefounda-

tionofthegeneralguidelinesaboveandfewvariationsareproposedforthisspecies.Mountain

gorillasocio-ecologymakesthemparticularlyamenabletotourism,whichisfurtherfacilitatedby

featuresoftheirhighaltitudehabitat(e.g.,WilliamsonandFawcett2008).Thesecharacteristics

makeitpossibleforslightlylargertouristgroupstovisitinsafety.Mountaingorillatourismbegan

withgroupsof6tourists;however,atsomesitestouristgroupsizewasincreasedagainstexpert

advice.Wemaintainthatthesmallernumberofvisitorsisbetterforbothgorillasandtourists,and

recommendthattouristgroupsizebereducedfrom8to6,andthatanynewgroupsopenedfor

tourismshouldreceivenomorethan6tourists.The‘goldstandard’recommendationsforeastern

gorillatourism(MGVP2009)arepresentedinAppendixI–A.

5.7.2 WesternGorillas

Thehighprofileandrevenuesgeneratedbymountaingorillatourismhaveinspiredambitionsto

replicate this successelsewhere.However, thewesterngorillas’ socio-ecology,habitat, history

andthethreatstheyfacediffersignificantlyfromeasterngorillas,andanumberoffactorswarrant

specialmention.Thetwositescurrentlyofferingviewingofhabituatedwestern lowlandgorillas,

MondikaandBaiHokou,havelimitedvisitorgroupsizeto2and3touristsrespectively(seealso

AppendixI–B).

• Tailored marketing:Westerngorilla tourismwill notmeetexpectations thathave

beenraisedbythemountaingorillaexperience,somarketingmustemphasisethe

differencesandkeepvisitorexpectationstoarealisticlevel.It isadvisabletopro-

motewesterngorilla‘tracking’ratherthan‘viewing’,asencounteringadispersed

groupofgorillasobscuredbythickgroundvegetationorhighintreesmightdisap-

pointthoseexpectingclearobservationsandphotoopportunities.

• Tracking expertise: Trackingwesterngorillas,whichhave longday ranges, large

home ranges and leave little trail, requires a level of expertise that often exists

only among historically hunter-gatherer groups. Where possible, trackers should

Western lowland gorillas, Mbeli

Bai, Republic of Congo. Photo ©

Vicki Fishlock.

56

besourcedfromtheseethnicgroups,tomaximisethesuccessofhabituationand

tourismprogrammes.

• Gorilla population density:Anunusuallyhighgorilladensitymayimpedehabituation

effortsastrackerscouldfollowmorethanonegroupbymistakewhentrailscrossin

theoverlappingrangesofdifferentgroups.However,iftheirdensityisverylow,goril-

laswillbehardertofind.

• Multiple groups:Suddenchangeinthetypicallysmallergroupsofwesternlowland

gorillas,suchasthedeathofthedominant‘silverback’male,canleadtogroupdis-

integration and the abrupt termination of habituation or tourism efforts. Therefore,

tourismprogrammesshouldidentifyandcommittoworkingwithatleasttwogroups

fromtheoutset.

• Tourism outside of protected areas: Most western gorillas live outside protected

areasandtourismcanimprovetheprotectionofsomepopulations. Insuchcases,

tourismmustoperateunderclear,legally-bindingagreementswithlocalstakeholders,

whichdefineeachpartner’srolesandresponsibilitiestowardsthelong-termconser-

vationeffort,aswellastotourismdevelopmentandoperations.Sustainablefunding

mustbesecurednotonlytocovertourismdevelopmentcosts,butalso long-term

protection and conservation activities, particularly as it is more difficult to ensure

fundingforconservationprojectsoutsideprotectedareas.

• Bai visits:SeeAppendixI–Cforanexampleofregulationsforviewingfromaplatform.

• Tracking unhabituated gorillas:SeeAppendixI–Dforanexampleofregulationsfor

forestwalks.

5.7.3 Chimpanzees

Chimpanzeepartiestendtobelesscohesivethangorillagroups.Althoughitisdifficulttooverseea

groupofpeoplewhenthechimpanzeesaredispersed,staffmustkeepcontroloftouristsatalltimes.

It is critical toprevent touristsbecomingseparatedandat risk, especially fromdisplayingadult

males.SeeAppendixI–Eforsampleregulations,butpleasenote:Sitescurrentlyallowinggroups

withmorethan4touriststovisitareadvisedtorevisethispolicy.

• No provisioning: Although this is a general guideline recommended for all spe-

cies,itisemphasisedhereasmostrelevanttochimpanzeesiteswhereprovisioning

hasbeenpracticedinthepast,andwheretherewereindicationsthatprovisioning

resultedinincreasedaggression.

• Prevention of attacks on human infants:Chimpanzeeshavebeenknowntoattack

humanbabiesasanextensionof their normalpredatorybehaviour.Theminimum

ageofatouristis15years,sosmallchildrenwillneverbeallowedtovisitgreatapes.

However,wherelocalpeoplearepermittedtowalkondesignatedtrails,theymustbe

forewarnedofthedangers.Achimpanzeecommunitythatrangesintoareasusedby

localpeopleshouldnotbehabituatedfortourism.

5.7.4 Bonobos

BonobotourismisunderdevelopmentatafewsitesintheDRC,buttodatetherearenolessons

learnedspecifictobonobos.

5.7.5 Orangutans(SumatranandBornean)

Participantsofthe2002OrangutanConservationandRe-introductionWorkshop(RosenandByers

2002)recommendedagainstadditionaltourismdevelopmentinwildorangutanhabitatinIndonesia.

Thiswasduetoconcernsoversecurityandillegallogging,combinedwiththeremotenatureofmost

orangutansitesandhowthisaffectscompetition in theSoutheastAsian regional tourismmarket.

CivilwarinAcehendedin2005,andtourismcouldagainbeusedasaconservationanddevelopment

tool(Singleton,pers.comm.).The2002workshopencouragedthepromotionofcommunity-based

tourisminitiativesonly inareasthatarenotprioritiesfororangutanconservationandthusarenot

57

candidatesforimmediateprotectionand/orincentives.AppendixI–Fpresentsguidelinesfromone

suchproject.Inadditiontothegeneralguidelines,thefollowingarespecifictoorangutans:

• Minimise impacts on social interactions between habituated and unhabituated

orangutans:Althoughtouristvisitsare limitedtoonehour,humanpresencemay

reduceopportunitiesforhabituatedorangutanstointeractwithnon-habituatedindi-

viduals that are scared of people. This impact on orangutan sociality should be

minimisedbyimplementingthefollowingguidelines:

~ Individualorangutansshouldnotbevisitedbytouristsformorethan

10dayspermonth.

~ Tourism to individual orangutans should be suspended for at least

3 months per year. Note that if all habituated orangutans at a par-

ticularsiteusethesameareaofforest,periodicclosureofthesiteis

recommended.

~ Consort pairs should not be followed. Male orangutans are more

aggressivewheninconsortshipwithafemale,therefore,consortpairs

shouldbeleftalonetominimisestressandriskofinjury,andtoavoid

disruptionoftheirreproductivebehaviour.

• Minimise impacts on vegetation:Iftourismisregularlyconductedwiththesame

individualorangutans,tramplingofvegetationandtrailcuttingwillbeconcentrated.

Thiscanbeaddressedby:

~ Limitingvisitationto10dayspermonthperindividual(asabove).

~ Suspending tourism to an individual or area for 3 months per year (as

above).

~ Spreadingtheimpactbyrotatingthefocusoftourismactivitiestooran-

gutansindifferentpartsoftheforest.Whencertainindividualsorareas

areclosedtotourism(20dayspermonthplus3monthsperyear),tour-

ismismovedtodifferentareasandindividuals,givingtheecosystema

chancetorecover,therebyincreasingthelong-termsustainabilityoftour-

ism.Thisstrategyexposesagreaterproportionoftheorangutancommu-

nityandagreaterareaofforesttotheimpactsoftourism,soabalance

mustbeachieved.

• Zero-poaching in habituated orangutan home ranges:Thegeneralguidelinesstate

thatallhabituatedgreatapesmustbemonitoreddailyandinperpetuity,toprotect

themfrompoaching.Duetotheorangutans’semi-solitaryandarborealnature,itis

impossibletomonitoreachindividualeveryday.Accordingly,managersmuststrive

towardsagoalofzeropoachingthroughouttheareasinwhichtheyrange.

Tourists wearing masks viewing

chimpanzees, Mahale Moun-

tains National Park, Tanzania.

Photo © Toshisada Nishida.

58

• Viewing from boats or vehicles: AfewsitesinSabah,Malaysia,offerwildlifeview-

ingexcursionsbyboatorvehicle,andGunungLeuserNationalPark inSumatra,

Indonesia,offerstrekkingonelephants.Whenorangutansareseen,theyareusu-

allyatdistancesof20metresandabovesotherisksofdiseasetransmissionare

loweredand thenumberof touristspervisitcanbe increased to12perboator

vehicle.However, largenumbersoftouristscanbenoisyandintrusive,sotourist

behaviourmustbecontrolled,particularlywhenviewingunhabituatedanimals.Boat

size,numberofboatsoperating,andothersite-specificfactorswilldetermineupper

limits,butingeneralthereshouldbenomorethanthreeboatsorvehiclesinproxim-

itytoanorangutanatanyonetime.

• Tourists must remain in vehicle or boat at all times: It isessential thatdistance

maintainedandtouristnumberscontrolledtoenhancewildlifeviewingandreduce

impactsonthewildlife.Touristsshouldneverbeallowedto leavetheirvehicleor

boattopursueorangutansonfoot.

• Enforcement of no-feeding regulations:Whilenoprovisioningisageneralrecom-

mendationforalltaxa,feedingisstillpracticedatsomeorangutansites.Tourism

managersshould imposerulestostopthefeedingoffree-rangingorangutansby

bothtouristsandguides,andindeedprohibitthecarryingofanyfoodintotheforest.

• Ex-captives: Notourismshouldbeallowedwithreintroducableorangutansinreha-

bilitationcentres,or in forestswhere rehabilitants range (RosenandByers2002;

Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Giventhatsuchtourismiscurrentlyinoperation,

weincluderegulationsfromBukitLawangasAppendixI–G.

5.8 Special considerations for small and Critically Endangered populations

ParticularcautionisrequiredbeforedevelopingorexpandingtourismwithCriticallyEndangered

taxa. Thisclassificationisgiventothreeofthefourgorillasubspecies(mountain,westernlowland

andCrossRiver)andtheSumatranorangutanas(IUCN2010).Althoughthethreesubspeciesof

BorneanOrangutanarelistedasEndangered,thenorthwesternandtheEastKalimantanpopula-

tionsof theeasternsubspeciesalsomeritspecialconsiderationbecause theirsmall remaining

populationsaresimilarinsizetothoseoftheSumatranorangutan(Soehartonoet al.2007).

5.8.1 Risk-managementprogrammes

Werecommendthatanumberof impact-managementmeasuresaccompanyallgreatapetour-

ismprogrammes.InthecaseofsmallorCriticallyEndangeredpopulations,fundingforriskman-

agementmustbeguaranteedbeforeanytourismactivitiesarelaunched,toensurethatnegative

impactsareidentifiedandimmediatelyaddressed.

5.8.2 Optimisebeforeexpanding

AnumberofsiteswithCriticallyEndangeredgreatapesarealreadyconductingtourism.Insome

of them, tourism has made a positive contribution, generating income for comprehensive con-

servationprogrammesinandaroundtheirhabitat.Incometonationaltreasuriesandarangeof

stakeholdershasresultedinenhancedperceptionsofgreatapes,andstimulatedlong-termsup-

portforconservation.Whilekeepingthesesuccessesinmind,itisalsoimportanttostepbackand

evaluatethefutureoftourismatthesesites,toprotecttheprogrammesfromcomplacency,and

topreventthemslidingtowardsover-exploitationoftheapes.Therehasbeenageneraltendency

toexpandtourismbyhabituatingadditionalanimals,butforconservationtoremaintheprimary

objective,itisimportanttoresisttemptationtoexpandforeconomicgain.Economicbenefitscan

beachievedinwaysthatdonotinvolvesubjectingtheapestoadditionaltouristsorexposingmore

animalstotourism.Therecommendationsbelowshouldbefollowedatallsitesoperatingtourism

withCriticallyEndangeredapes:

• Income generation that does not involve tourism expansion:Governmentsand

conservation authorities should encourage alternative means of stimulating earn-

ingsbyauthorities,theprivatesectorandlocaleconomies,suchasinvestmentin

59

nationalenterprisedevelopment,micro-credit schemes for localenterprises,and

supportforotherbusinessdevelopments.

• No increase in the number of groups habituated for tourism: SiteswithCritically

Endangeredapesshouldavoidexpandingthenumberofhabituatedgroups. It is

importanttomaintainabalanceofexposedandunexposedgroupstobettermiti-

gatenegativeimpactsoftourism.

• No increase in the number of individual apes habituated for tourism: Habituation

decisionsshouldnotbebasedonhabituating the largestgroupsofapes,or the

greatestnumberofindividuals,fortourism.Thelargertheproportionofapopulation

thatisexposedtotourism,thegreatertheriskthatdiseasecouldresultindrastic

reductionofthepopulation.

• Maximise revenue per tourism permit: If there ispressure to increase revenues

fromgreatapetourism,thefirstmeasuretakenshouldbetoincreasepermitprices.

Revenueperpermitshouldalsobemaximisedbydiversifyingtourismactivitiesat

each site, and building ape tourism into national tourism circuits. Extending the

averagelengthofin-countrystayofgreatapetouristswouldincreasetheearnings

associatedwitheachpermitatlocal,regionalandnationallevels.

Section 6: Conclusions

Thisdocumenthasprovidedareviewofthehistoryofgreatapetourismandcoveredindetailthe

multiplecostsandbenefitstotheconservationofgreatapesandtheirhabitats.Whilenotappro-

priateateverysite,greatapetourismcanserveasatooltofundgreatapeconservationefforts.

Sitesthatintendtodevelopandoperategreatapetourismshouldusethegeneralandspecific

guidelinesgiveninSection5todesignandimplementtourismactivitiesthatarerootedinconser-

vation,nottheexploitationofgreatapes.

Inclosing,readersshouldreviewtheguidingprinciplesofbestpracticeingreatapetourism,keep-

ingthefollowinginmindatallstagesofplanning,developing,implementing,andmonitoringgreat

apetourism:

• Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration.

• Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportfortheconservationofgreatapesandtheir

habitat.

• Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalatanygreatapesiteandtourismcanhelp

tofundit.

• Greatapetourismshouldbedevelopedonlyiftheanticipatedconservationbenefits,

asidentifiedthroughimpactstudies,significantlyoutweightherisks.

• Conservationinvestmentandactionatgreatapetourismsitesmustbesustained

inperpetuity.

• Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundandobjectivescience.

• Tourismbenefitsandprofitforcommunitiesadjacenttogreatapehabitatshouldbe

maximised.

• Profittoprivatesectorpartnersandotherswhomayderive incomefromtourism

mustnotbethedrivingforceforgreatapetourismdevelopmentorexpansion.

• Tourismdevelopmentmustbeguidedbyacomprehensiveunderstandingofpotential

impacts,andmanagedtomaximisethepositiveimpactsandmitigatethenegative

impacts.

60

Section 7: Acknowledgements

Sincere appreciation goes to all who contributed throughout the process of developing these

guidelines.SignificantinputwasprovidedbyLouiseHurst,JohnOates,AnthonyRylands,Chris

Sandbrook,JanetteWallisandChrisWhittier.Wearealsoverygratefultothefollowingwhogen-

erouslylenttheirtimeandexpertisetoimprovingthisdocument:MikeCranfield,DaveDellatore,

MarykeGray,AnnetteLanjouw,MagdalenaLukasik-Braum,AngelaMeder,MichaelMuehlenbein,

IanRedmond, JohannesRefisch,LucySpelmanandAngeliqueTodd.Thefinaldraftbenefited

fromthedefteditorialhandandguidanceofAnthonyRylands.ThanksarealsoextendedtoKim

MeekforgraphicdesignandtoLynnBarrie,FrancesBroussard,CarolineDeimel,JulianEaston,

Vicki Fishlock,MarykeGray, JosephineHead,AlainHoule, JoséKalpers,UweKribus,Annette

Lanjouw,FionaMaisels,JohnMartin,RussMittermeier,MPI-EVAN,IanNichols,ToshisadaNishida,

ChristopherOrbell,MarthaRobbins,PerryvanDuijnhovenandVirungaNationalPark forkindly

allowingtheuseoftheirphotographs.ThispublicationwassponsoredbyagranttotheIUCN/SSC

PrimateSpecialistGroupandConservationInternationalfromtheUnitedStatesFishandWildlife

Service(GreatApeConservationFund).

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8.2 Bibliography – other relevant literature

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nationcausedbydispersalfromtheupperairway.British Journal of Anaesthesia 69:407–408.

A fully equipped tourist guide, Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Photo © Debby Cox.

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Appendix I – Sample Tourist Regulations

A. Eastern Gorillas

Note: The rules listed below are considered by the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project (MGVP) to be minimum guidelines for tourists,

researchers and park staff visiting mountain gorillas in Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (MGVP 2009). They

have been continually updated during years of operation by MGVP and may also be applied to Grauer’s gorillas and chimpanzees. To

reach the ‘gold standard’, MGVP recommends additional rules be implemented; these are marked by a footnote below.

Gorillas Are Endangered* Please Help Us Keep Them Healthy—Gorilla Visitation RULES for Tourists, Researchers and Staff

Before You Set Out13

• Maximumof8visitorsineachgroup,plus2parkstafffortouristvisits—1guide+1tracker 14

• Minimumage:15yearsold

• Toprotectthehealthofthegorillas,washyourhandsbeforesettingout15.

• PleaseusecleantrackingclothesforEACHgorillavisit;pleasecleanyourshoescarefullyBEFOREandaftereach

visit16.

• If you do not feel well, havediarrhoeaorasorethroat,pleasereportittoyourguide.Itisveryimportantthatpeople

withsignsofanytypeofinfectionnevervisitgorillas.Depending on the country, you may be eligible for a rain check/

refund so you may visit when you are well.

• Ifyouhaveachronicillnesssuchasheartdisease,emphysema,orarthritis,pleasereconsideryourdecisiontotrek.

Healthservicesarelimitednearthepark.

• Pleaseusetherestroombeforeyourvisit,astherewillbenofacilitiesavailable.

While You Are in the Park

• Donotentertheparkwithoutaguide.

• Pleasekeepyourvoicelow.

• ‘LeaveNoTrace’.Ifyoubroughtit in-takeitout.Donotlitter.Avoidunnecessarilydamaginganyplants.Donot

removeanyplantsorwildlifefromthepark.

• Ifyoumustrelieveyourself,burysolidwasteatleastonefoot(30cm).Ifyouarewithaguide,askthemtodigthehole.

• Leaveallbackpacks,walkingsticks,foodanddrink,atleast100 metresfromgorillas(thelengthofafootball/soccer

field).Theportersandextratrackerswillstayhere.

• Nosmokingorspitting.

When You Are With the Gorillas

• Maintaina7metre(23feet)distancefromthegorillas.

• Spendamaximumof1hourpervisit

• Donoteatordrinkduringthegorillavisit.Donotfeedthegorillas.AGAINSmokingisnotallowed.

• DoNOTuseflashphotography.Askyourguidefortapetocoverflashifneeded.

• Speakonlyinasoftvoice.

• AllcellphonesmustbeOFF.Radiosshouldbeturneddown.

13 Pre-visitvaccinationshavebeendiscussedinothersites,andtouristsareverylikelytofollowprotocolsifinformedinadvance.Howeverthiswouldnotpreventthediseasesofprimeconcern(influenza,commoncold,TB).14 MGVP‘goldstandards’recommendthemaximumnumberofpeopleshouldbereducedtoimproveboththequalityofthevisitfortouristsandtheabilityoftheguidestoenforcerules.Insteadof8guests+2parkstaff,MGVPrecommends6+2.15 Toilets and hand-washing facilities to be provided at morning meeting points. Hands and boots should be disinfected at entrance topark/forest—thiscanbecarriedoutwithhandsprayerscontainingdisinfectant.16 Trackers and rangers should also change clothes, shower, and clean boots before visiting a second group. During a respiratory diseaseoutbreak,andforoneweekafterwards,staffshouldnotmovebetweengroups.

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• Donotantagonizethegorillasinanyway:Donotpointatthegorillas,makesuddengesturesormovementsorloud

noises

• Ifagorillachargesyou,remainstill,avoideyecontactBUTDONOTturnaway.

• Followtheinstructionsandadviceofyourguide.

• YouMAYbeaskedtowearamaskBEFOREvisitingthegorillasandwashyourhandsagain/usehandsanitizerifthere

isalocalorglobaldiseaseoutbreak.Theparkofficialswillinstitutethisrulewhenadvisedbyvetsandotherhealth

experts17.

• Ifyoucoughorsneeze,youshouldwearamask(Fortourists,guideswillprovidethemaskandwillcollectthemat

theendofthevisit18

• Note: Those who do not respect the guidelines may be asked to leave the gorillas and the park; you will not

receive a refund and you may be penalized.

B. Western Gorillas: tracking

Note: This content is adapted from material provided by WCS (WCS Field Veterinary Program 2008) for Mondika, where tourists track

habituated western lowland gorillas.

Gorilla tracking at Mondika

TrackinggorillasatMondikacanbephysicallydemandingandwerequestthatvisitorsareinsufficientphysicalconditiontoendure

hikesofupto3hoursindensevegetation,oftenwadingthroughwaterandswamps.

Tourist Health Requirements:InordertoensuretothedegreepossiblethattouristsandothervisitorsarenotcarryingdiseasesthatmaybesubsequentlytransmittedtotheMondikagorillas,thefollowingregulationshavebeeninstituted:

PriortoarrivalinCongo,eachvisitorwillberequiredtofurnishproofofcurrentvaccinationagainstthefollowing:

• Polio(attenuated)

• Measles*(*Itiscontraindicatedthatimmunocompromisedindividualsbevaccinatedagainstmeasles)

• Yellowfever(thisisalsorequiredforenteringmanyAfricancountries)

Inaddition,eachvisitormustprovideproofofnegativetuberculosis(TB)status:

• NegativeTBtest(Mantouxskintestorotherrecognisedtest)obtainedinthelastsixmonthspriortoarrival.

ThisinformationwillbeverifiedonarrivalatBomassaBasebeforegrantingpermissiontovisitMondika.Failuretoprovidetheneces-

saryinformation,orfalsifyingsuchinformation,canresultinbeingrefusedaccesstotheMondikasiteand/orgorillaviewing.Anyone

exhibitingsignsofpotentiallytransmissibledisease,suchasinfluenza,mayberefusedaccesstoMondikaCampandgorillaviewing.

Anyonewithanactiveherpesoutbreak(coldsores)ordiarrhoeawillalsobedeniedentrytotheforest.StaffatBomassaandMondika

retaintherighttodenyaccesstothegorillastoanyonebelievedtobecurrentlyillwithatransmissibledisease.

Forthehealthandwell-beingofthevisitors,thefollowingarealsostronglyrecommended:

• Tetanusvaccination

• HepatitisAvaccination

• HepatitisBvaccination.

17 MGVP“goldstandards”recommendthateveryoneshouldbemadetowearanN95mask–staffandtourists.IfN95masksareunobtainableand/ortooexpensive,astandardsurgicalmaskshouldbeused.Thisisparticularlyimportantinlightoftheincreasingseverityandfrequencyofinfluenzavirusinfectionsamongpeople.18 Fortouristgroups,thegorillaguideshouldbeassignedtheroleofcollectingusedmasksanddisposingofthemproperly.Forresearchgroupsandroutinemonitoring,theleadtrackerisassignedthistask.

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Tourist Visit Health and Safety Regulations

1. Theminimumageofvisitorsforgorillaviewingis15years.

2. Themaximumnumberofvisitorsviewingthegorillasatanyonetimeislimitedtotwopeople.Visitorswillbeaccompaniedby

onetrackerandoneguide,sothattheviewinggroupislimitedtoatotaloffourpeople.Thisisbecauseofthesmallsizeofthe

gorillagroup,thefactthatthegroupisoftenveryspreadoutanddispersed,theterrainanddiseaseconcerns.

3. Visitswiththegorillaswillbelimitedtoonehour.Guideswillmakeeveryreasonableattempttoinsuregoodviewingofthegorillas,

butsuchmaynotalwaysbepossible.Theguides’decisiononwhentoterminatethevisitisfinal.

4. Amaximumoftwogorillavisitswillbefacilitatedonanygivenday.Eachofthesevisitswillhaveamaximumoftwovisitorsand

viewingwillbeforamaximumonehour.

5. Allvisitorsmustmaintainaminimumdistanceof7metersfromthegorillasatalltimes.Ifduringthevisitagorillaapproachesto

withinthat7mdistance,yourguideswillhaveyouretreattoasafedistance.

6. Allvisitorsmustweartheprovidedfacemasks(coveringnoseandmouth)atalltimeswhenobservingthegorillas.Theseface-

maskswill not inanywaynegativelyaffect yourexperiencewith thegorillas,butcanplayan important role inminimising

transmissionofdiseasessuchasthecommoncoldorotherrespiratoryconditions,whicharefrequentlypickeduponlong-haul

flights.Thesefacemasksmustbereturnedtotheguideattheendofthevisit.

7. Visitorsmustremainwiththeirguideatalltimes.Speakandmovequietlyintheforest.Youwillseemuchmore.Intheeventthat

ananimaldisplaysorcharges,remaincalmandavoidmovementsthatmayfurtherexcitetheanimal,avoideyecontactand

followthedirectionsofyourguide.

8. Donotattempttotouch,pointatorotherwiseinteractwiththegorillasorotherwildlife.

9. Nodefecatingintheforest.Pleasetakecareofanyneedsbeforeleavingthebasecamp.

10.Nourinatingwithin100mofthegorillas,norinanywatersource.Ifatallpossible,asmallholeshouldbedugandtheurinecov-

eredoverwithdirt.

11.Nocoughing,sneezingorspittinginproximitytothegorillas.Ifyoudohavetosneezeorblowyournose,pleaseturnawayand

coveryourmouthwithatissue.

12.Nolitteringofanykindwillbepermitted;everythingcarriedintotheforestmustbecarriedout.

13.Nosmokingispermittedintheforest.

14.Noeatingispermittedwithin100mofthegorillas.Allfoodpackagingandutensilsmustbecarriedoutoftheforest.

15.Nofeedingofthegorillasoranyotheranimals.

16.Donotattempttoattracttheattentionofthegorillasoranimalsforaphotoopportunityanddonotuseflashphotography.

17.Donotleavebagsorotherbelongingsunattendedintheforestinproximitytothegorillas.

C. Western Gorillas: bai visits

Note: This content is adapted from material provided by WCS for tourism at Mbeli Bai in the Republic of Congo (WCS Field Veterinary Program 2008), and is an example of tourism regulations at ‘bai’ sites, in which visitors observe gorillas, if they are present, along with other species that visit a forest clearing. Viewing at these sites tends to be from platforms on the edge of the clearing, in this case called the ‘mirador’. For regulations from additional bai sites, see WCS Gabon (2006) for Langoué Bai, Gabon, and for Bai Hokou in CAR: http://www.dzanga-sangha.org/drupal/node/516

Guidelines for visitors to Mbeli Bai, Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park

ThesebriefguidelinesshouldhelpyouprepareforthetropicalrainforestandforvisitingMbeliBai.TheNouabalé-NdokiNational

Parkisanintactforestecosystemwithhealthypopulationsofwildanimals.Theseinstructionsareforyoursafetyandforthehealth

oftheanimals.TheywillalsoensurethatyourexperienceoftheNouabalé-NdokiNationalParkisasenjoyableandmemorableas

possible.PleasedonothesitatetocontactNouabalé-NdokiNationalPark(NNNP)stafforresearchersattheMbeliBaiStudyforany

questionsregardinghealth,safetyandwildlife.ItisimportantthatyoualwaysfollowtheinstructionsofNNNPstaff(bothguidesand

researchers)carefullyduringyourvisit.

Illness

• Novisitorshouldvisittheforestiftheyhaveanysymptomsofillness.Ifyoubecomeillduringyourvisit,pleasenotify

theParkstafforresearchteamleaderimmediately.Casesofhumanvirusesandbacteriathatcanbetransmittedfrom

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humanstoapesincludeinfluenzaandthecommoncold.Therefore,theseillnessescouldproveharmfultochimpan-

zeesandgorillas.

Behaviour in the camp

• Youraccommodationissituated2.7kmfromMbeliBaianditwilltakeyouaround45minutesataleisurelypaceon

awell-troddenpathtoreachtheclearing.Youareinthemiddleoftherainforestanditisnotuncommontoencounter

wildanimalsinthecamporonthepath.Wildanimalsarepotentiallydangerousandshouldalwaysbetreatedwith

theutmostrespect.

• Extremecareshouldbetakenifmovingbetweenyourhouseandyourtoiletduringthenight,andyoushouldnotmove

aroundthecampatnightwithoutaguide.

• IntheNNNPwearetryingtointegrateresearchandeco-tourismatonesite.Wedohoweveraskyoutorespectthe

campworkersandresearcherswholiveinthecamp,andavoidleavingthetouristcamptovisittheresearchcamp.

• Pleasedonotdroplitter.

Behaviour in the forest

• Donotwalkintheforestwithoutaguideoraresearcher

• Alwaysstayinvisualcontactwithparkstaff,guidesorresearchers.Parkstaffhaveyearsofexperiencewithwildani-

malsandwillprovideinstructionsintheeventthatyoumeetananimalonthepathtothebai.

• Followtheinstructionsofparkstaff,guidesandresearcherswhenencounteringanelephants,gorillasorotherwild

animals.

• Neverrunorshoutwhileinproximitytowildlife.

• Walksilentlyandalwaysbevigilantwhileintheforest.

• Donotapproachanylargeanimals,includingchimpanzees,gorillasandelephants.Nevertrytotouchorinanyway

physicallycontactanyoftheanimalsintheforest.

• Actsubmissivelytowardsallanimalsintheforestanddonotexhibitanybehaviourthatmaythreatenorharassthe

animal.

• Ifyoumeetagorillaintheforest,youmustremainwhereyouare,keepquietandstillanddon’trunaway.

• Avoidmakinganynoiseorotherdisturbancewhileinthepresenceofwildlife.(Ifyouhavetocommunicatewithyour

guideoryourgroup,uselowandhushedvoices).

• Donotuseflashesorartificiallightswhenphotographingorfilmingwildlife.Also,pleasekeepanyequipmentnoiseto

aminimum.Wearappropriatefieldclothes,preferablyinforestcolourssuchasgreenandbrown.

• Donotdroplitter.Humanrefuse(foodremains,garbage,personalitems,etc.)isoftenattractivetowildlifeandshould

betransportedfromtheforesttodesignatedlatrinesanddisposedofproperly.Ziplocbagsshouldbeincludedin

hikinggeartostoreandtransporttrashgeneratedwhileintheforest.

• Smokingisprohibitedintheforest.

• Pleaserefrainfromcoughing,sneezing,ornoseblowinginproximitytoanimals.

• PleaseusedesignatedlatrinesateitherMbeliBaicamporMbelimirador,andavoidusingtheforestasatoilet!

Behaviour at the bai

• All theanimalsvisitingMbeliBaiarewildandhabituatedonly to thepresenceof researcherson theobservation

platform(mirador).Inordertominimisedisturbanceandmaximiseyourtimewiththeanimalspleasewhenonthe

platform:

• Speakquietly,moveslowly.

• Donotsmoke,donotcookfood.

• Donotwalkintheforestbehindthemirador.

• Avoidwearingcolourfulclothes,suchasbrightred,yellow.

• Alwayslistentotheadviceoftheresearchers.

• Donotwalktothetoiletwithoutatracker.

• Donotleanovertheedgeofthemirador.

• Beawareofsnakes!

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D. Western Gorillas: forest walk/chance observation

Note: These recommendations were adapted from a Zoological Society of London visitor information leaflet provided to tourists who

visit Mikongo in Gabon (ZSL 2009). During guided walks through the forest, visitors could on occasion encounter gorillas.

Requirements and recommendations to tour operators

Requirements:

• Age limit:nolessthan15yearsold-thisisprimarilybecausechildrenoflessthan15yearsoldcanstillbevectorsof

childhooddiseasesandmightnotbeabletodealinanappropriatemannerwithadangeroussituation–thereisno

officialupperagelimit.

• Good physical fitness: guests have tobe fit enough tohike for aminimumof 2–3hours in adenseandhumid

environment.

Recommendations:

• Guests should have updated vaccinations for the following diseases: polio(attenuated),measles,tetanus,hepatitisA,

yellowfever(compulsory inGabon).Atthisstage,asguestsarenot inclosecontactwithhabituatedgorillas,vac-

cinationsareonlyrecommended.Thereisnowayforustocheckthatguestsareactuallyvaccinatedagainstthese

diseasesbeforetheyarriveatMCCanditisdifficulttomakesurethattouroperatorsactuallyprovidetheserecom-

mendationstotheircustomers.Iftouristsaretobetakenforhabituatedgorillasviewinginthefuture,vaccinationswill

becompulsoryandwaysofcontrolimplemented.

• Clothing: Guestsshouldwearcomfortableoutdoorclothesofneutralcolours(avoidvisiblecolourssuchaswhite,

brightblueandred,aswellasblack),preferablylongtrousersandlong-sleevedtops.

Checking for guests’ health status

• Visitor health information form: attheirarrival,guestsaregivenahealthformtofillinaspartofanindemnityform

package (cf.annexe I).Thehealth formshouldbeusedasasupport to raiseguests’awarenessaboutanthropo-

zoonoticdiseasesandasameanstocheckforguests’healthinessfromtheirarrival.

• Direct observations: ecoguidesandmanagementstaffhavetopayattentiontoanysignofillness(fever,weakness,

dizziness,sneezing/coughing/sniffing,diarrhoea/vomiting,injury)shownbyguests.Guestsalsohavetobeencour-

agedtoself-reportanyhealthproblemoccurringduringtheirstay.Incaseaguestshowsanysignsof illness,the

managementstaffhastostronglyrecommendgueststostayatcamp.Themanagementstaffretaintherighttodeny

accesstotheforesttoanyguestbelievedtobeillwithatransmissibledisease(e.g.,cold,diarrhoea)orwithanyafflic-

tionlikelytocompromisetheirsafety.

• Awareness: posterssummarisingprimatehealthruleshavebeendesigned,andpostedinallguestrooms.

Applying responsible behaviours

• Informing guests upon their arrival: intheindemnityformpackagetobesignedbytouristsattheirarrival(cf.AnnexeI),

asheetsummarisesthemainsafetyrulesandrecommendationscorrespondingtoresponsiblebehaviourstofollow

whileinthecampandintheforest.Theserulesandrecommendationsaresimilartotheonesprovidedtoforestwork-

ers.Oneimportantadditionalruleisthatguestshavetorespectandfollowecoguides’directivesduringwalksinany

case.Toempowerandincreasethesenseofresponsibilitiesofecoguides,ecoguideshavetobetheonesexplaining

therulesandrecommendationstotheguestsfromtheirarrival:theecoguidehastogothroughthemwiththeguests

andcheckthattheyarewellunderstood.Soparticularattentionshouldbegiventorefreshecoguidetrainingonthese

rulesandcheckonhowtheyapplythem.

• Group size: whatever theirsize,allgroupshave tobeaccompaniedby2ecoguides,one leadingandoneat the

back.Themaximumgroupsizeforguidedwalksisrecommendedtobenomorethan7persons,includingecoguides,

forsafetybutalsotoincreasewildlifeviewingopportunities.Largergroupsshouldthenbeencouragedtosplitinto

smallerones.Thisquestionneedstobeaddressedinadvancewithtouroperatorswhendiscussingbookingssothat

guestsandtourleadersareawarebeforetheirarrival.

• Introductory talk and check-up by guides: beforegoingforwalksintheforest,leadingguideshavetoexplainagain

therulesandrecommendationstotheguestsandcheckthatallaredressedappropriatelyandlookingoodshape.

• Boot cleaning and disinfection: beforeandaftereachwalk,guidesandguestshavetodiptheirbootsolesintothe

disinfectantsolution.

• During walks: ecoguideshavetoavoidinterferingwiththehabituationworkbypreparingwalkswithguestsinadvance

andcheckingwith thehabituationteamthatareas involveddonotoverlap.Regular radiochecksbetweenteams

duringwalkshavetobemadetocheckontheirrespectivepositionandadapttourismcircuitsaccordingly.Itisstrictly

forbiddenthatecoguidesandguestspurposefullyjointhehabituationteamintheforest.

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E. Chimpanzees

Note: Extracted from the Jane Goodall Institute–Uganda Ecotourism Health Protocols (JGI-Uganda 2006), which cover a range of

visitor categories. The excerpt below is for ‘Day Visitors’, i.e. tourists. Regulations vary slightly between JGI and other chimpan-

zee sites - see also regulations from Gombe (Collins 2003; Gombe Stream Research Centre and Wilson 2006) and from Mahale

Mountains National Park (TANAPA and FZS 2007).

Age Limits:

Minimumageis15years.

Maximumageis65years;thisisalsodependantonsizeandfitnessleveloftheperson.Managementwillassessallclientspriorto

startingthewalk.Ifmanagersareconcerned,youmayberefusedentrywiththechimpanzees.

Health Clearance:

Allvisitorsthatparticipateinthechimpwalksarerequiredtobefreeofanyflu-likediseaseatthetimeofthewalk.Anyonewitha

herpes(coldsores)outbreakwillalsobedeniedentrytotheforest.Iftheprojectsupervisorisatallconcernedaboutthevisitors’

presentstateofhealth,participationonthewalkwillbedenied.JGImanagementstaffwillhavethefinalsayonwhocangoonthe

walk;thisisnotnegotiable.

All visitors must be given the following instructions:

1. If you are sick, you are not allowed to enter the forest to follow the chimpanzees.Humanillnessescaninfectandkillthese

animals.Donotapproachthemiftheyarriveincamp.Evenifyouarenotvisiblysick,youmaybecarryingadiseasethatcan

killthemwhichiswhyfollowingtheserulesissocrucial.

2. It is crucial that you remain a minimum of 10 metres/33 feet from chimpanzees and baboons at all times.Ifananimalstarts

toapproach,moveawaytoadistanceof10metres.Itisyourresponsibilitytokeepthesafeandproperdistance.

3. The number of people in your group must never exceed six (6), excluding your guide, while following the chimps.Youmust

beaccompaniedbyaGuideatalltimesintheforest.Ifyouencounteranothergroupofpeopleobservingchimpsorbaboons,

waitpatientlyatadistanceuntiltheymoveaway.Childrenundertheageof7arenotpermittedintheforest.

4. You are allowed to remain with a group of chimpanzees for one hour, after which you may encounter other parties briefly and

visit the many scenic areas of the forest.

5. It is very important that you stay together in your group.Neverspreadoutorsurroundanimalsyouareobserving.Whenyou

comeuponchimpsorbaboonsintheforestitisbestthatyousitquietly.Youwillseemorenaturalbehaviourifthechimpsare

relaxed.

6. If you must talk in the forest, speak quietly.Donotusearmgestureswhiletalking.Thismaybeseenasathreatbybaboonsand

chimps.Neverstareatababoon,asitistakenasathreat.

7. Carry your equipment, backpacks and other items at all times.Bothchimpsandbaboonswillstealanythingleftunattended.

Theseunfortunateincidentsincreasetheriskofdiseasetransferandresultindamagetoyourbelongings.Beespeciallycareful

withbandanasandtissues.Andneverleavebelongingsoutsideunattendedincamp.

8. Do not spit or nose blow on the ground. Suppress sneezes and coughs while in forest.Ifyoumust,coveryourfaceandturn

awayfromtheanimalsbeingobserved.

9. Do not smoke or eat in the forest. Alwayseatindoorsbehindalatcheddoor.Visitorshavebeenseriouslyinjuredbybaboons

thathavetriedtostealfood.

10. Never feed the chimpanzees, baboons or other wildlife.

11. Use the latrine and wash hands with soap before entering the forest and upon return.Youareresponsiblefordigginga1ft

deepholeintheforestforburyingfaeceswhenalatrineisnotavailable.

12. Never attempt flash photography or use reflective devices.Wildanimalsareunpredictablewhenstartled.Visitorshavebeen

seriouslythreatenedbychimpanzeesafterignoringthisrule.Nevertrytoattractananimal’sattentioninordertotakeabetter

photograph.

13. Littering of any kind is forbidden.Neverthrowfood,candywrappers,cigarettebutts,oranyotherman-madeproductontothe

ground.Transportingtherubbishyoubringbackoutoftheforestandreserve/parkwouldbegreatlyappreciated.

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F. Orangutans: wild

GUIDELINES FOR TOURISTS VISITING THE RED APE ENCOUNTERS, MALAYSIA

WILD HABITUATED ORANGUTANS

Themostimportantthingforavisitortorememberistoalwaysfollowthetourleader’srecommendationsforthesafetyofboththe

orangutanandthepeople.

RULE 1: Number of people limited to 5 tourists per group (RAE staff not included).

• Reasons:control the risk of human impacts

optimise the encounter and viewing opportunities for tourists

RULE 2: Duration of an orangutan viewing time limited to one hour maximum

• Reasons:reduce orangutan exposure to potential germ-carrying people

minimise behavioural disturbance and associated stress in the animals

Iforangutansarenotvisiblewhenthevisitorsarriveatthesite,theycanwaitinstand-bywiththeirguideataminimumof100metres

fromthetreewheretheanimalstays.

RULE 3: Frequency of visits limited to 1 visit per day and per habituated orangutan

• Reasons:minimise stress of the animals

minimise the negative impacts of heavy human presence on RAE natural environment

(trampling, disturbance to the ecosystem, etc.).

RULE 4: Ill people cannot visit the orangutan

Touristsareaskedtoself-reportanysicknesstotheRAEstaffandtheirvisitwillberefundedorrescheduled.RAEstaffcanrefusea

visittoanyvisitorshowingobvioussignsofdisease.

• Reasons:minimise risks of disease transmission

RULE 5: Not closer than 10 metres from an orangutan

• Reasons:minimise risks of disease transmission

RULE 6: Adopt an appropriate behaviour during the close contact with the orangutan

• Reasons:minimise the stress and disturbance to the animals

• Proper behaviours:

ü Refrainfromsmoking,eating,sneezingandcoughinginthepresenceoforangutans

ü visitorsshouldremaininatightgroup,withoutlosingcontactwiththeRAEstaff

ü wherepossible,visitorsshouldsitwhilstwatchingtheapes

ü bodylanguageisimportantandvisitorsshouldstayasquietaspossibleduringtheirentirevisit(noscream-

ing,nobriskmovements,norunning,etc…).Showrespecttotheanimalsandtrytoremainassilentas

possiblewiththem.

ü donotclearvegetationtogetabetterviewoftheorangutans

ü donotstareattheorangutansanddonotusebinoculars,photographiclensesand/orvideocamerasifthe

animalsaredisturbed(kiss-squeakvocalisations).

ü donottrytoapproachanorangutan(especiallyanewcomer)unlessaguideiswithyou.

RULE 7: Adopt an appropriate behaviour during all times in the forest

• Reasons:minimise disturbance to the ecosystem

• Proper behaviours:

ü allfaecalmaterialandpapersmustbeburied(aparangcanbeborrowedanytimefromtheRAEstaff).

ü litteringisstrictlyprohibitedatRAEsiteandalltypesofrubbishmustbecarriedoutsideoftheforest.

ü donotcollectanylivingorganismsfromtheforest(flowers,insects,seeds,etc.).

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G. Orangutans: ex-captives and wild

Sumatran Orangutan Health Protocols and Guidelines for Visitors to the Bukit Lawang Eco-tourism Site (SOS 2008)

AsyoutrekthroughtheforestatBukitLawang,itisimportanttorememberthatyouareenteringthehabitatofoneoftherarestgreat

apespeciesonEarth.

ThepopulationofSumatranorangutansatBukitLawangisfromtwodifferentorigins:

1. Ex-captiveindividualswhohavebeenrehabilitatedandreleasedintheforest.Captiveandrehabilitationexperiencesoftenresult

inreleasedrehabilitantorangutansnotfearinghumansandevenexpectingtointeractwiththem.

2. Wildindividuals,someofwhomhavebecomehabituatedtohumanpresence,withtheremainingbeingnaïve(i.e.notusedto

people’spresenceintheirforesthabitat).

Inappropriatebehaviourbyvisitorsmayaffect thebehaviourandhealthoforangutans frombothpopulationsnegatively,which

placesthematincreasedriskofbecomingstressedandfallingill.Byfollowingthesesimpleguidelines,visitorsareabletoseethe

SumatranorangutansatBukitLawanginawaythatisbothsafeforthemselvesandsafefortheorangutans,whilstatthesametime,

experiencingamorenatural,uniqueexperienceintheforest.

Group Responsibilities

• Amaximumgroupsizeofsevenvisitorsistobeadheredtowhilstintheforest.Researchfromothereco-touristsites

thatallowgreatapetrekkinghasshownthatvisitorgroupsizecanaffectthebehaviourofthegreatapesencoun-

teredand(asaresult),thevisitors’experience.Wheregroupsofvisitorsaretoohighinnumber,theanimalsbecome

stressedandnervousandmoveawayfromvisitorgroups.

• EverymemberofavisitorgroupshouldmaintainaminimumdistanceofTENMETRESfromtheclosestorangutan.

Thepotentialfordiseasetransfer,bothhumanstoorangutanandorangutantohuman,isveryhighduetotheclose

geneticrelationshiphumanssharewithgreatapes.Pneumonia,influenza,tuberculosis,hepatitisA,B,CandE,chol-

era,herpes,parasitesandeventhecommoncoldcanallbepassedbetweengreatapesandhumans.

o Thisdistanceservestoprotectvisitorsfromthepossibilityofattackbyorangutans.Thisisarealfactor

inex-captiveorangutans,sincemostarenotafraidofhumansafterhavinglivedashumancaptivesand

beingrehabilitatedbyhumans;itisnotaseriousconcernwithwildorangutans.

o Ifanorangutanmovestowardsavisitorgrouporanymemberofthegroup,itisprimarilytheresponsibility

oftheguidetomovethewholevisitorgroupback(maintainingtheminimumdistanceatalltimes).Every

memberofavisitorgroupshouldnonethelessmoveawayfromanyorangutanthatapproachesandalertothersoftheapproach.

• Onceinthepresenceoforangutans(lessthan50metresaway,thedistanceatwhichorangutansareconsideredto

beassociatingwithoneanother),visitorsmaystayNOLONGERTHANONEHOUR.Thevisitwillbeformallytimed

fromthepointofenteringtheorangutans’presence.Whenthisperiodisover,thegroupistoleavetheareathatthe

orangutanisin.

o Timingistheguide’sresponsibilityandtheviewingperiodCANNOTbeextended.

• RememberthatvisitorsareguestsintheGunungLeuserNationalPark,whichistheorangutans’homeandthatwhat

isbestfortheorangutansistofreelyroamandforagenaturallyintheforestwithoutexcessivedisturbance.

Orangutan Viewing

Sumatranorangutansshareover96.5%oftheirgeneticDNAwithhumansandasaresulttheyarelikeusinmanyways.Itisimpor-

tanttorememberthatorangutansarehighlyintelligent,thinking,feelingbeingsandshouldbetreatedwithduecareandrespect.

VisitorstotheBukitLawangsitearetoobservethefollowing‘orangutanetiquette’guidelines:

• Visitorsshouldnottouchtheorangutansunderanycircumstances.Touchingisverydangerous,forvariousreasons:

diseases,infectionsandevenparasitescaneasilypassbetweenorangutansandhumansandphysicalcontactmakes

thelikelihoodofthishigher.Touchingalsogivestheorangutansthechancetograb;someofthemdo,withallfour

handsandfeet,typicallytostealfoodorothergoods.Amatureorangutanisapproximatelyfourtimesstrongerthan

ahumanandcaninflictseriousorfatalinjuriesiftheyfeelthreatened,irritatedorupset.

o Binocularsmaybeusefulbecausetheyallowcloseupviewsoforangutansfromsafedistances.Pleasedo

notusebinocularsunlessorangutansarerelaxedandstopusingthemiforangutansshowsignsofbecom-

inguneasy.Binocularlensespointedatanorangutancanlooklike‘bigeyes’andorangutanssometimes

seemtofindthisuncomfortable.

75

o Camerausagemustalsofollowthesameguidelinesforbinoculars.Cameralensesmayoftenbelarger

thanthoseofbinocularsandthusmayirritatetheorangutans.Alsolimittheuseofflashphotographyas

thismayalsoaffecttheorangutans.

• Visitorsmustnotfeedtheorangutansunderanycircumstances.

• Visitorsshouldnotunderanycircumstancesmovetoorstayinalocationthatputsthembetweentwoorangutans,

especiallyamotherandherinfantoramaleandhisfemaleconsort.Orangutanmothersareextremelyprotectiveof

theiryoungandcanbecomeaggressiveiftheyfeelthattheirinfantisbeingthreatened.Maleorangutanscanbecome

aggressiveifanyoneapproachestheirconsortandmaythreaten,chaseorevenattack.

• Visitorsorguidesshouldnotcallouttotheorangutansorotherwiselurethemtochangetheirbehaviour.Callingor

luringtheorangutanscancausestressanditautomaticallydisruptsnaturalbehaviour.

• Visitorsshouldrefrainfrommakinganysuddenmovementsandshouldnotattempttogaintheattentionoftheoran-

gutansbywavingtheirarms,etc.,forthesamereasonsgivenabove.Inadditiontodisruptingtheirbehaviour,thiscan

annoyorangutansandevokethreatsormoreseriousaggression.

• Visitorsshouldrefrainfrommakingtoomuchnoisewithintheforestandtrytotalkquietly.Loudnoisecanbeinter-

pretedasathreatbytheorangutansandtheycanrespondeitherbyfleeingorthreateningback.

o Ifanorangutanbeginstomakekiss-squeakvocalisations,throatygruntsorgrowls,or‘raspberry’sounds,

breakingandthrowingbranches,orshakestrees,thesearesignsofirritateddisturbanceandaggressive

threats.Itisbesttomoveonandleavetheorangutanalone.

Visitor Responsibilities

• Visitorsmustnotentertheforestiftheyarefeelingunwellorrecentlyhadanillnessand/ordiarrhoea.Itiseachvisitor’s

moralresponsibilitytoreportanysignofdiseasetotheirguidebeforeenteringtheforest.Spendingtimearoundthe

orangutanswhilstunwellcanseriouslyriskinfectingthem,whichcouldeasilyresultintheirdeath—andhas,inthe

past.Anyorangutaninfectedbyhumanscouldpotentiallyinfectotherorangutansaswell.

o Iftheguidefeelsthatavisitorisnotwellenoughtoentertheforest,itiswithinhis/herauthoritytorefuse

entrytothevisitor.

A not uncommon scene at tourism sites involving ex-captive orangutans, illustrating the potential for both aggressive encounters and disease

transmission. Photo © Steve Unwin.

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• Nofoodshouldbebroughtintotheforestbyvisitors.Ifnecessary(forlongertreksorinspecialcases),allfoodshould

becarriedbytheguideforsafe-keeping.

o Eatingorevenhavingfoodvisiblewhilstintheforestincreasestheriskofbothdiseasetransmissionand

attacksfromorangutans.Oneofthemainreasonsthatorangutanscontactandattackhumansistosteal

food,andseeingfoodisthereforeamajorprovocation.Ifnofoodisbroughtin,theorangutanswilllearn

thatthereisnothingtoattackfor,whichwillmakeasaferexperienceforALLoftheorangutansandALL

futurevisitorsandguides.

• Visitorsshouldtakeanylittertheyhaveoutoftheforestwhentheyleave.

o Thisincludesfruitskinsasdiscardedfoodsmaylaterattractorangutansandallowfordiseasetransfer

o Itismostpreferabletobringaslittleaspossibleintotheforest,onlytheessentialsshouldbetakenin.This

willlimitchancesofloss/damage.

o Refrainfromsmokingintheforest.SmokingisNOTpermittedwheninthepresenceoforangutans.

• Ifthevisitorneedstodefecatewithintheforest,he/shemustensurethatitisawayfromtheorangutansandthata

holeisdug(atleast30cmdeep)andsubsequentlyfilledin.Wherepossible,visitorsshouldtryandwaituntiltheyare

outoftheforest.

Forest Responsibilities

Likeanytropicalforest,BukitLawanganditssurroundingareasrepresentacomplicatedanddiverse(butaboveall,fragile)habitat.

Thewholeforestsystemisadelicatelybalancednetworkofanimalandplantspeciesandmanyspeciesareheavilydependentupon

one-another.Wethereforeaskvisitorstofollowthissimpleguideline:

• Visitorsshouldnotremove,damage,oralteranyofthevegetationwithintheforest.Leaves,seedsandshellsallplay

arolewithintheforestecosystemandshouldnotbetakenout.

It is the responsibility of every person entering the forest to help ensure the survival of this critically endangered species and

its habitat. Visitors should discourage other members in their party, including their guides, from acting in a way that contradicts

these guidelines and should express their disapproval and report to the national park office any activity which puts either the

visitors or the orangutans at risk.

With your help and cooperation, the orangutan can continue to flourish in Bukit Lawang and visitors for years to come will also

be able to enjoy and appreciate them in their natural forest home.

Appendix II – Information on Face Masks/N95 Respirator Masks

Facemasks/Surgical Masks vs. N95 respirator masks:Thisdocumenthasrecommendedasbestpracticethatallvisitors,including

staff,touristsandresearchers,whoapproachtoadistanceof10metresorlessfromwildgreatapeswearsurgicalN95respirators.

Astherearealargevarietyofmasksonthemarket,variouslycalled‘facemasks’,‘surgicalmasks’or‘respirators’,thefollowinginfor-

mationdescribesthedifferencesinmasktypesandprovidesadditionalinformation.Allofthisinformationisadaptedfrommaterial

producedbyhumanhealthnetworks(CDC2004;CDC2006;Drelleret al.2006;FDA2009)and/oradaptedfromrecommendations

fromgreatapeveterinaryexperts(MGVP2008;MGVP2009).

Facemasks:Afacemaskisaloose-fitting,disposabledevicethatcreatesaphysicalbarrierbetweenthemouthandnoseofthe

wearerandpotentialcontaminantsintheimmediateenvironment.Facemasksmaybelabelledassurgical,laser,isolation,dental

ormedicalproceduremasks.Facemasksaremadeindifferentthicknessesandwithdifferentabilitiestoprotectthewearerfrom

contactwithliquids.Thesepropertiesmayalsoaffecthoweasilythewearercanbreathethroughthefacemaskandhowwellthe

facemaskprotectsthewearer.Ifwornproperly,afacemaskismeanttohelpblocklarge-particledroplets(greaterthan50-100μm

diameter),splashes,spraysorsplatterthatmaycontaininfectiousagentsfromreachingthewearer’smouthandnose.Facemasks

mayalsohelpreduceexposureofotherstorespiratorysecretionsofthewearer.Whileafacemaskmaybeeffective inblocking

splashesandlarge-particledroplets,afacemask,bydesign,doesnotfilterorblockverysmallparticlesintheairthatmaybetrans-

mittedbycoughsorsneezes.Facemasksalsodonotprovidecompleteprotectionbecauseoftheloosefitbetweenthesurfaceof

thefacemaskandthewearer’sface.

N95 Respirators:Althoughappearingsimilartofacemaskstothelayperson,anN95respiratorisarespiratoryprotectivedevice

designedtoachieveaclosefacialfitandefficientfiltrationofairborneparticlesincludingverysmallairborneparticles.The‘N95’

designationmeansthatinlaboratorytests,therespiratorblocksatleast95%ofverysmall(lessthan10μm)particles,whichinclude

77

smallparticleaerosolsgenerateddirectlyfromacoughorsneeze.MaskratingsaboveN95,i.e.N99orN100,arealsoacceptableas

theyblockahigherpercentageofparticles.AnN95respiratorrequiresaproperfit,tightbutcomfortable,tothewearer’sfacetobe

effective.Aproperfitcheckisrelativelysimple:wheninhaling,therespiratorshouldcollapse,andwhenexhalingthereshouldbeno

leakagearoundtheface.Ifproperlyfitted,thefiltrationcapabilitiesofN95respiratorsexceedthoseoffacemasks.However,even

aproperlyfittedN95respiratordoesnotcompletelyeliminatetheriskofdiseasetransmission.N95respiratorsarenotdesignedfor

childrenorpeoplewithfacialhair,becauseaproperfitcannotbeachieved.AsN95respiratorsachieveatighterfacialfit,theymay

requiremoreefforttobreatheandthisshouldbeexplainedtothewearerbeforeuse.Somepeoplewithchronicrespiratory,cardiac,

orothermedicalconditionsfindithardertowearN95masks,butgreatapetourismactivities,especiallythosethatrequirestrenuous

hiking,willprobablynotattractthissortoftourist.SomeN95modelshaveexhalationvalvesthatcanmakebreathingouteasierand

helpreduceheatbuild-up,althoughthesewillbemoreexpensive.AtypeofN95respiratorcalledtheDuck-BillN95respiratorallows

moreroomandhasbeentestedbytheMGVP(MGVP2008)forcomfortandreducedfoggingofbinocularsandglasses.

‘Surgical’ N95 Respirators:ThereareN95respiratorssoldforuseinconstructionorotherdustysituationstoprotectthewearerfrom

inhalingnoxiousparticles.SurgicalqualityN95respiratorsareapprovedforuseinmedicalsituationsandmeetadditionalperform-

ancestandardsforsurgicalfacemasks,andthereforeitisthe‘SurgicalN95Respirator’thatisrecommendedasbestpracticefor

greatapetourism.

Mask Information Sources:Moreinformationonthetypesofmasksandrespiratorsdescribedabovecanbefoundonanumber

ofpublichealthinformationwebsites.Anexcellentresource,includingpicturesofthedifferenttypes,canbefoundatthewebsite

below,whichalsodescribesingreatdetailthehost,pathogenandenvironmentalfactorsthataffectaparticle’sinfectivity:http://

pandemicflu.gov/plan/healthcare/maskguidancehc.html

Disposal of Used Masks and Respirators:Masksandrespiratorsmayonlybeusedonce.Usedmasksor respiratorsmustbe

placedinaplasticbagandcarriedoutofgreatapehabitatorbacktoabasecampanddisposedofhygienically–astheyarepaper

based,theycanbeburned.Staffmembersshouldwashhandsorusedahandsanitizerafterhandlingusedmasks.

Mask Procurement: Asthisdocumentisintendedtobeaglobalresource,itisdifficulttoprovidealistofmasksuppliers.Veterinary

supportnetworksandrelevantpublichealthministriesshouldbeabletoprovideguidanceonmaskprocurementoptionsineach

geographicregion.

Ranger wearing a duck-billed N95 surgical mask, Virunga National Park, DRC. Photo © Christina Ellis

Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission1. Species Conservation Priorities in the Tropical Forests of Southeast Asia. Edited by R.A. Mittermeier and W.R. Konstant, 1985, 58pp. 2. Priorités en matière de conservation des espèces à Madagascar. Edited by R.A. Mittermeier, L.H. Rakotovao, V. Randrianasolo, E.J.

Sterling and D. Devitre, 1987, 167pp.3. Biology and Conservation of River Dolphins. Edited by W.F. Perrin, R.K. Brownell, Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang, 1989, 173pp.4. Rodents. A World Survey of Species of Conservation Concern. Edited by W.Z. Lidicker, Jr., 1989, 60pp.5. The Conservation Biology of Tortoises. Edited by I.R. Swingland and M.W. Klemens, 1989, 202pp. 6. Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use. Compiled by S.N. Stuart and

R.J. Adams, with a contribution from M.D. Jenkins, 1991, 242pp.7. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Tenth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 1991, 107pp.8. Conservation Biology of Lycaenidae (Butterflies). Edited by T.R. New, 1993, 173pp.9. The Conservation Biology of Molluscs: Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 9th International Malacological Congress, Edinburgh,

Scotland, 1986. Edited by A. Kay. Including a Status Report on Molluscan Diversity, by A. Kay, 1995, 81pp.10. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Eleventh Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, January 25 – 28 1993,

Copenhagen, Denmark. Compiled by Ø. Wiig, E.W. Born and G.W. Garner, 1995, 192pp.11. African Elephant Database 1995. M.Y. Said, R.N. Chunge, G.C. Craig, C.R. Thouless, R.F.W. Barnes and H.T. Dublin, 1995, 225pp.12. Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Assessment Procedure. Edited by R. and C. Prescott-

Allen, 1996, 135pp.13. Tecnicas para el Manejo del Guanaco [Techniques for the Management of the Guanaco]. Edited by S. Puig, South American Camelid

Specialist Group, 1995, 231pp.14. Tourist Hunting in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams, J.A. Kayera and G.L. Overton, 1996, 138pp.15. Community-based Conservation in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams, J.A. Kayera and G.L. Overton, 1996, 226pp.16. The Live Bird Trade in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams and R.K. Tibanyenda, 1996, 129pp.17. Sturgeon Stocks and Caviar Trade Workshop: Proceedings of a Workshop, 9 – 10 October 1995 Bonn, Germany. Federal Ministry for

the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety and the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Edited by V.J. Birstein, A. Bauer and A. Kaiser-Pohlmann, 1997, 88pp.

18. Manejo y Uso Sustentable de Pecaries en la Amazonia Peruana. R. Bodmer, R. Aquino, P. Puertas, C. Reyes, T. Fang and N. Gottdenker, 1997, 102pp.

19. Proceedings of the Twelfth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 3 – 7 February 1997, Oslo, Norway. Compiled by A.E. Derocher, G.W. Garner, N.J. Lunn and Ø. Wiig, 1998, 159pp.

20. Sharks and their Relatives – Ecology and Conservation. Compiled by M. Camhi, S. Fowler, J. Musick, A. Bräutigam and S. Fordham, 1998, 39pp. (Also in French)

21. African Antelope Database 1998. Compiled by R. East and the IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 1999, 434pp.22. African Elephant Database 1998. R.F.W. Barnes, G.C. Craig, H.T. Dublin, G. Overton, W. Simons and C.R. Thouless, 1999, 249pp.23. Biology and Conservation of Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia. Edited by R.R. Reeves, B.D. Smith and T. Kasuya, 2000, 152pp.24. Links between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat. Edited by

S.A. Mainka and M. Trivedi, 2002, 137pp. (Also in French)25. Elasmobranch Biodiversity, Conservation and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia,

July 1997. Edited by S.L. Fowler, T.M. Reed and F.A. Dipper, 2002, 258pp.26. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 23 – 28 June 2001, Nuuk,

Greenland. Compiled by N.J. Lunn, S. Schliebe and E.W. Born, 2002, 153pp.27. Guidance for CITES Scientific Authorities: Checklist to Assist in Making Non-detriment Findings for Appendix II Exports. Compiled by

A.R. Rosser and M.J. Haywood, 2002, 146pp.28. Turning the Tide: The Eradication of Invasive Species. Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives.

Edited by C.R. Veitch and M.N. Clout, 2002, 414pp.29. African Elephant Status Report 2002: An Update from the African Elephant Database. J.J. Blanc, C.R. Thouless, J.A. Hart, H.T. Dublin,

I. Douglas-Hamilton, C.G. Craig and R.F.W. Barnes, 2003, 302pp.30. Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface: Implications for Wildlife, Livestock and Human Health.

Compiled by S.A. Osofsky and S. Cleaveland, W.B. Karesh, M.D. Kock, P.J. Nyhus, L. Starr and A. Yang, 2005, 220pp.31. The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Compiled by W. Darwall, K. Smith, T. Lower and J.-C. Vié, 2005, 36pp.32. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the 14th Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 20–24 June 2005, Seattle,

Washington, USA. Compiled by J. Aars, N.J. Lunn and A.E. Derocher, 2006, 189pp.33. African Elephant Status Report 2007: An Update from the African Elephant Database. Compiled by J.J. Blanc, R.F.W. Barnes,

C.G. Craig, H.T. Dublin, C.R. Thouless, I. Douglas-Hamilton and J.A. Hart, 2007, 275pp.34. Best Practice Guidelines for Reducing the Impact of Commercial Logging on Great Apes in Western Equatorial Africa. D. Morgan and

C. Sanz, 2007, 32pp. (Also in French)35. Best Practice Guidelines for the Re-introduction of Great Apes. B. Beck K. Walkup, M. Rodrigues, S. Unwin, D. Travis, and T. Stoinski,

2007, 48pp. (Also in French and Bahasa Indonesia)36. Best Practice Guidelines for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape Populations. H. Kühl, F. Maisels, M. Ancrenaz and E.A. Williamson, 2008,

32 pp. (Also in French)37. Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes. K. Hockings and T. Humle,

2009, 41pp. (Also in French and Bahasa Indonesia)Many of these publications are available online at: www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/publications/thematic_pubs.htm

INterNatIONal UNION fOr CONServatION Of NatUre

WORLD HEADQUARTERSRue Mauverney 28 1196 Gland, Switzerland [email protected] Tel +41 22 999 0000Fax +41 22 999 0002www.iucn.org

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