biodrainage potential of eucalyptus tereticornis for reclamation of shallow water table areas in...
TRANSCRIPT
Abstract Ground water table (g.w.t.) levels
were measured twice a month for 2 years in 50
observation wells installed inside and outside the
two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations of
Eucalyptus tereticornis (Mysure gum) at Dhob-
Bhali research plot located in Rohtak district of
Haryana state (north-west India). Throughout the
study, the g.w.t. underneath the plantations
remained lower than the g.w.t. in the adjacent
fields. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was
4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the control
located in adjacent fields was 4.04 m. Interest-
ingly, the spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the
adjacent fields was up to a distance of more than
730 m from the edge of a plantation. Drawdown
in the g.w.t. developed due to the effect of a
plantation was similar to the cone of depression
of a pumping well and the drawdown in the g.w.t.
developed due to the joint effect of both the
plantations was similar to the combined cone of
depression of two pumping wells. There was no
correlation between soil salinity and the g.w.t.
The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in
g.w.t. salinity in the plantation as well as in the
adjacent fields, but there was no net increase in
g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation. Sinker
roots of Eucalyptus tree reached the zone of
capillary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m, indicating
that the Eucalyptus trees were absorbing capillary
water of the g.w.t. Thus, in shallow g.w.t. areas of
semi-arid regions with alluvial sandy loam soils,
the plantations of E. tereticornis act as bio-pumps
and therefore, we recommend closely spaced
parallel strip plantations of this species for the
reclamation of waterlogged areas.
Keywords Semi-arid Æ Waterlogging Æ Salinity ÆCapillary fringe Æ Root zone Æ Bio-pumps
J. Ram (&)Forest Department, Hisar, Haryana, Indiae-mail: [email protected]
V. K. GargForest Department, Kurukshetra, Haryana, Indiae-mail: [email protected]
O. P. TokyForestry Department, CCS Haryana AgriculturalUniversity, Hisar, Haryana, Indiae-mail: [email protected]
P. S. Minhas Æ O. S. Tomar Æ J. C. Dagar ÆS. K. KamraCentral Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal,Haryana, India
P. S. Minhase-mail: [email protected]
O. S. Tomare-mail: [email protected]
J. C. Dagare-mail: [email protected]
S. K. Kamrae-mail: [email protected]
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
DOI 10.1007/s10457-006-9026-5
123
Biodrainage potential of Eucalyptus tereticornisfor reclamation of shallow water table areasin north-west India
J. Ram Æ V. K. Garg Æ O. P. Toky ÆP. S. Minhas Æ O. S. Tomar Æ J. C. Dagar ÆS. K. Kamra
Received: 19 August 2005 / Accepted: 14 September 2006 / Published online: 18 October 2006� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2006
Introduction
Problem
In arid and semi-arid regions, irrigation is an
essential input for sustaining the agricultural
production. But, introduction of canal irrigation
in such regions causes rise in ground water table
(g.w.t.) followed by waterlogging and secondary
salinisation of soils. Presently, about one-third of
the world’s irrigated area faces the threat of
waterlogging, about 60 million hectare (Mha) is
already waterlogged and 20 Mha is salt affected
(Heuperman et al. 2002). Ministry of Water
Resources, Govt. of India, reported that an area
of 2.46 Mha is waterlogged and an area of
3.30 Mha is salt affected in the command of major
and medium irrigation projects in the country
(MOWR 1991). In the predominantly agricultural
state of Haryana (north-west India), in which the
present study was carried out, nearly 50% area is
faced with rising g.w.t and salinity problems and
about 10% area has already become waterlogged
resulting in reduced crop yields and abandonment
of agriculture lands (Anonymous 1998).
Conventional solution
The conventional engineering based sub-surface
drainage techniques, although, are efficient in
combating the problems of waterlogging and
salinity in irrigated lands; but they are relatively
more expensive and cause environmental prob-
lems (Heuperman et al. 2002). As a result, the
very high annual rate of installation of sub-
surface drainage of the 1980s (300,000 ha/year)
has fallen to about 150,000 ha/year during the
1990s (Lesaffre and Zimmer 1995).
Biodrainage—an alternate solution
The limitations and shortcomings of the conven-
tional engineering based drainage techniques call
for alternative approaches to keep the agriculture
sustainable over the long term. Alternative tech-
niques must be effective, affordable, socially
acceptable, environment friendly and which do
not cause degradation of natural land and water
resources. Biodrainage, which relies on deep-
rooted vegetation, is one of these alternative
options (Heuperman et al. 2002).
Effectiveness of biodrainage plantations
Tiwari and Mathur (1983) and Tewari (1992)
advocated that Eucalyptus do not lower the g.w.t.
But, Heuperman et al. (1984), Travis and Heu-
perman (1994), Heuperman (1995), Chaudhry
et al. (2000), Holland (2001), Kapoor (2001) and
Heuperman et al. (2002) reported that Eucalyp-
tus lower the shallow g.w.t.
In biodrainage studies conducted in irrigated
lands in Australia (Heuperman et al. 1984; Travis
and Heuperman 1994; Heuperman 1995; Thor-
burn and George 1999) the spatial extent of
lowering of shallow g.w.t. underneath the adja-
cent fields was up to a maximum distance of 40 m
from the plantation boundary. But, in India,
Kapoor (2001) concluded that if plantations are
grown on sufficient large areas, the drawdown
effect on g.w.t. is not confined to areas immedi-
ately under the plantations but extends to dis-
tances of 500 m beyond the edge of the
plantation.
Shortcoming of biodrainage plantations
Travis and Heuperman (1994), Heuperman
(1999), Silberstein et al. (1999) and Archibald
et al. (2006) reported accumulation of salts under-
neath the Eucalyptus plantations raised on shallow
g.w.t. areas. But, no abnormal increase in salinity
levels of soils and ground water was observed
underneath the plantation in the Indira Gandhi
Nahar Project, Rajasthan, India (Kapoor 2001).
Objective of present study
Biodrainage is yet to be accepted and practised as
a planned drainage measure, in spite of the
encouraging experiences in countries like Aus-
tralia, USA, India and Pakistan where swampy
lands have been reclaimed for agriculture with
the help of plantations. Its main reason is non-
availability of accurate planting designs for dif-
ferent edaphic and climatic conditions on which
the effectiveness of this technique depends.
Therefore, it is necessary to carry out area specific
148 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
research and studies in different agro-climatic
regions of India (Anonymous 2003).
The main objective of the present study was to
quantify the effectiveness of tree plantation for
the reclamation of shallow g.w.t. areas of Haryana
state or elsewhere with similar agro-climatic
conditions and suggest models for large scale
application.
Material and methods
Site description
The present study was conducted at Dhob-Bhali
Research Plot (Fig. 1) located at a distance of
about 6 km from Rohtak city (longitude 76�35¢E,
latitude 28�55¢N) of Haryana state (north-west
India). Layout of the research plot was as shown
in Fig. 2. Rohtak-Bhiwani railway line and Roh-
tak-Bhiwani road, which run almost parallel to
each other, pass through the research plot.
The tract of Dhob-Bhali research plot was
plain and soil was alluvial sandy loam with
calcareous concretion in the sub-soil. In this
research plot, there were two plantations (plan-
tation-I and plantation-II) of Eucalyptus tereti-
cornis (Mysure gum). Barring western side of
plantation-I, these plantations were surrounded
by agricultural fields.
Though, the area on the western side of
plantation-I was a notified protected forest, but
this area could not be afforested with valuable
tree species, most probably, due to the presence
of high soil salinity (ECe) ranging up to 24.65 dS/
m. As a result, this area remained as a wasteland
under the bushes of Prosopis juliflora. This
species, though an exotic, has encroached upon
the non-cultivated lands due its profuse seeding,
germination and coppicing ability and tolerance
to waterlogging, salinity, drought and frost.
The natural tree species in the research plot
were the Acacia nilotica, A. leucophloea and
Prosopis cineraria, etc. The main crops grown
in the agricultural fields were wheat (Triticum
aestivum) and mustard/rapeseed (Brassica species)
during winter season and jowar (Sorghum bicolor),
bajra/pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum), Arhar/
pigeon pea/red gram (Cajanus cajan), cotton
(Gossypium species) and paddy/rice (Oryza sativa)
during the summer season. The roots of these crops
generally confine to upper 1.5 m soil depths.
Fig. 1 Location of (a) Haryana state in north-west India and (b) Dhob-Bhali research plot in Rohtak district of Haryanastate
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 149
123
The main source of irrigation was a canal
(Kahnour Distributory), which was located on the
western side of the research plot at a distance of
about 5 km. The capacity of this canal was 375 ft3/
s (cubic foot per second) and it used to run for
7 days a month. The canal irrigation was supple-
mented by shallow tube wells. The method of
irrigation was the flood method.
The climate of Rohtak district is semi-arid with
intensely hot summer and a cold winter. April and
May are usually the driest months and humidity
in the afternoon becomes less than 20%. The cold
season starts by the late November and extends
till about middle of March. This is followed by the
hot summer season, which continues till the end
of June when the southwest monsoon arrives. July
to September is the southwest monsoon season, in
which about 80% of the precipitation is received.
Post-monsoon period (October–November) con-
stitute a transition phase from monsoon to winter
conditions. Light showers are also experienced
during winter. Monsoon rains are erratic but
winter rains are more erratic.
The average annual rainfall (at Rohtak city)
during the years 1986–1987 to 2003–2004 was
492 mm with a minimum of 206 mm during
1987–1988 and maximum of 1,129 mm during
1995–1996. The annual rainfall during the years
2004–2005 and 2005–2006 was 475 and 537 mm,
respectively.
In Rohtak district, the average g.w.t. is shal-
low (within 5 m below the ground level) and it is
rising at an average rate of about 7 cm per
annum (during 1974–2004) due to seepage of
water from a large network of canals, brackish
ground water, topographical depressions and
absence of natural drainage. In addition to this,
the axis of topographical depression of Haryana
state passes through this district and causes
floods during heavy rainfall years. The rising
g.w.t., in this district, has caused waterlogging
followed by secondary salinisation of soils. The
historical fluctuations in g.w.t. during 1974–2004
were as shown in Fig. 3.
In waterlogged areas (g.w.t. within 3 m below
the ground level) of Rohtak district, the tradi-
tional cropping pattern has entirely changed to
wheat and paddy sequence of rotation. As per
requirement of crop, the paddy fields remained
sub-merged under surface water for 2–3 months
of rainy season, which is the time of tree
planting in this district. Second, most of the tree
Fig. 2 Layout of Dhob-Bhali research plot. Legend. (•) Observation well, ( ) road, ( ) railway line and( ) plantation
150 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
species cannot be planted with normal pit
planting technique in areas suffering from sur-
face as well as sub-surface waterlogging. As a
result, the waterlogged areas were devoid of tree
plantations suitable for biodrainage study.
Therefore, the area of Dhob-Bhali research plot
having shallow g.w.t. (within 4 m below the
ground level) and holding two mature planta-
tions of E. tereticornis was selected for the
present study.
Plantations
Plantation-I was raised over an area of 2.56 ha
(320 m · 80 m) in July–August 1986 at Dhob-
Bhali railway station yard located along Rohtak-
Bhiwani railway line by planting seedlings of
E. tereticornis at a spacing of 3 m · 3 m (1,100
seedlings per ha) by pit planting technique. In this
technique, pits of 45 cm length, 45 cm width and
45 cm depth were dug up manually at a spacing of
3 m · 3 m. One seedling was planted in each of the
pits by keeping about 10 cm top depth of the pit
empty for watering. Three hand waterings were
given to the plants in the first year (first at the time
of planting during monsoon season, second in post-
monsoon season and third in winter season) and
thereafter no irrigation was provided. During April
2004, the 18-year-old tree crop was enumerated;
the total trees in the area were 301 (with a density
of 118 trees/ha). Their average height was 24 m
and average girth at the breast height level was
100 cm.
Plantation-II was raised on either side of the
bye-pass of Dhob village over an area of
2.50 ha (1,560 m · 16 m). The year of planting,
species planted and the other operations were
the same as that of plantation-I. During April
2004, the total trees in the area were 807 (with
a density of 323 trees/ha). Their average height
was 23 m and average girth at the breast height
level was 102 cm.
The distance between plantation-I and planta-
tion-II was 350 m.
Observation wells
To measure the g.w.t. levels underneath the 18-
year-old plantations and adjacent areas, a total of
50 observation wells were installed (Fig. 2). Out
of these, 31 observation wells (Nos. 1–31) were
installed in a straight line over a length of 1,600 m
in the east-west transect of plantation-I and 19
observation wells (Nos. 32–50) were installed in a
straight line over a length of 1,100 m in the north-
south transect of both the plantations. The
running of trains on the railway track might be
influencing the porosity of soil underneath the
track. Keeping this point in view, the east-west
transect was laid parallel to the railway track so
that g.w.t. in each of the observation wells of this
transect is equally influenced.
Each observation well was consisted of a
galvanized iron (GI) pipe of 8.23 m in length
and 6.35 cm in inner diameter. The lower end of
the GI pipe was permanently closed by fixing a
cap. Perforations of 1 cm diameter were made in
the lower 2.13 m length of the GI pipe. The
perforated portion of the GI pipe was first
wrapped with two layers of polyester cloth and
then with one layer of synthetic mess to avoid
passage of even fine soil particles into the GI
Fig. 3 Fluctuations in g.w.t during 1974–2004 in Rohtak district. Legend. (–s–) June and (–D–) October
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 151
123
pipe. The observation well No. 41 was first
installed as a bench mark by putting the closed
end of GI pipe into the 10.16 cm diameter
borehole and keeping open end of GI pipe 1 m
above the ground level. To avoid blockage of
ground water into the observation well, the space
left between well casing (GI pipe) and the
borehole was filled with gravels up to a height
of 2.50 m from the lower end of GI pipe. The
upper portion was filled up with local soil and
then well pressed. To avoid passage of surface
water into the observation well, the uppermost
30 cm · 30 cm · 30 cm soil surface was sealed
with cement concrete.
Though the area of the research plot was flat,
but it was not 100% flat. Therefore, levelling of
observation wells was necessary so that bottom of
all the observation wells were placed to the same
elevation depth below the soil surface. For this, we
selected a simple but very accurate technique in
which a transparent rubber tube filled with clean
water was used. First of all, observation well No.
41 was installed as a bench mark by keeping its GI
pipe 1 m above the ground level. Thereafter,
observation well No. 42 was installed, but not
finally fixed. One end of the transparent rubber
tube filled with clean water was held by a person
along the GI pipe of observation well No. 41 and
other end of this tube was held by another person
along the GI pipe of observation well No. 42. The
GI pipe of observation well No. 42 was moved up
and down till the top of the GI pipes of both the
observation wells coincided with the water level in
the rubber tube. By getting this, the observation
well No. 42 was finally fixed. Similar procedure
was followed for observation well Nos. 42 and 43,
observation well Nos. 43 and 44 and so on. In
this way, all the 50 observation wells were finally
fixed.
Control observation wells
The observation wells Nos. 1, 31 and 32 (farthest
from the plantations) were taken as control
(Fig. 2). The observation wells No. 1 was sur-
rounded by wasteland and the observation wells
Nos. 31 and 32 were surrounded by agricultural
fields.
Measurement of ground water table
The levels of g.w.t. were measured twice a month
for 2 years (April 2004 to March 2006) in all the
50 observation wells with the help of a measuring
tape attached with a bell. The g.w.t. levels were
also measured twice a month during May 2006.
Ground water sampling
The g.w.t. samples were taken from all the 31
observation wells of east-west transect in May
2004, May 2005 and May 2006 and these samples
were tested for salinity.
Soil sampling
Soil sampling (0–0.15, 0.15–0.30, 0.30–0.60 m and
so on up to the depth of g.w.t.) from a point
adjacent to each of the observation well Nos. 1–31
was done in May 2004. These samples were tested
for soil salinity.
Root zone
To see the depth up to which Eucalyptus roots have
penetrated in the soil profile, an open well of 3 m
diameter and 5 m depth was manually dug up near
a representative Eucalyptus tree of plantation-I in
May 2006 and photographed in June 2006.
Capillary fringe
Due to surface tension, some water from the
g.w.t. rises in the finer pores of the soil. The zone
in which this water is stored is called the zone of
capillary fringe. In the dug up open well, the
depth of wet soil above the g.w.t. level was
measured in June 2006 to get an idea about the
zone of capillary fringe.
Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance, Post-Hoc analysis
and Duncan range test were carried out for g.w.t.
levels of 2004–2005 pertaining to observation well
Nos. 1–40, which were located in the east-west
transect and northern part of north-south transect.
152 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
Results
Ground water table in east-west transect
In the east-west transect, 1,478 observations of
g.w.t. levels were recorded during a period of
2 years (April 2004 to March 2006).
To see the trend of g.w.t. during different
months of different climatic seasons, the monthly
values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005 were plotted
in Fig. 4, which clearly indicated that during
2004–2005, except some minor deviations in
observation wells Nos. 21–23, the g.w.t. under-
neath the plantation-I remained lower than the
g.w.t. underneath the adjacent fields.
Further, to see the mean trend of g.w.t. during the
years 2004–2005 and 2005–2006, the annual values
of g.w.t. levels were plotted in Fig. 5, which clearly
indicated that, during each of the years, the g.w.t.
underneath the plantation-I remained lower than
the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent fields. Second,
there was a rise in g.w.t. during 2005–2006 and this
was mainly due to running of canals for more than
the specified period to meet the water requirement
of drought prone southern districts of Haryana state
and partly due to relatively high rainfall and felling
of some trees from plantation-I.
Ground water table in north-south transect
In north-south transect, 910 observations of g.w.t.
levels were recorded during a period of 2 years.
Monthly values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005
were plotted in Fig. 6, which clearly indicated
that during 2004–2005, except some minor
deviations in observation wells No. 49, the
g.w.t. underneath both the plantations remained
lower than the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent
fields.
Annual values of g.w.t. levels of 2004–2005
and 2005–2006 were plotted in Fig. 7, which
clearly indicated that during each of the years,
Fig. 4 Trend of ground water table levels in the east-west transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during (a) pre-monsoonseason, (b) monsoon season, (c) post-monsoon season and (d) winter season of 2004–2005
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 153
123
Fig. 5 Mean trend of ground water table levels in the east-west transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during 2004–2005 and2005–2006
Fig. 6 Trend of ground water table levels in the north-south transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during (a) pre-monsoonseason, (b) monsoon season, (c) post-monsoon season and (d) winter season of 2004–2005
154 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
barring some deviation in observation well No.
47 during 2005–2006, the g.w.t. underneath both
the plantations remained lower than the g.w.t.
underneath the adjacent fields. Second, there
was a rise in g.w.t. during 2005–2006 due to the
reasons as explained in the east-west transect.
Drawdown of ground water table underneath
the plantations
During the study period of 2 years, the average
g.w.t. underneath the plantations (in observation
wells Nos. 12–20, 40–41 and 47–48) was 4.95 m
and the average g.w.t. in the farthest observation
wells Nos. 1, 31 and 32 (taken as control) was
4.04 m. Thus the average drawdown of shallow
g.w.t. underneath the plantations was 0.91 m.
Further, the average g.w.t. underneath the
plantation-I (in observation wells Nos. 12–20
and 40–41) was 5.00 m and the average g.w.t.
underneath the plantation-II (in observation wells
Nos. 47–48) was 4.66 m. Therefore, the average
drawdown of shallow g.w.t. was 0.96 m under-
neath the plantation-I and 0.62 m underneath the
plantation-II. This difference in drawdown of
shallow g.w.t. was due to the difference in width
and density of two plantations. The drawdown of
shallow g.w.t. would be higher with higher width
and higher density of a plantation and vice versa.
The maximum depth up to which the shallow
g.w.t. was lowered was 5.63 m below the ground
level on 25th June 2005 in observation well No. 18
located in plantation-I.
Spatial extent of lowering of ground water
table underneath the adjacent fields
The limit of spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in
the adjacent fields may be at a point from which
onward the drawdown curve of g.w.t. becomes
horizontal. But the curves in Fig. 5 up to their end
points were still showing upward trend. It indi-
cated that the natural g.w.t. level in the east-west
transect was higher than 4.02 m (average of g.w.t.
in observation wells Nos. 1 and 31) and the limit
of spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the
adjacent fields was beyond the observation wells
Nos. 1 and 31. Similar trend was observed in
Fig. 7. The exact spatial extent of lowering of
g.w.t. in the adjacent fields could be determined
by installing more observation wells beyond the
observation wells Nos. 1, 31, 32 and 50.
Thus, in Dhob-Bhali research plot, the spatial
extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the adjacent fields
Fig. 7 Mean trend of ground water table levels in the north-south transect of Dhob-Bhali research plot during 2004–2005and 2005–2006
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 155
123
was up to a distance of more than 730 m from the
eastern edge of plantation-I, up to a distance of
more than 550 m from the western and northern
edges of this plantation and up to distance of
more than 90 m from the southern edge of
plantation-II.
Drawdown of ground water table underneath
the adjacent fields located between two
plantations
The shape of drawdown curves of g.w.t. in the
northern side of plantation-I and in the southern
side of plantation-II of north-south transect was
oblique (Fig. 7) and similar to the drawdown
curves of g.w.t. of the east-west transect (Fig. 5).
But, the shape of drawdown curves of g.w.t.
underneath the adjacent fields located between
two 350 m apart plantations (Fig. 7) was curvi-
linear due to overlapping of drawdown curves of
both the plantations and provided better draw-
down (reclamation) environment in comparison
to single plantation.. The reason of flatness of
drawdown curve in between observation wells
Nos. 45–47 during 2005–2006 was not known.
Bio-pumping
Pumping from a well in a water table aquifer
(unconfined aquifer) develops a cone of depres-
sion in the g.w.t. by lowering the g.w.t. near the
well (Boonstra and Boehmer 1994). In the pres-
ent study, the drawdown curves of shallow g.w.t.
in the east-west transect developed due to the
effect of plantation-I (Fig. 5) during both the
years were similar to the cone of depression of a
pumping well.
Further, if the cones of depression of two
pumping wells overlap, then it is said to be well
interference. If these wells are operated simulta-
neously, they develop a combined cone of
depression. In the present study, the drawdown
curve of shallow g.w.t in the north-south transect
(Fig. 7) developed due to the combined effect of
two plantations (plantation-I and plantation-II)
during the year 2004–2005 was similar to the
combined cone of depression of two pumping
wells. During 2005–2006 also, barring minor
deviation in observation well No. 47, the draw-
down curve was similar to the combined cone of
depression of two pumping wells.
Thus, in Dhob-Bhali research plot, both the
plantations were working as bio-pumps.
Salinity and ground water table
The values of g.w.t. salinity and g.w.t levels, soil
salinity (ECe) and g.w.t. levels and soil salinity
(ECe) of the zone of capillary fringe (up to
2.20 m above the g.w.t. levels) and the g.w.t.
levels of May 2004 of east-west transect were
plotted in Fig. 8, which clearly indicated that
there was no correlation between g.w.t. salinity
and g.w.t. levels, soil salinity and g.w.t. levels and
soil salinity of the zone of capillary fringe and
g.w.t. levels. Further, the g.w.t. salinity, soil
salinity and soil salinity of the zone of capillary
fringe decreased from western to eastern side.
Distribution of salts in the soil profiles
The mean values of soil salinity (ECe) at different
depths of 11 soil profiles located in the western
fields (pertaining to observation wells Nos. 1–11),
9 soil profiles located inside the plantation-I
(pertaining to observation well Nos. 12–20) and
11 soil profiles located in the eastern fields
(pertaining to observation well Nos. 21–31) were
plotted in Fig. 9, which clearly indicated that the
soil salinity at different depths decreased from
western to eastern side in the east-west transect.
Change in salinity
Mean values of g.w.t. levels and g.w.t. salinity
underneath the western fields, plantation-I and
eastern fields of east-west transect for the months
of May 2004, May 2005 and May 2006 (Table 1)
were plotted in Fig. 10.
Figure 10 clearly indicated that the fall in g.w.t.
in May 2005 with respect to May 2004 caused rise
in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation-I as
well as underneath the eastern and western fields.
As is evident in Table 1, during May 2005, there
was a fall in g.w.t. by 0.29 m underneath the
western fields, 0.19 m underneath the plantation-I
156 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
and 0.37 m underneath the eastern fields and this
caused increase in g.w.t. salinity by 1.96 dS/m
underneath the western fields, 0.23 dS/m under-
neath the plantation-I and 0.29 dS/m underneath
the eastern fields.
Further, Fig. 10 clearly indicated that the rise
in g.w.t. in May 2006 with respect to May 2005
caused fall in g.w.t. salinity underneath the
plantation-I as well as underneath the eastern
and western fields. As is evident in Table 1,
there was a rise in g.w.t. by 1.08 m underneath
the western fields, 1.07 m underneath the plan-
tation-I and 0.77 m underneath the eastern fields
and this caused decrease in g.w.t. salinity by
1.56 dS/m underneath the western fields, 0.29 dS/
m underneath the plantation-I and 0.72 dS/m
underneath the eastern fields.
During a period of 2 years (May 2004 to May
2006), there was a net rise in g.w.t. by 0.79 m
underneath the western fields, 0.88 m underneath
the plantation-I and 0.40 m underneath the east-
ern fields and it caused a net increase in g.w.t.
salinity by 0.40 dS/m underneath the western
fields, but net decrease in g.w.t salinity by
0.06 dS/m underneath the plantation-I and
0.43 dS/m underneath the eastern fields.
Fig. 8 Trend of (a)ground water tablesalinity and ground watertable levels, (b) soilsalinity and ground watertable levels and (c) soilsalinity of the zone ofcapillary fringe andground water table levelsduring May 2004 in theeast-west transect. (d)Ground water table and(m) Salinity
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 157
123
From above, it is very clear that the fluctu-
ations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in g.w.t.
salinity in the plantation as well as in adjacent
fields. But there was no net increase in g.w.t.
salinity underneath the plantation.
Zone of capillary fringe
Observation taken in a dug up open well (Fig. 11)
showed that the soil was almost dry up to a depth of
2.50 m below the ground level. Further, the soil was
wet and the wetness increased with increase in depth
and it was the maximum near the g.w.t. (4.70 m).
Thus, the zone of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.
was 2.20 m within the depths of 2.50 and 4.70 m.
Root zone
The g.w.t. and a sinker root (of a 20-year-old
Eucalyptus tree) above the g.w.t. in a dug up open
well was as shown in Fig. 11, which clearly
indicated that the sinker root reached up to a
depth of 4.40 m below the ground level.
Uptake of water
In the dug up open well, the depth of g.w.t. was
4.70 m below the ground level in June 2006, zone
of capillary fringe above the g.w.t. was 2.20 m
within the depths of 2.50 and 4.70 m and the
sinker root reached the zone of capillary fringe up
to a depth of 4.40 m. It clearly indicated that the
Fig. 9 Distribution of salts in the soil profiles. Legend.(–·–) Soil salinity in adjacent fields located in eastern sideof plantation-I, (–e–)Soil salinity inside the plantation-Iand (–¤–) Soil salinity in adjacent fields located inwestern side of plantation-I
Table 1 Ground water table (g.w.t.) and g.w.t. salinity (EC) during May of 2004, 2005 and 2006
Location 2004 2005 2006 Diff. of 2005–2004a Diff. of 2006–2005a Diff. of 2006–2004a
Fields in west g.w.t. 4.58 4.87 3.79 0.29 –1.08 –0.79EC 11.43 13.39 11.83 1.96 –1.56 0.40
Plantation-I g.w.t 5.23 5.42 4.35 0.19 –1.07 –0.88EC 2.86 3.09 2.80 0.23 –0.29 –0.06
Fields in east g.w.t 4.69 5.06 4.29 0.37 –0.77 –0.40EC 1.76 2.05 1.33 0.29 –0.72 –0.43
a g.w.t. (–) rise and (+) Fall in m; EC (–) decrease and (+) increase in dS/m
Fig. 10 Fluctuations in g.w.t and g.w.t salinity during Mayof 2004, 2005 and 2006. Legend. ( ) May 2005, (j) May2005 and (h) May 2006
158 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
Eucalyptus tree was absorbing capillary water of
the g.w.t.
Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance was conducted to
examine the significance of difference in g.w.t.
levels of 2004–2005 across the east-west transect
Fig. 11 Close view of (a)a dug up open well, (b)sinker root of Eucalyptusat 4 m below the groundlevel and (c) sinker rootof Eucalyptus above theg.w.t at Dhob-Bhaliresearch plot
Table 2 One-way analysis of variance: ANOVA
Sum ofsquares
df Meansquare
F Sig.
Betweengroups
137.776 39 3.533 320.722 0.000
Withingroups
10.134 920 1.101
Total 147.910 959
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 159
123
and northern part of the north-south transect of
Dhob-Bhali research plot and the results of this
test were as given in Table 2. It is evident from
this table that, there existed a significant differ-
ence in g.w.t. levels across the different observa-
tion wells of both transects of the Dhob-Bhali
research plot.
Post-Hoc analysis has further highlighted the
results. It was found that the g.w.t. in observa-
tion well No. 1 differed significantly (p < 0.05)
from g.w.t. in all other observation wells except
that in observation wells No 31 and 32. Simi-
larly, g.w.t. in observation well No. 2 differed
significantly from g.w.t. in all other observation
wells except that in observation wells Nos. 30
and 32; g.w.t. in observation well No. 3 differed
significantly from g.w.t. in all other observation
wells except that in observation wells Nos. 4, 29
and 33 and g.w.t. in observation well No. 4
differed significantly from g.w.t. in all other
observation wells except that in observation
wells Nos. 3, 5, 29, 33 and 34 and so on.
Duncan range test has further confirmed the
above results.
Discussion
Drawdown of ground water table underneath
the plantations
It is well established for long (Burvill 1947; Wilde
et al. 1953) that tree species influence the g.w.t.
But, in spite of this, Tiwari and Mathur (1983)
advocated that there is no scientific basis in the
popular fallacy that Eucalyptus lowers the g.w.t.
(Mr. K. M. Tiwari was the then President, Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India). Tewari
(1992), the then Director General, Indian Council
of Forestry Research and Education, Dehra Dun,
India, has also advocated that the controversy
that Eucalyptus lowers the g.w.t. was not true and
this controversy has its origin from the historical
fact that in the early nineteenth century Eucalyp-
tus were planted in the Pontine Marshes near
Rome and these marshes subsequently dried and
reclaimed.
Heuperman et al. (1984), Poore and Fries
(1985), Travis and Heuperman (1994), Heuper-
man (1995), Chaudhry et al. (2000), Holland
(2001), Kapoor (2001) and Heuperman et al.
(2002) reported that Eucalyptus lower the shallow
g.w.t. In the present study also, a clear impact of
Eucalyptus plantations on the shallow g.w.t. was
observed and the g.w.t. underneath the Eucalyp-
tus plantations was found significantly (p < 0.05)
lower than the g.w.t. underneath the adjacent
fields without plantation.
In the earlier works on biodrainage (Heuper-
man et al. 1984; Travis and Heuperman 1994;
Heuperman 1995; Holland 2001; Kapoor 2001;
Heuperman et al. 2002) the observation wells
were generally installed either on one side or on
two sides of a plantation. As a result, the trend of
g.w.t. on the remaining sides was not known. This
shortcoming was removed in the present study by
installing observation wells on all the four sides of
plantation-I and the g.w.t. underneath this plan-
tation was found lower than the g.w.t. underneath
the adjacent fields located on all the four sides of
this plantation.
Spatial extent of lowering of ground water
table underneath the adjacent fields
The spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. under-
neath the adjacent fields is a controversial issue.
Thorburn and George (1999) reported that tree
plantations (big or small in size) in areas of
shallow g.w.t. affect the g.w.t. of adjacent area
up to a maximum distance of 10–30 m from the
edge of plantation. In a block plantation of
uniform density at Kyabram in northern Victo-
ria (Australia), the spatial extent of lowering of
g.w.t. in the adjacent areas was limited to 40 m
from the plantation boundary (Heuperman
1995). In Goulburn valley in northern Australia,
a 23-year-old single row planting on heavy soil
had shown pronounced effect on g.w.t. levels
but this effect was limited to a small strip under
the trees (Travis and Heuperman 1994). In
contrast to these findings, Kapoor (2001) con-
cluded that if plantations are grown on suffi-
cient large areas, the drawdown effect on g.w.t.
extends to distances of 500 m beyond the edge
of the plantation. In the present study, the
spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the
adjacent fields was found up to a distance of
160 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
more than 730 m from the edge of a small sized
(2.5 ha) plantation of E. tereticornis.
Accumulation of salts underneath the
plantations
The question of salt accumulation under grow-
ing trees in an area requires major work, both
at the theoretical and the field level. There is a
concurrence among scientists that because trees
usually exclude sodium and chloride ions from
the transpiration stream, therefore, these ions
become concentrated in the soil (George 2000).
In a tree lines experiment in irrigated pastures
of Goulburn valley in northern Australia, the
soil profile underneath the 23-year-old tree line
on heavy soil showed a clear g.w.t. drawdown in
combination with salt accumulation (Travis and
Heuperman 1994). In a Eucalyptus plantation
raised in August 1976 on heavy soil over an
area of 2.4 ha at Kyabram in northern Victoria
(Australia), the salinity inside and outside of
this plantation was similar in November 1982,
the year up to which this plantation was
irrigated. But the salinity measured in this
plantation in 1993 had clearly shown accumula-
tion of salts in the top of the g.w.t. and the
capillary fringe above the g.w.t. (Heuperman
1999). Silberstein et al. (1999) modelled the
effect of soil moisture and solute conditions
on long term tree growth and water use and
they concluded that the largest g.w.t impact of
the tree plantation occurred about 10 years
after establishment, after which time the g.w.t.
began to rise and salt started to accumulate.
Tree performance and salt accumulation were
assessed by Archibald et al. (2006) in three
experimental plantations established adjacent to
saline discharge areas in the Narrogin region of
Western Australia and they reported that the
soil salinity was doubled between 1980 and
2001.
According to above studies, the uptake of
ground water by the trees caused increase in
salinity underneath the plantations only. But this
is contrary to the results of present study. In the
present study, the fluctuations in g.w.t. caused
fluctuations in the g.w.t. salinity underneath the
plantation as well as in the adjacent fields. The
fall in g.w.t. in May 2005 with respect to May 2004
caused increase in g.w.t. salinity underneath the
plantation as well as in the adjacent fields
(Table 1). Similarly, the rise in g.w.t. in May
2006 with respect to May 2005 caused decrease in
g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation as well as
in the adjacent fields. During a period of 2 years
(May 2004 to May 2006), there was a net rise in
g.w.t. in the plantation as well in the adjacent
fields, but it caused a net increase in g.w.t salinity
in the western fields and a net decrease in g.w.t.
salinity in the plantation as well as in the eastern
fields. The exact reason of increase in g.w.t.
salinity in the western fields in spite of the rise in
g.w.t. was not known.
In tree lines experiment in irrigated pastures of
Goulburn valley in northern Australia, the soil
profile underneath the 23-year-old tree line on
light soil has neither shown drawdown of g.w.t.
nor accumulation of salt (Travis and Heuperman
1994). According to Kapoor (2001), there was a
fall in g.w.t. by about 14 m underneath the 6-year-
old plantation in the Indira Gandhi Nahar Project
(IGNP), Rajasthan (India) without any abnormal
increase in salinity levels of soils and ground
water under the plantation. Another study carried
out in the similar agro-climatic conditions in India
concluded that the concentration of salts below
the canopy of Eucalyptus trees was lowered
(Kumar et al. 1998). In the present study also,
there was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity
underneath the 18-year-old Eucalyptus plantation
during a period of 2 years.
Further, in the present study, no correlation
between the g.w.t. levels and salinity (g.w.t.
salinity, soil salinity and soil salinity in the zone
of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.) was observed
(Fig. 8). The salinity was the maximum under-
neath the western fields, medium underneath the
plantation-I and minimum underneath the east-
ern fields and hence decreased from west to east
in the east-west transect. It seems that the salinity
in the above order was already present in the
east-west transect and due to high salinity in the
western fields the Haryana Forest Department
could not raise plantation of Eucalyptus or of
some other valuable species on western fields. As
a result, bushes of Prosopis juliflora (a species
with profuse seeding, germination and coppicing
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 161
123
ability and tolerance to waterlogging, salinity,
drought and frost) has encroached upon these
non-cultivated western fields.
Root zone of Eucalyptus
Stibbe (1975) reported that the root zone of
E. occidentalis groove in a desert area in Israel
was about 2 m. Prasad et al. (1984) excavated the
root system of 5-year-old and 15-year-old trees of
E. camaldulensis at Jabalpur (mean annual rain
fall 1,447 mm) in Madhya Pradesh (India) and
found their tap root up to a maximum depth of 1.6
and 2.9 m, respectively. Mathur et al. (1984)
reported that during the excavation of root
system of E. globulus trees of ages up to 20 years
at Nilgiri Hills (India), the root system of these
trees was found confined to the upper 3 m of the
soil. Dabral et al. (1986) excavated the root
systems of a number of trees in a 16-year-old
plantation of E. tereticornis and they observed
that roots had not been able to penetrate the soil
beyond a depth of about 3.75 m. Similarly, Toky
and Bisht (1992) excavated the root systems of 12
species of 6-year-old trees in an arid region of
north-western India and found that all species had
most of their roots in the top soil up to 50 cm
except roots of E. tereticornis which reached the
depth of 2.3 m. The root zone of 6-year-old
Eucalyptus trees in an agroforestry drainage
management project in California, USA was up
to a maximum depth of 2.1 m (Karejah and Tanji
1994; Karejah et al. 1994). The above studies have
clearly indicated that Eucalyptus roots could not
penetrate in the soil beyond a depth of 3.75 m
below the ground levels, which is contrary to the
results of present study.
There are some examples of deep root system
of Eucalyptus. Dye (1996) studied the root
system of 9-year-old E. grandis trees in the
Mpumalanga province of South Africa by deep
drilling and found live roots at 28 m below the
surface. According to Dhyani et al. (1996), in
deep soil of Doon Valley in Uttranchal (India),
Eucalyptus seedling quickly develops a long
stout tap root, which reaches to a depth of
1.20 m by the end of first season, 2.85 m in
16 months and 4.15 m in 30 months. Vertessy
et al. (2000) examined the root system of more
than 20-year-old Eucalyptus trees at Kyabram
site in northern Victoria (Australia) and found
live roots at least up to a depth of 10 m. Kapoor
(2001) studied the root system of E. camaldul-
ensis at IGNP site in Rajasthan (India) by
digging an open well, near the embankment of
the canal, up to a depth of 10 m and they
observed the roots extending up to the exca-
vated depth. In the present research study, the
roots of 20-year-old tree of E. tereticornis
reached up to a depth of 4.40 m.
Morphology of Eucalyptus root system
Jacobs (1955) observed that most of the Euca-
lyptus species growing in savanna woodlands in
Australia have ‘‘dimorphic’’ root systems, with a
layer of shallow roots which spreads out possibly
30 m from the trunk in sandy soils, and deep tap
roots which enable the tree to survive in dry
seasons. Ashton (1975) measured the root devel-
opment of E. regnans trees in natural forests at a
wide range of ages. He found that E. regnans
develops a strong tap root early and then
produces a system of lateral roots. In the sapling
stage at about 7–10 years, the root system
changes from a ‘‘juvenile’’ type to an ‘‘adult’’
type by development of ‘‘sinker’’ roots down-
wards from the laterals. Later the sinker roots
become branched and the tap root dies back. In
the present study also, the sinker roots of 20-year-
old tree of E. tereticornis were clearly visible up to
a depth of 4.40 m in a dug up open well.
Bio-pumping
The term biodrainage is relatively new, although
the use of vegetation to dry out soil profiles has
been known for a long time. The first documented
use of the term biodrainage can be attributed to
Gafni (1994). Prior to that date Heuperman
(1992) used the term bio-pumping to describe
the use of trees for water table control. But the
earlier studies could not show the drawdown
curve of g.w.t. similar to the cone of depression of
a pumping well.
In the present study, the drawdown curve of
g.w.t. due to the effect of plantation-I was similar
162 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
to the cone of depression of a pumping well.
Similarly, the drawdown curve of g.w.t. due to the
combined effect of two 350 m apart plantations
was similar to the combined cone of depression of
two pumping wells. Further, the sinker roots
reached the zone of capillary fringe, clearly
indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were absorb-
ing capillary water of the g.w.t. On the basis of
these facts, it can be easily said that the 20-year-
old plantations of E. tereticornis were working as
bio-pumps.
Conclusions
Our field observations pertaining to the effect
of two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations
of E. tereticornis on the shallow g.w.t. of semi-
arid region with alluvial sandy loam soil
revealed that:
1. Throughout the study of 2 years, the g.w.t.
underneath the plantations remained lower
than the g.w.t. in the adjacent fields without
plantation.
2. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was
4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the
control located in the adjacent fields was
4.04 m and hence, the drawdown of g.w.t.
was 0.91 m.
3. The g.w.t. in the plantations was lowered up
to a maximum depth of 5.63 m below the
ground level.
4. The spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the
adjacent fields was up to a distance of more
than 730 m from the edge of a plantation.
5. The drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due
to the effect of a plantation was similar to
the cone of depression of a pumping well.
6. The drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due
to the joint effect of two plantations was
similar to the combined cone of depression
of two pumping wells.
7. The drawdown curve of g.w.t. underneath
the fields located between two plantations
was curvilinear due to overlapping of draw-
down curves of two plantations.
8. There was no correlation between soil
salinity and the g.w.t. levels.
9. The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations
in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation
as well as in the adjacent fields.
10. There was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity
underneath the plantation.
11. The zone of capillary fringe above the g.w.t.
was 2.20 m within the depths of 2.50 and
4.70 m.
12. The sinker roots reached the zone of capil-
lary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m clearly
indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were
absorbing capillary water of the g.w.t.
Thus, in shallow g.w.t areas of semi-arid region
with alluvial sandy loam soil, the plantations of E.
tereticornis act as bio-pumps and the fluctuations in
g.w.t. cause fluctuations in g.w.t salinity under-
neath the plantation as well as in the adjacent fields.
Recommendations
Evaporation from g.w.t. takes place if the g.w.t is
within 4.50 m below the ground level (Thorburn
1999) and in semi-arid regions with brackish
ground water it causes secondary salinisation of
soils. Therefore, in such regions, the g.w.t. must
be kept below 4.50 m. This can be done by raising
block plantations. The block plantation will cause
sufficient drawdown in g.w.t near the plantation,
but the drawdown will gradually decrease with
the increase in spatial distance from the edge of
plantation and hence the drawdown in g.w.t will
not be the same in the entire area. This short-
coming can be minimized by raising closely
spaced parallel strip plantations of E. tereticornis.
It is very difficult to raise successful tree
plantations by ‘‘pit planting’’ technique in areas
suffering from surface as well as sub-surface
waterlogging. For such areas, the ‘‘ridge planting’’
is a suitable technique and this technique is being
applied by the Haryana Forest Department suc-
cessfully since 1982.
In Haryana state, the standard unit of land with
field bunds on its all the four sides is an acre
(0.4 ha) of about 66 m length in east-west direc-
tion and 60 m width in north-south direction.
Keeping above points in view, we recommend
parallel strip plantations (66 m apart and two
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 163
123
rows of plants in each strip) of E. tereticornis by
the use of ridge planting technique for the
reclamation of agricultural waterlogged areas of
Haryana state or elsewhere with similar agro-
climatic conditions.
Acknowledgements The authors are highly thankful toMr. Kuldeep Singh, Forest Range Officer, Rohtak and hisstaff for valuable help rendered in the installation ofobservation wells, measurement of g.w.t levels, soil andground water sampling and enumeration of growing stockof Eucalyptus plantations etc. Thanks are due to Mr. BrijMohan, Technician of CSSRI, Karnal for soil and wateranalysis. Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. (Late) PKSardhana, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana for statisticalanalysis. The authors gratefully acknowledge thevaluable guidance and critical suggestions given by theanonymous reviewer.
References
Anonymous (1998) Management of waterlogging andsalinity problems in Haryana: master plan, Preparedby High Level Expert Committee constituted byGovt. of Haryana, p 106
Anonymous (2003) Biodrainage status in India and othercountries. Indian National Committee on Irrigationand Drainage, New Delhi, India, p 40
Archibald RD, Harper RJ, Fox JED, Silberstein RP(2006) Tree performance and root-zone salt accumu-lation in three dryland Australian plantations. Agro-for Syst 66:191–204
Ashton DH (1975) The root and shoot development ofEucalyptus regnans F Muell. Aust J Bot 23:867–887
Boonstra J, Boehmer WK (1994) Tubewell drainagesystem. In: Ritzema HP (ed) Drainage principlesand applications. International Institute for LandReclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wagenugin,The Netherlands, pp. 931–963
Burvill GH (1947) Soil salinity in the agricultural area ofWestern Australia. J Aust Inst Agric Sci 13:9–19
Chaudhry MR, Chaudhry MA, Subhani KM (2000) Biolog-ical control of waterlogging and impact on soil andenvironment. Proceedings of eighth ICID internationaldrainage workshop, New Delhi, India, vol II, pp 209–222
Dabral BG, Pant SP, Pharasi SC (1986) Root habits ofEucalyptus: some observations. Indian Forester113:11–32
Dhyani SK, Puri DN, Narain P (1996) Biomass produc-tion and rooting behaviour of Eucalyptus tereticornisSm. on deep soils and riverbed bouldery lands ofDoon Valley, India. Indian Forester 122:128–136
Dye PJ (1996) Response of Eucalyptus grandis trees to soilwater deficits. Tree Physiol 16:233–238
Gafni A (1994) Biological drainage—rehabilitation optionfor saline-damaged lands. Water Irrig 337:33–36,(translation from Hebrew to English)
George BH (ed) (2000) Commercial and environmentalvalues of farm forestry in the Murray-Darling basinirrigation areas. Proceedings of workshop held atDeniliquin, NSW. State Forests of NSW TechnicalPaper No. 65
Heuperman AF (1992) Trees in irrigation areas; the bio-pumping concept. Trees Nat Resour 34:20–25
Heuperman AF (1995) Salt and water dynamics beneath atree plantation growing on a shallow water table.Internal Report Department of Agriculture, Energyand Minerals, Victoria. Institute of Sustainable Irri-gated Agriculture, Tatura Centre
Heuperman AF (1999) Hydraulic gradient reversal bytrees in shallow water table areas and repercussionsfor the sustainability of tree-growing systems. J AgWater Man 39:153–167
Heuperman AF, Kapoor AS, Denecke HW (2002)Biodrainage—principles, experiences and applica-tions. Knowledge synthesis report No. 6. Interna-tional programme for technology and research inirrigation and drainage. IPTRID Secretariat, Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome, pp 79
Heuperman AF, Stewart HTL, Wildes RA (1984) Theeffect of Eucalyptus on water tables in an irrigationarea in northern Victoria. In: Water talk, vol 52.Rural Water Commission of Victoria
Holland GF (2001) Channel seepage interception usingtree plantations. MSc Thesis, University of Mel-bourne, School of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science,Melbourne, Australia
Jacobs MR (1955) Growth habits of the Eucalypts.Commonwealth Government Printer, Canberra
Kapoor AS (2001) Biodrainage—a biological option forcontrolling waterlogging and salinity. Tata McGrawHill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi,p 315
Karejah FF, Tanji KK (1994) Agroforestry drainagemanagement model II: theory and validation. J IrrigDrain Eng 120:382–396
Karejah FF, Tanji KK, King IP (1994) Agroforestrydrainage management model I: theory and validation.J Irrig Drain Eng 120:363–381
Kumar A, Kumar R, Dhillon RS (1998). Morphologicaland physico-chemical characteristics of soils underdifferent plantations in arid eco-system. Indian J For21:248–252
Lesaffre B, Zimmer D (1995) Review of western Euro-pean experience in subsurface drainage. Nationalseminar on subsurface drainage, Jaipur, Rajasthan,India. Keynote address. Vol. II, p 52
Mathur HN, Raj H, Francis S, Rajagopal K (1984) Rootstudies in Eucalyptus globulus. In: Sharma JK, NairCTS, Kedharnath S, Kondas S (eds) Eucalyptus inIndia: past, present and future. Proceedings of thenational seminar held at Kerala Forest ResearchInstitute, Peechi, India, pp 225–228
MOWR (1991) Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. ofIndia, Report of the working group on waterlogging,soil salinity and alkalinity (mimeograph)
164 Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165
123
Poore MED, Fries C (1985) Influence on water cycle. In:The ecological effects of eucalypts. FAO ForestryPaper No. 59, p 26
Prasad R, Shah AK, Bhandari AS, Choubey OP (1984)Dry matter production by Eucalyptus camaldulensisplantations in Jabalpur. Indian Forester 110:868–879
Silberstein RP, Vertessy RA, Morris J, Feikema PM(1999) Modeling the effects of soil moisture andsolute conditions on long term tree growth and wateruse: a case study from the Shepparton irrigation area,Australia. J Ag Water Man 39:283–315
Stibbe E (1975) Soil moisture depletion in summer by anEucalyptus groove in a desert area. Agro-Ecosystems2:117–126
Tewari D.N. (1992). Monograph on Eucalyptus. IndianCouncil of Forestry Research and Education, DehraDun (India). Surya Publications, Dehra Dun (India),p 361
Thorburn PJ, George RJ (1999) Interim guidelines for re-vegetating areas with shallow, saline water tables. In:Thorburn PJ (ed) A report on a workshop held on 28and 29 May (1997) in Australia as a joint ventureagroforestry program on agroforestry over shallowwater tables/the impact of salinity on sustainability.Water and Salinity Issues in Agroforestry No. 4.RIRDC Publication No. 99/36, pp 12–17
Thorburn PJ (1999) The limits to evaporation fromshallow, saline water tables—the big picture. In:Thorburn PJ (ed) A report on a workshop held on
28 and 29 May (1997) in Australia as a joint ventureagroforestry program on agroforestry over shallowwater tables/the impact of salinity on sustainability.Water and Salinity Issues in Agroforestry No.4.RIRDC Publication No. 99/36, pp 18–20
Tiwari KM, Mathur RS (1983) Water consumption andnutrient uptake by Eucalyptus. Indian Forester 109:851–860
Toky OP, Bisht RP (1992) Observations on the rootingpatterns of some agroforestry trees in an aridregion of north-western India. Agrofor Syst18:245–263
Travis KA, Heuperman AF (1994) Agroforestry check-bank planting; the interaction of check-bank plantingand irrigated pasture under shallow water tableconditions. Final report to the Murray—Darling BasinCommission. Victorian Department of AgricultureTechnical Report Series, No. 215
Vertessy R, Connel L, Morris J, Silberstein R, HeupermanAF, Feikema P, Mann L, Komarzynski M, Coollopy J,Stackpole D (2000) Sustainable hardwood productionin shallow water table areas. Joint venture agrofor-estry programme. Water and Salinity Issues in Agro-forestry No. 6. RIRDC Publication No. 00/163, p 105
Wilde SA, Steinbrenner RS, Dozen RC, Pronin DT (1953)Influence of forest cover on the state of ground watertable. Proc Soil Sci Soc Am 17:65–67
Agroforest Syst (2007) 69:147–165 165
123