Bird Mummies from Ancient EgyptSalima Ikram

“All animals played a crucial role in the lives of the ancient Egyptians, not only in terms of thepractical and quotidian, but also the spiritual;

however, birds were arguably the most significant creatures in the religious sphere. “

“Raptors were totems or ba-spirits of the various forms of the sun god Re as well as of Horus, the eternal king; the

phoenix-like benu-bird was a symbol of creation; the sacred ibis (Threskiornis aethiopicus) was associated with

Thoth, the god of wisdom; the goddesses Nekhbet and Mut were both linked to vultures; the goddess Maat,

manifestation of order and balance, was often shown as a feather; the goddesses Isis and Nephthys could transform themselves into kites (Milvus migrans); and the different

aspects of the human soul.”

(much like the modern idea of spirit)

(understood as the part of one’s soul that united with the gods and the eternal stars)

“Although birds played a part in the religious life of the ancient Egyptians in all eras, the importance of

birds in cult practice is most apparent starting in the Late Period and continuing through the Roman

period. This is manifested by the significant number of cult installations of avian deities and the millions

of mummified birds that were buried as votive offerings in vast catacombs associated with them all

over Egypt.”

V ictual mummy from the tomb of Yuya and Tuya (KV 46) (photo by Anna-Marie Kellen, courtesy of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo)

Pots containing mummies in the falcon galleries in the sacred animal

necropolis at Saqqara (photo by Salima Ikram, courtesy the Supreme

Council of Antiquities/Ministry of State for Antiquities)

ummy bundle consisting of ibis feathers and reeds that have

been tied together with strips of papyrus and then wrapped.

Excavated at Abu Rawash (photo by Salima Ikram, courtesy of

Michel Baud and theFrench Mission to Abu Rawash)

Map of Egypt showing selected locations of animal cemeteries.

Icons represent the most abundantly attested mummified

birds at these sites (after Nicholas Warner, in Ikram 2005, p. xvii)

“Avian mummies continue to be a rich source of information for many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture: mummification materials and technology, temple and state

economy, religion, the breeding of birds, veterinary practices, bird species found in antiquity, and the changes in biodiversity. In addition to visual examinations of the

mummies, scientific techniques such as radiography, CT scanning, and other imaging enable us to identify the different species, their position within the bandages, the presence of amulets, signs of disease and trauma on the skeleton, and veterinary interventions. Examination of samples of the bones, flesh, and embalming agents are also extremely useful — indeed, it is hoped that the Ancient Egyptian Animal

Mummy Bio Bank, based at the University of Manchester, will be a source for such studies (see Chapter 11). Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry can help to

identify different embalming agents, and elucidate both technology and trade routes through which these materials arrived in Egypt (Buckley et al. 2004; Ikram, in preparation). New DNA studies have been launched in order to establish the

evolution in ibis DNA, both diachronic and geographic (Spiegelman et al. 2008). Thus, these ancient avian mummies continue to provide us with concrete evidence

that allows our imagination to take flight when recreating the landscape and culture of ancient Egypt.”