Critical Thinking: Why It’s Important

The aim of this tutorial is to help you learn the basics of critical thinking and be able to identify common barriers to effective critical thought.

Critical thinking: a vital skill

Critical thinking provides us with a crucial set of skills we need to make decisions and resolve issues that arise in our everyday lives.

Critical thinking, like logic, requires learning how to think rather than simply what to think. The word “critical” is derived from the Greek word kritikos, which means “discernment,” “the ability to judge,” or “decision making.”

2

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Logic

Logic is a crucial part of critical thinking, and requires good analytical skills. Logic is defined as “the study of the methods and principles used in distinguishing correct (good) arguments from incorrect (bad) arguments.”

Critical thinking requires applying the rules of logic as well as gathering evidence surrounding an issue, evaluating it, and coming up with a plan of action.

3

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Logic vs. opinion

In contrast to arguments based on logic, arguments based on opinion are defined as “beliefs based solely on personal feelings rather than reason or facts.”

While we are all entitled to our opinions, arguments based solely on opinion are not necessarily reasonable, and may encourage us to make poor choices or act in ways we may later regret. Sometimes uninformed opinions can be harmful, both to us and to society.

4

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Cognitive development in college students

Educational researcher William Perry, Jr. (1913-1998) identified several stages of cognitive development in college students. Later researchers simplified his findings into three separate developmental stages: dualism, relativism, and commitment.

5

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stage one: dualism

Dualism is the first stage of cognitive development and is common among freshmen and many sophomores. It involves the assimilation of knowledge and experience in a simple, “dualistic” way, viewing issues as either right or wrong. Dualistic thinkers see knowledge as outside themselves and look to authority figures for answers. When researching an issue, dualistic students often exhibit confirmation bias, which involves only seeking out evidence that supports their views, and dismissing or ignoring contradictory evidence.

6

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stage two: relativism

Rather than accepting that ambiguity may be unavoidable, relativistic thinkers reject the dualistic viewpoint and move to the opposite extreme, arguing that all truth is relative or just a matter of opinion. People at this stage believe that stating one’s opinion is the proper form of communication, and they look down on challenging others’ opinions as judgmental and even disrespectful. Despite their outward relativism, however, they still look to authority figures, such as professors, to confirm their opinions.

7

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stage three: commitment

As students mature, they come to the realization that not all thinking is equally valid. Not only can authority figures be mistaken, but a certain level of uncertainty and ambiguity is unavoidable. When students at this stage experience uncertainty, they are now able to make decisions and commit to particular positions on the basis of reason and the best evidence available. At the same time, as independent thinkers they are open to challenge and are flexible enough to change their positions as new evidence becomes available.

8

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Characteristics of a good critical thinker

Critical thinking is not a single skill. Rather, it is a collection of skills that enhance and reinforce each other. These skills include: Analytical skills—your ability to analyze and provide logical support for your beliefsCommunication and literacy skills—your ability to listen, speak, and write effectively, and the awareness of your own communication styleResearch and inquiry skills—your ability to gather, evaluate and synthesize supporting evidence

9

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Characteristics of a good critical thinker (continued)

Flexibility and tolerance of ambiguity—the ability to flexibly adapt to changing situations and to recognize the inherent ambiguity of human existence

Open-minded skepticism—the ability to overcome personal prejudices and biases and critically examine all sides of an issue before coming to a decision; often this involves the method of doubt, first proposed by French philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), which involves setting aside our preconceptions and adopting a default position of skepticism

10

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

René Descartes

11

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Characteristics of a good critical thinker (continued)

Creative problem solving skills—the ability to view problems from multiple perspectives and to come up with original solutions to complex problems

Attentiveness, mindfulness, and curiosity—the ability to remain curious and attentive to the world, and to respect diversity and consider multiple opinions

Collaborative learning skills—the ability to recognize and anticipate the reactions of others, and a willingness to collaborate with others to share and gain knowledge

12

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Contrasting responses to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and the 2010 earthquake in Haiti

13

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The iPod

14

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Critical thinking and self-development

Critical thinking is not just about abstract thought. It is also about self-improvement and your whole development as a person. Self examination is an important part of this process. Good critical thinkers take charge of their lives and choices. By contrast, poor critical thinkers allow themselves to be controlled by circumstances and often deal ineffectively with problems, which often results in depression, anger, or other emotional problems. Developing a rational life plan is an effective way of avoiding these problems.

15

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Age differences in depression

16

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

A life plan is like a flight plan

17

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Other features of good critical thinkers

Effective critical thinkers exhibit other traits and characteristics. These include: The ability to challenge social injustices, as well as being

able to respond intelligently and thoughtfully to challenges to our own belief systems

The cultivation of high self-esteem, proactiveness, and self-direction, traits common in autonomous critical thinking

Involvement in democratic politics and the ability to critically analyze political actors and issues

18

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Differences in men’s and women’s opinions

19

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

20

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Tiananmen Square, China

21

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Barriers to effective critical thinking

Effective critical thinking involves sharpening our resistance to irrational or narrow-minded arguments. Recognizing these irrational or narrow-minded approaches can sharpen our critical thinking skills and help devise effective strategies to counter them.

22

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The three-tiered model of thinking

The processes used in critical thinking can be broken down into three tiers, or levels: experience, interpretation, and analysis. Experience, the foundational level of critical thinking,

involves firsthand experience, as well as empirical facts derived from other sources

Interpretation involves trying to make sense of our experiences

Analysis involves raising our level of thinking and critically analyzing our interpretations of an experience

23

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The three levels of thinking

24

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resistance

None of us likes to be wrong, and when we are challenged, we often exhibit resistance, which is defined as “the use of immature defense mechanisms that are rigid, impulsive, maladaptive, and nonanalytical.” Resistance acts as a barrier to effective critical thinking.

25

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Resistance

26

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Types of resistance

There are several types of resistance; they include avoidance, anger, clichés, denial, ignorance, conformity, struggling, and distractions.Avoidance involves escaping or intentionally avoiding certain people and situationsAnger involves responding to challenges with threatening physical or verbal cuesClichés are oft-repeated statements that sidetrack the real issues and prevent effective critical thoughtDenial involves ignoring or refuting challenging viewpoints or evidence

27

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Types of resistance (continued)

Ignorance is a type of resistance where we intentionally avoid learning about a particular issue

Conformity involves going along with group or peer viewpoints even when you disagree with them

Struggling involves getting so caught up in the minute details of an issue that nothing gets accomplished

Distractions are hindrances that prevent clear thinking and effective critical analysis

28

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

According to Buddhist teaching, mental hindrances like distractions keep us from clear understanding.

29

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stephen Hawking

30

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Narrow-mindedness

Like resistance, narrow-mindedness and rigid beliefs, such as absolutism, egocentrism, fear of challenge, ethnocentrism and anthropocentrism all act as barriers to effective critical thinking.Absolutism is a perspective that sees the world in “black and white” absolutesEgocentrism is a perspective that sees the self as the center of all thingsFear of Challenge involves reluctance to stand up to others who we believe may have different opinions

31

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Narrow-mindedness (continued)

Ethnocentrism is an uncritical and unjustified belief in the inherent superiority of one’s own group or culture

Anthropocentrism is a belief that humans are the central or the most significant entity in the universe

32

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Brandon Mayfield

33

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Rationalization and doublethink

When we are faced with difficult choices or decisions, we often engage in rationalization to justify our decisions made on the basis of personal opinion or bias.

Because rationalization involves ignoring competing claims, people who engage in it often get caught up in doublethink, defined as holding two contradictory views, or “double standards,” at the same time, and believing both to be true.

34

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

U.S. median income by race, ethnicity, and gender, 2008

35

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Perspectives on affirmative action in college admissions

36

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Cognitive and social dissonance

We are most likely to modify or critically analyze our views when we encounter cognitive or social dissonance, which occurs when we encounter new ideas or social behavior that contradicts or conflicts with our worldviews.

Evidence suggests that when people change their behavior, changes in their beliefs follow.

37

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Conclusions

As explored in the previous slides, effective critical thinking requires development of a collection of skills, including attentiveness; open-mindedness; and strong communication, analytical, research, and problem-solving skills.

Critical thinkers also need to be aware of barriers to effective critical thinking, such as habitual use of resistance, and different types of narrow-mindedness.

38

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Milgram experiment

39

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Abuse at Abu Ghraib prison, Iraq

40

© 2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.