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The Boston CampaignThe birth of the American RevolutionaryWar

ContentsArticlesIntroduction 1

Boston campaign 1

Start of the campaign 7

Powder Alarm 7Battles of Lexington and Concord 11

Siege of Boston 33

Siege of Boston 33Battle of Bunker Hill 42Battle of Chelsea Creek 56Noble train of artillery 61Fortification of Dorchester Heights 66

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 70Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 72

Article LicensesLicense 74

1

Introduction

Boston campaignThe Boston campaign was the opening campaign of the American Revolutionary War. The campaign was primarilyconcerned with the formation of American colonial irregular militia units, and their transformation into a unifiedContinental Army. The campaign's military conflicts started with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, in which colonial militias mustered to defend against the seizure of military stores in Concord, Massachusettsby British Army regulars. Some British units were defeated in a confrontation at Concord's North Bridge, and theentire British expedition suffered significant casualties during a running battle back to Charlestown against anever-growing number of colonial militia.The accumulated militia surrounded the city of Boston, beginning the Siege of Boston. The main action during thesiege, the Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17, 1775, was one of the bloodiest encounters of the entire war.[1] Therewere also numerous skirmishes near Boston and the coastal areas of Boston, resulting in either loss of life, militarysupplies, or both.In July 1775, George Washington took command of the assembled militia and transformed them into a morecoherent army. On March 4, 1776, the colonial army fortified Dorchester Heights with cannon capable of reachingBoston and British ships in the harbor. The siege (and the campaign) ended on March 17, 1776, with the withdrawalof British forces from Boston.

BackgroundIn 1767, the British Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which imposed import duties on paper, glass, paint, andother common items imported into the American colonies. The Sons of Liberty and other Patriot organizationsresponded with a variety of protest actions. They organized boycotts of the goods subject to the duty, and theyharassed and threatened the customs personnel who collected the duties, many of whom were either corrupt orrelated to Provincial leaders. Francis Bernard, then Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, requestedmilitary forces to protect the King's personnel. In October 1768, British troops arrived in the city of Boston andoccupied the city.[2] Tensions led to the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770, and the Boston Tea Party on December16, 1773.[3]

In response to the Tea Party and other protests, Parliament enacted the Intolerable Acts to punish the colonies. Withthe Massachusetts Government Act of 1774 it effectively abolished the provincial government of Massachusetts.General Thomas Gage, already the commander-in-chief of British troops in North America, was also appointedgovernor of Massachusetts and was instructed by King George's government to enforce royal authority in thetroublesome colony.[4] However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusettsto resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Gage commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) fromhis headquarters in Boston,[5] but the countryside was largely controlled by Patriot sympathizers.[6]

Boston campaign 2

War begins

A 1775 Amos Doolittle engraving depicting a bitof the action at the North Bridge in Concord

On September 1, 1774, British soldiers removed gunpowder and othermilitary supplies in a surprise raid on a powder magazine near Boston.This expedition alarmed the countryside, and thousands of AmericanPatriots sprang into action, amid rumors that war was at hand.[7]

Although it proved to be a false alarm, this event—known as thePowder Alarm—caused all concerned to proceed more carefully in thedays ahead, and essentially provided a "dress rehearsal" for eventsseven months later. Partly in response to this action, the colonistscarried off military supplies from several forts in New England anddistributed them among the local militias.[8]

On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia atConcord. Several riders — including Paul Revere — alerted the countryside, and when the British troops enteredLexington on the morning of April 19, they found about 80 minutemen formed up on the village common. Shotswere exchanged, eight Minutemen were killed, the outnumbered colonial militia dispersed, and the British moved onto Concord. At Concord, the troops searched for military supplies, but found relatively little, as the colonists, havingreceived warnings that such an expedition might happen, had taken steps to hide many of the supplies. During thesearch, there was a confrontation at the North Bridge. A small company of British troops fired on a much largercolumn of colonial militia, which returned fire, and eventually routed those troops, which returned to the villagecenter and rejoined the other troops there. By the time the "redcoats" or "lobster backs" (as the British soldiers werecalled) began the return march to Boston, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fightensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily before reaching Charlestown.[9] With the Battle of Lexingtonand Concord — the "shot heard 'round the world" — the war had begun.

Siege of Boston

A map showing a British tactical evaluation ofBoston in 1775.

In the aftermath of the failed Concord expedition, the thousands ofmilitiamen that had converged on Boston remained. Over the next fewdays, more arrived from further afield, including companies from NewHampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Under the command ofArtemas Ward, they surrounded the city, blocking its land approachesand putting the occupied city under siege. The British regulars fortifiedthe high points in the city.[10]

Need for supplies

While the British were able to resupply the city by sea, supplies inBoston were short. Troops were sent out to some of the islands inBoston Harbor to raid farmers for supplies. In response, the colonialsbegan clearing those islands of supplies useful to the British. One ofthese actions was contested by the British in the Battle of ChelseaCreek, but it resulted in the loss of two British soldiers and the Britishship Diana.[11] The need for building materials and other supplies ledAdmiral Samuel Graves to authorize a Loyalist (American Revolution)

Boston campaign 3

merchant to send his ships from Boston to Machias in the District of Maine, accompanied by a Royal Navyschooner. The Machias townspeople rose up, seizing the merchant vessels and then the schooner after a short battlein which its commander was killed. Their resistance and that of other coastal communities led Graves to authorize anexpedition of reprisal in October whose sole significant act was the Burning of Falmouth.[12] The outrage in thecolonies over this action contributed to the passing of legislation by the Second Continental Congress thatestablished the Continental Navy.[13]

The colonial army also had issues with supply, and with command. Its diverse militias needed to be organized, fed,clothed, and armed, and command needed to be coordinated, as each militia leader was responsible to his province'scongress.[14]

Bunker HillLate in May, General Gage received by sea about 2,000 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vitalrole in the war: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. They formulated a plan to break out of the city,which was finalized on June 12. Reports of these plans made their way to the commanders of the besiegingforces,[15] who decided that additional defensive steps were necessary.[16]

On the night of June 16–17, 1775, a detachment of the colonial army stealthily marched onto the Charlestownpeninsula, which the British had abandoned in April, and fortified Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill.[17] On June 17,British forces under General Howe attacked and seized the Charlestown peninsula in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Thisbattle was technically a British victory, but losses (about 1/2 the attacking forces killed or wounded, including asignificant fraction of the entire British officer corps in all of North America) were so heavy that the attack was notfollowed up.[18] The siege was not broken, and General Gage was recalled to England in September and replaced byGeneral Howe as the British commander-in-chief.[19]

Formation of the Continental ArmyThe Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, had received reports of the situation outside Bostonwhen it began to meet in May 1775. In response to the confusion over command in the camps there, and in responseto the May 10 capture of Fort Ticonderoga, the need for unified military organization became clear.[20] [21] Congressofficially adopted the forces outside Boston as the Continental Army on May 26,[22] and named George Washingtonits commander-in-chief on June 15. Washington left Philadelphia for Boston on June 21, but did not learn of theaction at Bunker Hill until he reached New York City.[23]

A Currier and Ives print depicting GeorgeWashington accepting the role of

Commander-in-chief of the Continental Armyfrom Congress.

Stalemate

Following the Battle of Bunker Hill, the siege was effectivelystalemated, as neither side had either a clearly dominant position, orthe will and materiel to significantly alter its position. WhenWashington took command of the army in July, he determined that itssize had reduced from 20,000 to about 13,000 men fit for duty. He alsoestablished that the battle had severely depleted the army's powderstock, which was eventually alleviated by powder shipments fromPhiladelphia.[24] The British were also busy bringing inreinforcements; by the time of Washington's arrival the British hadmore than 10,000 men in the city.[]

Boston campaign 4

Throughout the summer and fall of 1775, both sides dug in, with occasional skirmishes, but neither side chose totake any significant action.[25] Congress, seeking to take some initiative and to capitalize on the capture ofTiconderoga, authorized an invasion of Canada, after several letters to the inhabitants of Canada were rejected by theFrench-speaking and British colonists there. In September, Benedict Arnold led 1,100 troops on an expeditionthrough the wilderness of Maine, which was drawn from the army assembled outside Boston.[26]

Washington faced a personnel crisis toward the end of 1775, as most of the troops in the army had enlistments thatexpired at the end of 1775. He introduced a number of recruitment incentives and was able to keep the armysufficiently large to maintain the siege, although it was by then smaller than the besieged forces.[27]

Siege endsBy early March 1776, heavy cannons that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga were moved to Boston, a difficultfeat engineered by Henry Knox.[28] When the guns were placed on Dorchester Heights in the course of one day,overlooking the British positions, the British situation became untenable. While General Howe planned an attack toreclaim the high ground, a snowstorm prevented its execution.[29] The British, after threatening to burn the city iftheir departure was hindered,[29] evacuated the city on March 17, 1776 and sailed for temporary refuge in Halifax,Nova Scotia. The local militias dispersed and, in April, General Washington took most of the Continental Army tofortify New York City and the start of the New York and New Jersey campaign.[30]

Legacy

John Trumbull's Surrender of General Burgoyne

The British were essentially driven from New England as a result ofthis campaign, although there (as elsewhere in the colonies) theycontinued to receive support from local Loyalists, especially inNewport, Rhode Island, from which they drove most of the localPatriots.[31] The campaign, as well as the final result of the war as awhole, were a significant blow to British prestige and confidence in itsmilitary. The senior military leaders of the campaign were criticizedfor their actions (Clinton, for example, while he went on to commandthe British forces in North America, would take much of the blame forthe British loss of the war),[32] and others either saw no more action inthe war (Gage),[33] or were ultimately disgraced (Burgoyne, who surrendered his army at Saratoga).[34] While theBritish continued to control the seas, and had military successes on the ground (notably in New York, New Jersey,and Pennsylvania), their actions that led to these conflicts had the effect of uniting the Thirteen Colonies inopposition to the crown.[35] As a result, they were never able to marshal enough support from Loyalists to regainmeaningful political control of the colonies.[36]

The colonies, in spite of their differences, united themselves as a consequence of these events, granting the SecondContinental Congress (predecessor to the modern U.S. Congress) sufficient authority and funding to conduct therevolution as a unified whole, including funding and outfitting the military forces that formed as a result of thiscampaign.[37]

Boston campaign 5

Notes[1] Brooks (1999), p. 237[2] Fischer (1994), p. 22[3] Fischer (1994), pp. 23–26[4] Fischer (1994) pp. 38–42[5] French (1911), p. 161[6] See e.g. Cushing (1896), p. 58, where Gage describes Crown appointees being harassed out of several towns.[7] Brooks (1999), pp. 16–18[8] Fischer (1994) pp. 52–64[9] See Fischer (1994) for a comprehensive treatment of Lexington and Concord.[10] French (1911), pp. 219, 234–237[11] Brooks (1999), p. 108[12] Leamon (1995), pp. 67–72[13] Miller (1974), p. 49[14] Brooks (1999), pp. 104–106[15] Brooks (1999), p. 119[16] French (1911), p. 254[17] Brooks (1999), pp. 122–125[18] Brooks (1999), pp. 183–184[19] French (1911), pp. 355–357[20] Frothingham (1886), pp. 420–430[21] Frothingham (1851), pp. 98–101[22] Frothingham (1886), p. 429[23] Frothingham (1851), pp. 213–214[24] Brooks (1999), pp. 194–195[25] French (1911), pp. 331–359[26] See Arnold's expedition to Quebec for details on the forces Arnold took on this expedition, and its outcome.[27] Brooks (1999), pp. 208–209[28] Brooks (1999) pp. 211–214[29] Brooks (1999), pp. 230–231[30] Frothingham (1851), p. 312[31] Rhode Island (1977), p. 207[32] Stephen (1886), p. 550[33] Wise[34] Stephen (1886), pp. 340–341[35] Frothingham (1886), pp. 395–419, in which colonial assemblies defer responses to a Parliamentary olive branch to a united response from

the Continental Congress.[36] See, e.g. the Southern campaign by the British, in which they assumed (or were misled to believe) Loyalists would rise to support their

military actions, something that did not happen to the degree needed.[37] Johnson (1912), pp. 40–42

References• Federal Writers' Project (1977). Rhode Island: A Guide to the Smallest State (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=bKHQOOx1eGEC). US History Publishers. ISBN 9781603540384.• Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Combined Publishing. ISBN 1580970079.• Cushing, Harry Alonzo (1896). History of the Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in

Massachusetts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lWNh3JjkbYAC). Columbia University. OCLC 4297135.• Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508847-6.• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). McMillan.

OCLC 3927532.• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and

Bunker Hill (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Little, Brown. OCLC 221368703.• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1886). The Rise of the Republic of the United States (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=-bUoAAAAYAAJ). Little, Brown. OCLC 2081524.

Boston campaign 6

• Johnson, Allen (1912). Readings in American Constitutional History, 1776-1876 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=DMk9AAAAIAAJ). Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 40–42. OCLC 502220.

• Leamon, James S (1995). Revolution Downeast: The War for American Independence in Maine. University ofMassachusetts Press. ISBN 9780870239595.

• Miller, Nathan (1974). Sea of Glory: The Continental Navy fights for Independence 1775-1783. New York: DavidMcKay. ISBN 9780679503927. OCLC 844299.

• Raphael, Ray (2002). The First American Revolution: Before Lexington and Concord. New York: The New Press.ISBN 9781565848153.

• Stephen, Leslie; Smith, George;Lee, Sidney (1886). Dictionary of National Biography: From The earliest Timesto 1900 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cisJAAAAIAAJ). Smith, Elder. OCLC 2763972.

• Wise, S.F. "Biography of Thomas Gage" (http:/ / www. biographi. ca/ 009004-119. 01-e. php?& id_nbr=1895).Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved 2008-10-22.

Further reading• Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston: An on-the-scene Account of the Beginning of the American

Revolution. New York: Crown. OCLC 890813.

7

Start of the campaign

Powder AlarmThe Powder Alarm was a massive popular reaction to the removal of gunpowder from a magazine by Britishsoldiers under orders from General Thomas Gage, royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, onSeptember 1, 1774. In response to this action, amid rumors that blood had been shed, alarm spread through thecountryside as far as Connecticut and beyond, and American Patriots sprang into action, fearing that war was athand.Although it proved to be a false alarm, the Powder Alarm caused political and military leaders to proceed morecarefully in the days ahead, and essentially provided a "dress rehearsal" for the Battles of Lexington and Concordseven and a half months later. Furthermore, actions on both sides to control weaponry, gunpowder, and othermilitary supplies became more contentious, as the British sought to bring military stores more directly under theircontrol, and the Patriot colonists sought to acquire them for their own use.

BackgroundIn 1772, many of the thirteen British colonies, in response to the Gaspee Affair and other unpopular British actions,elected to form Committees of Correspondence. These allowed communities to formally communicate with eachother, raise awareness of incidents occurring elsewhere, and to coordinate actions;[1] as such, they becameinstrumental in managing the colonial response to enforcement of the Tea Act, the Intolerable Acts, and otherunpopular British colonial legislation. The colonists of Massachusetts had not yet taken concerted action to organizethemselves militarily against actions of the British regulars, although statements were made about supporting Boston(whose port had been closed earlier in 1774 under the Boston Port Act) "at the risque of our lives and fortunes."[2]

General Thomas Gage, who had become the military governor of Massachusetts in May 1774, was charged withenforcement of the highly unpopular Intolerable Acts, which British Parliament had passed in response to the BostonTea Party. Seeking to prevent the outbreak of war and to keep the peace between the American Patriot (Whig)majority and the Loyalist (Tory) minority, he believed that the best way to accomplish this was by secretly removingmilitary stores from storehouses and arsenals in New England.[3] [4] The secrecy of these missions was paramount, asGage feared that leakage of any plans would result in the seizure or concealment of the stores by Patriotsympathizers before his men got there.[5]

There were several places throughout the colonies where the British army had stockpiled supplies. Some of theseplaces were fortifications that were manned by small garrisons; others were merely locked magazines. Most of thepowder in these was under the control of the provincial government, though some was the property of individualtowns. One locked storehouse near Boston, in what was then part of Charlestown, now Powder House Square inSomerville, was controlled by William Brattle, the leader of the provincial militia and an appointee of the governor.Brattle, who had not obviously sided with either Loyalists or Patriots, notified Governor Gage in a letter datedAugust 27 that the provincial ("King's") powder was the only supply remaining in that storehouse, as the towns hadremoved all of theirs.[6] Gage decided that this powder had to be brought to Boston for safekeeping.[3]

Powder Alarm 8

The Powder House ("Magazine") is near thenorthern edge of this detail from a 1775 map of

the Siege of Boston.

Expedition

On August 31, Gage sent Middlesex County sheriff David Phips toBrattle with orders to remove the provincial powder; Brattle turned thekey to the powderhouse over to Phips. Gage also gave orders to ready aforce of troops for action the next day, something that did not gounnoticed by the local population.[7] At some point that day, GeneralGage, whether by his intent, accident, or theft by a messenger, lostpossession of William Brattle's letter; the widely held story is that itwas dropped. News of its content eventually spread rapidly, and manyconsidered it to be a warning to Gage to remove the provincial powderbefore Patriots could seize it.[8]

Early in the morning of September 1, a force of roughly 260 Britishregulars from the 4th Regiment, under the command of LieutenantColonel George Maddison, were rowed in secrecy up the Mystic Riverfrom Boston to a landing point near Winter Hill in modern-day Somerville. From there they marched about a mile tothe Powder House, a gunpowder magazine that held the largest supply of gunpowder in Massachusetts. Phips gavethe King's Troops the keys to the building, and after sunrise they removed all of the gunpowder. Most of the regularsthen returned to Boston the way they had come, but a small contingent marched to Cambridge, removed two fieldpieces, and took them to Boston by foot over the Great Bridge and up Boston Neck.[5] The field pieces and powderwere then taken from Boston to the British stronghold on Castle Island, then known as Castle William (renamed FortIndependence in 1779).[9]

Response to the raidRumors flew throughout the day across the countryside about the British troop movements. The regulars weremarching; provincial powder had been seized; war was at hand; people had been killed; Boston was beingbombarded by His Majesty's warships. The alarm spread as far as Connecticut. From all over the region, people tookup arms and began streaming toward Boston. One traveler in Shrewsbury reported that in the space of 15 minutes, 50men had gathered, equipped themselves, sent out messengers to surrounding towns, and left for Boston.[10] On the2nd, several thousand men bent on violence gathered in Cambridge, where they forced several notable Loyalists,including William Brattle, to flee to Boston and the protection of the military. Sheriff Phips was forced, in writing, todissociate himself from any and all government actions.[11] Eventually facts caught up with the rumors, and militiaunits (some of which were still heading toward Boston) returned home.[12]

Also on the 2nd, Boston newspapers published a letter from William Brattle in which he protested that he had notwarned Gage to remove the powder; Gage had requested from him an accounting of the storehouse's contents, and hehad complied. The content of his letter to Gage would be published on the 5th. Brattle remained on Castle Islandthrough the siege of Boston, leaving when the British evacuated the city in March 1776. He died in Halifax, NovaScotia in October 1776 at the age of 70.[13]

When the horrid news was brought here of the bombardment of Boston, which made us completely miserablefor two days, we saw proofs of both the sympathy and the resolution of the continent. War! war! war! was thecry, and it was pronounced in a tone which would have done honor to the oratory of a Briton or a Roman. If ithad proved true, you would have heard the thunder of an American Congress.

— John Adams, reporting on the reaction of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia[14]

Powder Alarm 9

British reactionGage, surprised by the size and scope of the colonial reaction, delayed and eventually cancelled a second plannedexpedition to the storehouse in Worcester.[15] He concentrated his troops in Boston, and called for reinforcementsfrom London, writing "if you think ten thousand men sufficient, send twenty; if one million is thought enough, givetwo; you save both blood and treasure in the end."[16] However, Gage's request was seen by some in London asabsurd, as there were only 12,000 troops in Britain at the time, but he did eventually receive an additional 400Marines in response to these requests.[16] He later began planning and executing seizures again,[17] and he furtherfortified the Boston peninsula.[14]

Colonial reactionAfter the Powder Alarm, militia forces throughout New England were more cautious with their supplies and moreintent on gaining information about Gage's plans and troop movements. Paul Revere played a significant role indistributing this information due to his geographical position in Boston, his social position as a middle-classcraftsman in contact with all social classes, and his political position as a well-known Patriot propagandist andorganizer.[18]

A 2007 photograph of the Old Powder House inNathan Tufts Park, Somerville, Massachusetts

The colonists organize

On September 21, 1774, Patriot leaders met in Worcester and urgedtown meetings to organize a third of the militias into special companiesof minutemen in constant readiness to march.[19] They also institutedthe system of express riders and alarms that would prove to be criticalat Lexington and Concord.[18] In October, the former legislature ofMassachusetts met in defiance of the Massachusetts Government Actand declared itself to be the First Provincial Congress. It created aCommittee of Safety modeled after a body with the same name duringthe English Civil War and it recommended that a quarter of the militiabe designated as minutemen.[16] Military stores were to be stockpiledaway from the coast (more than a convenient day's march), to makeattempts to seize them more difficult. The largest stockpiles werelocated at Concord and Worcester.[20]

Portsmouth AlarmEarly in December, British military command voted to prohibit the export of arms and powder to North America,and to secure all remaining stores. On December 12, intelligence received by Paul Revere indicated that a seizure ofstores at Fort William and Mary in Portsmouth, New Hampshire was imminent. He rode from Boston to Portsmouththe next day to notify the local Patriots, who quickly raided the fort on the 14th and removed its supplies. Revere'sintelligence had been incorrect; while a British operation had been contemplated, it had not been ordered. The Britishdid eventually send ships carrying troops to Portsmouth, but they arrived long after the event. The first arrived on the17th, and was directed into shallows at high tide by a local Patriot pilot, much to the captain's anger.[17]

Stores of gunpowder—typically referred to by Loyalists as "the King's powder" and by Patriots as "the militia's powder"—were also carried off from forts in Newport, Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island, and New London, Connecticut and distributed to the militias in towns away from the coast.[21] Cannon and other supplies were

Powder Alarm 10

smuggled out of Boston and Charlestown.[22]

Salem confrontationOn February 27, 1775, HMS Lively brought a force of about 240 British regulars from the 64th Regiment underColonel Alexander Leslie to confiscate weapons in Salem, Massachusetts. They were stopped by a small crowd thatraised a drawbridge in their path and taunted them while others moved the cannon to safety and sent for help fromnearby towns. Eventually, the drawbridge was lowered and the regulars were permitted to search the forge where thecannon had once been. They returned to their ship while being mocked by a growing force of irregulars marchingalong in lock-step next to them. There were minor scuffles, but no shots were fired.[23]

Notes[1] Tagney, pp. 65–67[2] Tagney, pp. 68–75 (emphasis in original)[3] Frothingham, p. 13[4] Fischer, p. 43[5] Fischer, pp. 44–45[6] Richmond, p. 5[7] Richmond, p. 6[8] Richmond, pp. 52–56[9] Richmond, p. 7[10] Fischer, p. 46[11] Fischer pp. 47–48[12] French, pp. 122–125[13] Richmond, pp. 57–58[14] French, pp. 125–126[15] French, pp. 126–141[16] Fischer, p. 51[17] Fischer, pp. 52–57[18] French, p. 170[19] Provincial Congress Journals, pp. 642–644[20] French, p. 160[21] Bancroft, pp. 183–184[22] Tagney, p. 130[23] Tagney, pp. 140–142

References• Bancroft, George (1860). History of the United States from the Discovery of the American Continent, Volume 7

(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fFUQAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Little, Brown, and Co.• Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508847-6.

OCLC 263430392.• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). New York:

McMillan. OCLC 3927532.• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and

Bunker Hill (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Boston: Little and Brown.OCLC 11529241.

• Massachusetts Provincial Congress (1774). The Journals of Each Provincial Congress of Massachusetts in 1774and 1775 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iFVMkRsFQh4C). Dutton and Wentworth, Printers to the state.

• Raphael, Ray (2002). The First American Revolution: Before Lexington and Concord. New York: The New Press.ISBN 9781565848153. OCLC 1571226.

• Richmond, Robert P (1971). Powder Alarm 1774. Princeton, NJ: Auerbach. ISBN 9780877690733.OCLC 162197.

Powder Alarm 11

• Tagney, Ronald N (1976). A County in Revolution: Essex County at the dawning of independence. Manchester,MA: The Cricket Press. OCLC 3423404.

• Volo, Dorothy Denneen; Volo, James M (2003). Daily Life During the American Revolution. GreenwoodPublishing Group. ISBN 9780313318443. OCLC 473265703.

External links• John Rowe's Diary, September 1–4, 1774 (http:/ / www. masshist. org/ revolution/ image-viewer.

php?item_id=495& mode=small& nmask=8& img_step=1& tpc=#page1) at the Massachusetts Historical Society• Abigail Adams letter to John Adams describing the events (http:/ / www. familytales. org/ dbDisplay.

php?id=ltr_aba1707)• Article on theft of cannon from Boston in the wake of the Alarm (http:/ / www. concordma. com/ magazine/

spring05/ cannons. html)• Leslie's Retreat (http:/ / www. salemhistoryonline. com/ PowderAlarm. html) (a recounting of the Salem

confrontation)• Portsmouth Alarm exhibit (http:/ / www. library. unh. edu/ special/ index. php/ exhibits/

capture-of-fort-william-and-mary/ ) at the University of New Hampshire

Battles of Lexington and ConcordThe Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War.[1]

[2] They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns ofLexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present-day Arlington), and Cambridge, near Boston. The battles markedthe outbreak of open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies in the mainlandof British North America.About 700 British Army regulars, under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, were given secret orders to capture anddestroy military supplies that were reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord. Through effectiveintelligence gathering, Patriot colonials had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be atrisk and had moved most of them to other locations. They also received details about British plans on the nightbefore the battle and were able to rapidly notify the area militias of the enemy movement.The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington. The militia were outnumbered and fell back, andthe regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they searched for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord,approximately 500 militiamen fought and defeated three companies of the King's troops. The outnumbered regularsfell back from the minutemen after a pitched battle in open territory.More militiamen arrived soon thereafter and inflicted heavy damage on the regulars as they marched back towardsBoston. Upon returning to Lexington, Smith's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier GeneralHugh Percy. The combined force, now of about 1,700 men, marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tacticalwithdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown. The accumulated militias blockaded the narrow landaccesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the Siege of Boston.Ralph Waldo Emerson, in his "Concord Hymn", described the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge asthe "shot heard 'round the world."[3]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 12

Background

Thomas Gage

Further information: Minutemen and Boston campaignThe British Army's infantry, nicknamed "redcoats" and sometimes"devils" by the colonists, had occupied Boston since 1768 and hadbeen augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce the IntolerableActs, which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish theProvince of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other actsof protest. General Thomas Gage, the military governor ofMassachusetts and commander-in-chief of the roughly 3,000 Britishmilitary forces garrisoned in Boston, had no control overMassachusetts outside of Boston, where implementation of the Actshad increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the Toryminority. Gage's plan was to avoid conflict by removing militarysupplies from the Whig militias using small, secret and rapid strikes.This struggle for supplies led to one British success and then to severalPatriot successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as thePowder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and

attempted to separate his duties as Governor of the colony and as General of an occupying force. Edmund Burkedescribed Gage's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittestperson on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery."[4]

The colonists had been forming militias of various sorts since the 17th century, at first primarily for defense againstlocal native attacks. These forces were also mustered to action in the French and Indian War in the 1750s and 1760s.They were generally local militias, nominally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government.[5] When thepolitical situation began to deteriorate, in particular when Gage effectively dissolved the Provincial governmentunder the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act, these existing connections were employed by the colonistsunder the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the perceived military threat.[6]

British preparations

Francis Smith, commander of the militaryexpedition, in a 1763 portrait

On April 14, 1775, Gage received instructions from Secretary of StateWilliam Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, to disarm the rebels, who wereknown to have hidden weapons in Concord, among other locations,and to imprison the rebellion's leaders, especially Samuel Adams andJohn Hancock. Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in hiscommands.[7] [8]

On the morning of April 18, Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment ofFoot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who mightbe out on horseback.[9] This patrol behaved differently from patrolssent out from Boston in the past, staying out after dark and askingtravelers about the location of Adams and Hancock. This had theunintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing theirpreparedness. The Lexington militia in particular began to muster earlythat evening, hours before receiving any word from Boston. A well

Battles of Lexington and Concord 13

known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer, Josiah Nelson, mistook the British patrol for the colonists andasked them, "Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out?", upon which he was slashed on hisscalp with a sword. However, the story of this incident was not published until over a century later, which suggeststhat it may be little more than a family myth.[10]

Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that hewas not to read them until his troops were underway. He was to proceed from Boston "with utmost expedition andsecrecy to Concord, where you will seize and destroy... all Military stores... But you will take care that the soldiersdo not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property." Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders forthe arrest of rebel leaders, as he feared doing so might spark an uprising.[11]

American preparations

Margaret Kemble Gage may havegiven military intelligence to the

rebels

The rebellion's ringleaders—with the exception of Paul Revere and JosephWarren—had all left Boston by April 8. They had received word of Dartmouth'ssecret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before theyreached Gage himself.[12] Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home ofone of Hancock's relatives in Lexington where they thought they would be safefrom the immediate threat of arrest.[13]

The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons,powder, and supplies at Concord, as well as an even greater amount much furtherwest in Worcester, but word reached the rebel leaders that British officers hadbeen observed examining the roads to Concord.[14] On April 8, Paul Revere rodeto Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning anexpedition. The townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute themamong other towns nearby.[15]

The colonists were also aware of the upcoming mission on April 19, despite ithaving been hidden from all the British rank and file and even from all the officers on the mission. There isreasonable speculation, although not proven, that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage,General Gage's New Jersey-born wife, who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship withWarren.[16]

Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18, 1775, Joseph Warren told William Dawes and Paul Revere that theKing's troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington andConcord. Warren's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars' movements later that nightwould be the capture of Adams and Hancock. They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching toConcord, since the supplies at Concord were safe, but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of thepotential danger that night. Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearbytowns.[17]

Militia forcesFurther information: Old North ChurchDawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington.[18]

Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown and then he traveled the northern water route. Hecrossed the Charles River by rowboat, slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor. Crossings werebanned at that hour, but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode to Lexington, avoiding a British patrol andlater warning almost every house along the route. The Charlestown colonists dispatched additional riders to thenorth.[19]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 14

After they arrived in Lexington, Revere, Dawes, Hancock, and Adams discussed the situation with the militiaassembling there. They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two menand that Concord was the main target. The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns, and Revereand Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott. In Lincoln, they ran into theBritish patrol led by Major Mitchell. Revere was captured, Dawes was thrown from his horse, and only Prescottescaped to reach Concord.[20] Additional riders were sent out from Concord.The ride of Revere, Dawes, and Prescott triggered a flexible system of "alarm and muster" that had been carefullydeveloped months before, in reaction to the colonists' impotent response to the Powder Alarm. This system was animproved version of an old network of widespread notification and fast deployment of local militia forces in times ofemergency. The colonists had periodically used this system all the way back to the early years of Indian wars in thecolony, before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War. In addition to other express riders deliveringmessages, bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town,notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because theregulars in numbers greater than 500 were leaving Boston, with possible hostile intentions. This system was soeffective that people in towns 25 miles (40 km) from Boston were aware of the army's movements while they werestill unloading boats in Cambridge.[21] These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient numberof colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day. Adams and Hancock wereeventually moved to safety, first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica.[22]

A National Park Service map showing the routes of the initial Patriot messengers and of the British expedition

British advanceAround dusk, General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House. He informed them thatorders from Lord Dartmouth had arrived, ordering him to take action against the colonials. He also told them that thesenior colonel of his regiments, Lieutenant Colonel Smith, would command, with Major John Pitcairn as hisexecutive officer. The meeting adjourned around 8:30 pm, after which Lord Percy mingled with town folk on BostonCommon. According to one account, the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of theBritish soldiers in the town. When Percy questioned one man further, the man replied, "Well, the regulars will misstheir aim". "What aim?" asked Percy. "Why, the cannon at Concord" was the reply.[16] Upon hearing this, Percyquickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage. Stunned, Gage issued orders toprevent messengers from getting out of Boston, but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere fromleaving.[23]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 15

1775 map of the battles and of the Siege of Boston

The British regulars, around 700 infantry,were drawn from 11 of Gage's 13 occupyinginfantry regiments. For this expedition,Major John Pitcairn commanded ten elitelight infantry companies, and LieutenantColonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11grenadier companies, under the overallcommand of Lieutenant Colonel Smith.[24]

Of the troops assigned to the expedition, 350were from grenadier companies drawn fromthe 4th (King's Own), 5th, 10th, 18th (RoyalIrish), 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59thRegiments of Foot, and the 1st Battalion ofHis Majesty's Marine Forces. Protecting thegrenadier companies were about 320 lightinfantry from the 4th, 5th, 10th, 23rd, 38th,

43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of the Marines. Each company had its own lieutenant, butthe majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute, drawn from all ofthe regiments stationed in Boston. This lack of bond between commander and company would turn out to beproblematic.[25]

The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water's edge onthe western end of Boston Common by 10 pm. The British march to and from Concord was a disorganizedexperience from start to finish. Colonel Smith was late in arriving, and there was no organized boat-loadingoperation, resulting in confusion at the staging area. The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightlythat there was no room to sit down. When they disembarked at Phipps Farm in Cambridge, it was into waist-deepwater at midnight. After a lengthy halt to unload their gear, the regulars began their 17 miles (27 km) march toConcord at about 2 am.[24] During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition, cold salt pork, and hard seabiscuits. They did not carry knapsacks, since they would not be encamped. They carried their haversacks (foodbags), canteens, muskets, and accoutrements, and marched off in wet, muddy shoes and soggy uniforms. As theymarched through Menotomy, sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers whowere aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise.[26] One of the regulars recorded in hisjournal,

“We got all over the bay and landed on the opposite shore betwixt twelve and one OClock and was on ourMarch by one, which was at first through some swamps and slips of the Sea till we got into the Road leadingto Lexington soon after which the Country people begun to fire their alarm guns light their Beacons, to raisethe Country. ... To the best of my recollection about 4 oClock in the morning being the 19th of April the 5front Compys. was ordered to Load which we did.”[27]

At about 3 am, Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quickmarch to Concord. At about 4 am he made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston askingfor reinforcements.[28]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 16

The Battles

LexingtonThough often styled a battle, in reality the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish.[29] As theregulars' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19, 1775, about 80 Lexingtonmilitiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on the village common watching them, and between40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road.[] [] [30] Their leader was Captain John Parker, aveteran of the French and Indian War, who was suffering from tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear. Of themilitiamen who lined up, nine had the surname Harrington, seven Munroe (including the company's orderly sergeant,William Munroe), four Parker, three Tidd, three Locke, and three Reed; fully one quarter of them were related toCaptain Parker in some way.[31] This group of militiamen was part of Lexington's "training band", a way oforganizing local militias dating back to the Puritans, and not what was styled a minuteman company.[32]

After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops (and wondering if Paul Revere's warningwas true), at about 4:15 a.m., Parker got his confirmation.[33] Thaddeus Bowman, the last scout that Parker had sentout, rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming, but coming in force and they were close.[34]

Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice hismen for no purpose. He knew that most of the colonists' powder and military supplies at Concord had already beenhidden. No war had been declared. (The Declaration of Independence would not even be written for another year).He also knew the British Army had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts, found nothing, and marchedback to Boston.[35]

Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again. The Regulars would march to Concord, find nothing, andreturn to Boston, tired but empty-handed. He positioned his company carefully. He placed them in parade-groundformation, on Lexington Green. They were in plain sight (not hiding behind walls), but not blocking the road toConcord. They made a show of political and military determination, but no effort to prevent the march of theRegulars.[36] Many years later, one of the participants recalled Parker's words as being what is now engraved instone at the site of the battle: "Stand your ground; don't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let itbegin here."[37] According to his sworn deposition taken after the battle:

“I ... ordered our Militia to meet on the Common in said Lexington to consult what to do, and concluded not tobe discovered, nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops (if they should approach) unless they shouldinsult or molest us; and, upon their sudden Approach, I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse, and not tofire:—Immediately said Troops made their appearance and rushed furiously, fired upon, and killed eight of ourParty without receiving any Provocation therefor from us.”[38] [39]

— John ParkerRather than turn left towards Concord, Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair, who was at the head of the advance guard,decided on his own to protect the flank of the troops by first turning right and then leading the companies down thecommon itself in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia. These men ran towards the Lexington militialoudly crying "Huzzah!" to rouse themselves and to confuse the militia, as they formed a battle line on thecommon.[40] Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left andhalted them. The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston.[41]

First shot

A British officer, probably Pitcairn, but accounts are uncertain, as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland, then rode forward, waving his sword, and called out for the assembled throng to disperse, and may also have ordered them to "lay down your arms, you damned rebels!"[42] Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home, but, because of the confusion, the yelling all around, and due to the raspiness of Parker's tubercular voice, some did not hear him, some left very slowly, and none laid down their arms. Both Parker and Pitcairn

Battles of Lexington and Concord 17

ordered their men to hold fire, but a shot was fired from an unknown source.[42]

The first of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775.Doolittle visited the battle sites and interviewed soldiers and

witnesses. Contains controversial elements, possibly inaccuracies.Fire from the militia may have occurred but is not depicted.

”[A]t 5 o’clock we arrived [in Lexington], and sawa number of people, I believe between 200 and 300,formed in a common in the middle of town; we stillcontinued advancing, keeping prepared against anattack through without intending to attack them;but on our coming near them they fired on us twoshots, upon which our men without any orders,rushed upon them, fired and put them to flight;several of them were killed, we could not tell howmany, because they were behind walls and into thewoods. We had a man of the 10th light Infantrywounded, nobody else was hurt. We then formedon the Common, but with some difficulty, the menwere so wild they could hear no orders; we waiteda considerable time there, and at length proceededour way to Concord.”[43]

— Lieutenant John Barker, 4th Regiment of FootAccording to one member of Parker's militia none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced theoncoming British troops. The British did suffer one casualty, a slight wound, the particulars of which werecorroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe. Munroe stated that:

"After the first fire of the regulars, I thought, and so stated to Ebenezer Munroe ...who stood next to me on theleft, that they had fired nothing but powder; but on the second firing, Munroe stated they had fired somethingmore than powder, for he had received a wound in his arm; and now, said he, to use his own words, 'I'll givethem the guts of my gun.' We then both took aim at the main body of British troops the smoke preventing ourseeing anything but the heads of some of their horses and discharged our pieces."[44]

Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge oraround the corner of a tavern. Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first. Both sides generallyagreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other.[45] Speculationarose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behinda wall, but this has been discredited.[46] Some witnesses (on each side) claimed that someone on the other side firedfirst; however, many more witnesses claimed to not know. Yet another theory is that the first shot was one fired bythe British, that killed Asahel Porter, their prisoner who was running away (he had been told to walk away and hewould be let go, though he panicked and began to run). Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there mayactually have been multiple near-simultaneous shots.[47] Historian Mark Urban claims the British surged forwardwith bayonets ready in an undisciplined way, provoking a few scattered shots from the militia. In response theBritish troops, without orders, fired a devastating volley. This lack of discipline among the British troops had a keyrole in the escalation of violence.[48]

Nobody except the person responsible ever knew with certainty, who fired the first shot of the AmericanRevolutionary War.Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began tofire volleys without receiving orders to do so. A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were onlyfiring powder with no ball, but when they realized the truth, few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire.The rest wisely ran for their lives.[49]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 18

“We Nathaniel Mulliken, Philip Russell, [and 32 other men ...] do testify and declare, that on the nineteenth inthe morning, being informed that... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord. ... Aboutfive o’clock in the morning, hearing our drum beat, we proceeded towards the parade, and soon found that alarge body of troops were marching towards us, some of our company were coming to the parade, and othershad reached it, at which time, the company began to disperse, whilst our backs were turned on the troops, wewere fired on by them, and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded, not a gun was fired byany person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us, and continued firing untilwe had all made our escape.”[38]

The regulars then charged forward with bayonets. Captain Parker's cousin Jonas was run through. EightMassachusetts men were killed and ten were wounded; only one British soldier of the 10th Foot wounded. The eightcolonists killed were John Brown, Samuel Hadley, Caleb Harrington, Jonathon Harrington, Robert Munroe, IsaacMuzzey, Asahel Porter, and Jonas Parker. Jonathon Harrington, fatally wounded by a British musket ball, managedto crawl back to his home, and died on his own doorstep. One wounded man, Prince Estabrook, was a black slavewho was serving in the militia.[50]

The companies under Pitcairn's command got beyond their officers' control in part because they were unaware of theactual purpose of the day's mission. They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes. ColonelSmith, who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars, heard the musket fire and rode forward from thegrenadier column to see the action. He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly. The grenadiersarrived shortly thereafter, and once order was restored the light infantry were permitted to fire a victory volley, afterwhich the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord.[51]

Concord

The second of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775,depicting the British entering Concord

The militiamen of Concord and Lincoln, in response tothe raised alarm, had mustered in Concord. They receivedreports of firing at Lexington, and were not sure whetherto wait until they could be reinforced by troops fromtowns nearby, or to stay and defend the town, or to moveeast and greet the British Army from superior terrain. Acolumn of militia marched down the road towardLexington to meet the British, traveling about 1.5 miles(2 km) until they met the approaching column of regulars.As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at thistime only numbered about 250, the militia column turnedaround and marched back into Concord, preceding theregulars by a distance of about 500 yards (457 m).[52] The

militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town and the command discussed what to do next. Caution prevailed, andColonel James Barrett surrendered the town of Concord and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about amile north of town, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in thecenter of town. This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companiesarriving from the western towns joined them there.[53]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 19

The search for militia supplies

When the troops arrived in the village of Concord, Smith divided them to carry out Gage's orders. The 10thRegiment's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole, while seven companies of lightinfantry under Captain Parsons, numbering about 100, secured the North Bridge near Barrett's force. Captain Parsonstook four companies from the 5th, 23rd, 38th and 52nd Regiments up the road 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond the NorthBridge to search Barrett's Farm, where intelligence indicated supplies would be found.[54] Two companies from the4th and 10th were stationed to guard their return route, and one company from the 43rd remained guarding thebridge itself. These companies, which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie,were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400-plus militia men that were only a few hundred yardsaway. The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Smith requesting reinforcements.[55]

Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies, the grenadier companies searched the small town for militarysupplies. When they arrived at Ephraim Jones's tavern, by the jail on the South Bridge road, they found the doorbarred shut, and Jones refused them entry. According to reports provided by local Tories, Pitcairn knew cannon hadbeen buried on the property. Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried. These turned out tobe three massive pieces, firing 24-pound shot, that were much too heavy to use defensively, but very effectiveagainst fortifications, with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland.[56]

The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted. They also burned some guncarriages found in the village meetinghouse, and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself, local residentMartha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building.[57] Nearly a hundred barrelsof flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond, as were 550 pounds of musket balls. Of the damage done,only that done to the cannon was significant. All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the Britishleft. During the search, the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals, including paying forfood and drink consumed. This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals, who were able to misdirectsearches from several smaller caches of militia supplies.[58]

Barrett's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before but few weapons remained now, and these were, according tofamily legend, quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted. The troops sent there did not find anysupplies of consequence.[59]

The North Bridge

The reconstructed North Bridge in Minute ManNational Historical Park, Concord

Colonel Barrett's troops, upon seeing smoke rising from the villagesquare, and seeing only a few companies directly below them,decided to march back toward the town from their vantage pointon Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about 300 yards(274 m) from the North Bridge. As the militia advanced, the twoBritish companies from the 4th and 10th that held the position nearthe road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett'smen.[60]

Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia fromActon, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as moregroups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against CaptainLaurie's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90–95 men.Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two deep on the highway leading down to the bridge,and then he called for another consultation. While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill, Barrett, Lt. Col.John Robinson of Westford and the other Captains discussed possible courses of action. Captain Isaac Davis ofActon, whose troops had arrived late, declared his willingness to defend a town not their own by saying, "I'm notafraid to go, and I haven't a man that's afraid to go."[61]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 20

Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance. Laurieordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the looseplanks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harmingthe bridge. The Minutemen and militia advanced in column formation on the light infantry, keeping to the road, sinceit was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.[62]

Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision. Since his summons for help had not produced any results, heordered his men to form positions for "street firing" behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river.This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city,but not for an open path behind a bridge. Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up inthe street-firing position of the other troops. Lieutenant Sutherland, who was in the rear of the formation, sawLaurie's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out. But as he was from a company different from the men under hiscommand, only three soldiers obeyed him. The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow theorders of the superior officer.[63]

The third of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775,depicting the engagement at the North Bridge

A shot rang out, and this time there is certainty fromdepositions taken from men on both sides afterwards thatit came from the Army's ranks. It was likely a warningshot fired by a panicked, exhausted British soldier fromthe 43rd, according to Laurie's letter to his commanderafter the fight. Two other regulars then fired immediatelyafter that, shots splashing in the river, and then the narrowgroup up front, possibly thinking the order to fire hadbeen given, fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stopthem.[64]

Two of the Acton Minutemen, Private Abner Hosmer andCaptain Isaac Davis, who were at the head of the linemarching to the bridge, were hit and killed instantly. Fourmore men were wounded, but the militia only halted when Major Buttrick yelled "Fire, for God's sake, fellowsoldiers, fire!"[64] [65] At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge, and were only 50yards (46 m) apart. The few front rows of colonists, bound by the road, and blocked from forming a line of fire,managed to fire over each others' heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge. Four of the eightBritish officers and sergeants, who were leading from the front of their troops, were wounded by the volley ofmusket fire. At least three privates (Thomas Smith, Patrick Gray and James Hall, all from the 4th) were killed ormortally wounded, and nine were wounded.[66]

The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered.Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy, with their spirit broken, and likelynot having experienced combat before, they abandoned their wounded, and fled to the safety of the approachinggrenadier companies coming from the town center, isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for armsat Barrett's Farm.[65]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 21

After the fight

Statue memorializing the battle at theNorth Bridge, inscribed with versefrom Emerson's "Concord Hymn"

The colonists were stunned by their success. No one had actually believed eitherside would shoot to kill the other. Some advanced; many more retreated; andsome went home to see to the safety of their homes and families. Colonel Barretteventually began to recover control. He moved some of the militia back to thehilltop 300 yards (274 m) away and sent Major Buttrick with others across thebridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall.[66]

Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in thetown moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie. Hequickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridgehimself. As these troops marched, they met the shattered remnants of the threelight infantry companies running towards them. Smith was concerned about thefour companies that had been at Barrett's, since their route to town was nowunprotected. When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall, hehalted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take acloser look. One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed, "If we had fired, Ibelieve we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front, but we

had no orders to fire and there wasn't a gun fired."[67] During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes, a mentally illlocal man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider.[67]

At this point, the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area.They passed through the now mostly-deserted battlefield, and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge.There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped, which angered and shocked the British soldiers. Theycrossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11:30 am, under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued tomaintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town,ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamenfrom outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston.[68]

Return march

A National Park Service map showing the retreat from Concord and Percy's rescue

An interactive mural describingthis stage of the battle may befound at the National ParkService site [69] for the MinuteMan National Historical Park.

Concord to Lexington

Lieutenant Colonel Smith, concernedabout the safety of his men, sentflankers to follow a ridge and protecthis forces from the roughly 1,000colonials now in the field as they marched east out of Concord. This ridge ended near Meriam's Corner, a crossroadsand a small bridge about a mile (2 km) outside the village of Concord. To cross the narrow bridge, the army columnhad to stop, dress its line, and close its rank to a mere three soldiers abreast. Colonial militia companies arriving fromthe north and east had converged at this point, and presented a clear numerical advantage over the regulars. As the

last of the army column marched over the bridge, colonial militiamen from the Reading militia fired, the regulars turned and fired a volley, and the colonists returned fire. Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded, with no

Battles of Lexington and Concord 22

colonial casualties. Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge.[70]

Nearly 500 militiamen from Chelmsford had assembled in the woods on Brooks Hill about 1 mile (1.6 km) pastMeriam's Corner. Smith's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off, but the colonists did not withdraw,inflicting significant casualties on the attackers. The bulk of Smith's force proceeded along the road until it reachedBrooks Tavern, where they engaged a single militia company from Framingham, killing and wounding several ofthem. Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill and moved across another small bridge into Lincoln.[70]

Statue depicting John Parker, captainof the Lexington militia

The regulars soon reached a point in the road where there was a rise and a curvethrough a wooded area. At this point, now known as the "Bloody Angle", 200men, mostly from the towns of Bedford and Lincoln, had positioned themselvesbehind trees and walls in a rocky, tree-filled pasture for an ambush. Additionalmilitia joined in from the other side of the road, catching the British in a crossfirein the wooded swamp, while the Concord militia closed from behind to attack.Thirty soldiers and four colonial militia were killed.[71] The soldiers escaped bybreaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through thewoods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British

were too densely packed and disorganized to mount an attack.[71]

Militia forces by this time had risen to about 2,000, and Smith sent out flankers again. When three companies ofmilitia ambushed the head of his main force near either Ephraim Hartwell's or (more likely) Joseph Mason's Farm,the flankers closed in and trapped the militia from behind. Flankers also trapped the Bedford militia after asuccessful ambush near the Lincoln–Lexington border, but British casualties were mounting from these engagementsand from persistent long-range fire, and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition.[71]

On the Lexington side of the border, Captain Parker, according to only one uncorroborated source (EbenezerMunroe's memoir of 1824), waited on a hill with the reassembled Lexington Training Band, some of them bandagedup from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day. These men, according to this account written only many yearslater, did not begin the ambush until Colonel Smith himself came into view. Smith was wounded in the thighsometime on the way back to Lexington, and the entire British column was halted in this ambush now known as"Parker's Revenge". Major Pitcairn sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear out any militia sniping atthem.[72]

The light infantry cleared two additional hills—"The Bluff" and "Fiske Hill"— and took casualties from ambushes.Pitcairn fell from his horse, which was injured by colonists firing from Fiske Hill. Now both principal leaders of theexpedition were injured or unhorsed, and their men were tired and thirsty. A few surrendered; most now brokeformation and ran forward in a mob. Their organized, planned withdrawal had turned into a rout. "Concord Hill"remained before Lexington Center, and a few uninjured officers turned and supposedly threatened their own menwith their swords if they would not reform in good order.[72]

Only one British officer remained uninjured in the leading three companies. He was considering surrendering hismen when he heard cheering further ahead. A full brigade, about 1,000 men with artillery under the command ofEarl Percy, had arrived to rescue them. It was about 2:30 pm.[73]

During this part of the march, the colonists fought where possible in large ordered formations (using short-range,smoothbore muskets) at least eight times. This is contrary to the widely-held myth of scattered individuals firingwith longer-range rifles from behind walls and fences. Although scattered fire had also occurred on this march, theselong-range tactics proved useful later in the war. Nobody at Lexington or Concord—indeed, anywhere along theBattle Road or later at Bunker Hill—had a rifle, according to the historical records.[74]

Battles of Lexington and Concord 23

Percy's rescue

General Gage had left orders for reinforcements to assemble in Boston at 4 am, but in his obsession for secrecy, hehad sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade, whose servant left the envelope on a table. Atabout 5 am, Smith's request for reinforcements was finally received, and orders were sent for 1st Brigade consistingof the line companies of infantry (the 4th, 23rd, and 47th) and a battalion of British Marines to assemble.Unfortunately, once again only one copy of the orders were sent to each commander, and the order for the Marineswas delivered to the desk of Major Pitcairn, who was on the Lexington Common at the time. After these delays,Percy's brigade, about 1,000 strong, left Boston at about 8:45 am. His troops marched out toward Lexington. Alongthe way they marched to the tune of "Yankee Doodle" to taunt the inhabitants of the area.[1] [75] By the Battle ofBunker Hill less than two months later, the song had become a popular anthem for the colonial forces.[76]

The fourth of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775,showing Percy's rescue in Lexington.

Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and overthe Great Bridge, which some enterprising colonists hadstripped of its planking to delay their way.[77] His menthen came upon an absent-minded tutor at HarvardCollege and asked him which road would take them toLexington. The Harvard man, apparently oblivious to thereality of what was happening around him, showed himthe proper road without thinking. (He was later compelledto leave the country for inadvertently supporting theenemy.)[78] Percy's troops arrived in Lexington at about2:00 pm. They could hear gunfire in the distance as theyset up their cannon and lines of regulars on high groundwith commanding views of the town. Colonel Smith'smen approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them.Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range, dispersing the colonial militiamen. Smith's men collapsedwith exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy's lines.[79]

Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance, Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for thetwo artillery pieces they brought with them, thinking the extra wagons would slow him down. Each man in Percy'sbrigade had only 36 rounds, and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side-boxes.[80]

[81] After Percy had left the city, Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men tofollow. This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older, former militiamen, still on the "alarm list" who couldnot join their militia companies because they were well over 60. These men rose up in ambush and demanded thesurrender of the wagons, but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on. The old men opened fire, shot thelead horses, killed two sergeants, and wounded the officer.[80] The survivors ran, and six of them threw theirweapons into a pond before they surrendered.[81]

Lexington to Menotomy

Percy's return to Charlestown (detail from 1775map of the battle).

Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1,700 men andlet them rest, eat, drink, and have their wounds tended at fieldheadquarters (Munroe Tavern) before resuming the march. They setout from Lexington at about 3:30 pm, in a formation that emphasizeddefense along the sides and rear of the column.[82] Wounded regularsrode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired atby gatherings of militia. Percy's men were often surrounded, but they

Battles of Lexington and Concord 24

had the tactical advantage of interior lines. Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed, whilethe colonial militia were required to move around the outside of his formation. Percy placed Smith's men in themiddle of the column, while the 23rd Regiment's line companies made up the column's rear guard. Because ofinformation provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking, Percy ordered the rear guardto be rotated every mile or so, to allow some of his troops to rest briefly. Flanking companies were sent to both sidesof the road, and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead.[82]

During the respite at Lexington, Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia. Earlierin the day, he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren, who had left Boston thatmorning, and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Heath and Warren reacted to Percy'sartillery and flankers by ordering the militias to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire. Instead, theysurrounded Percy's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties atminimum risk to individual militiamen.[83]

A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount, fire muskets at the approaching regulars, then remount andgallop ahead to repeat the tactic. Unmounted militia would often fire from long range, in the hope of hittingsomebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving, since both British and colonials used musketswith an effective combat range of about 50 yards (46 m). Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of theBritish column. When it moved out of range, those units would move around and forward to re-engage the columnfurther down the road. Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units, directing them to appropriateplaces along the road to engage the regulars. Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming themilitia. Heath and Warren did lead skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves, but it was the presence ofeffective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics.[83] Percy wrote of thecolonial tactics, "The rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance and resolution,nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoeverlooks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself very much mistaken."[84]

The Jason Russell House in Arlington.

The fighting grew more intense as Percy's forces crossed fromLexington into Menotomy. Fresh militia poured gunfire into the Britishranks from a distance, and individual homeowners began to fight fromtheir own property. Some homes were also used as sniper positions,turning the situation into a soldier's nightmare: house-to-housefighting. Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him todefend his house by saying, "An Englishman's home is his castle."[85]

He stayed and was killed in his doorway. His friends, depending onwhich account is to be believed, either hid in the cellar, or died in thehouse from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers whofollowed them in. The Jason Russell House still stands and contains

bullet holes from this fight. A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell's orchard was caught by flankers,and eleven men were killed, some allegedly after they had surrendered.[85]

Percy lost control of his men, and British soldiers began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping atthe North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant, often unseen enemy. Based on the word ofPitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith's command, Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stonewalls, trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at thecolumn. He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places.[86]

Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted, enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings. For example, two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day's events.[87]

Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda

Battles of Lexington and Concord 25

value (and to get financial compensation from the colonial government), it is certainly true that taverns along theroad were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops, who in some cases became drunk themselves. One church'scommunion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston.[86] Aged Menotomy residentSamuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead. (Herecovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98.)[88] All told, far more blood was shed in Menotomy andCambridge than elsewhere that day. The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there, and the British lost 40killed and 80 wounded, with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties. Each was about half theday's fatalities.[89]

Menotomy to Charlestown

The British troops crossed the Menotomy River (today known as Alewife Brook) into Cambridge, and the fight grewmore intense. Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation, and Percy used his two artillerypieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them.[86]

Earlier in the day, Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled. Percy's brigade was about to approach thebroken-down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track (nearpresent-day Porter Square) and onto the road to Charlestown. The militia (now numbering about 4,000) wereunprepared for this movement, and the circle of fire was broken. An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill(in modern-day Somerville), which dominated the road, but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed themwith his last rounds of ammunition.[86]

A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead. They might have cut off Percy's route to Charlestown, butthese men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape. Some accused the commander of thisforce, Colonel Timothy Pickering, of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventinga total defeat of the regulars. Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath's orders, but Heath denied this.[86]

It was nearly dark when Pitcairn's Marines defended a final attack on Percy's rear as they entered Charlestown. Theregulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown. Some of them had been without sleep for two days andhad marched 40 miles (64 km) in 21 hours, eight hours of which had been spent under fire. But now they held highground protected by heavy guns from the HMS Somerset. Gage quickly sent over line companies of two freshregiments—the 10th and 64th—to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications. Although theywere begun, the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works builttwo months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill. General Heath studied the position of the British Armyand decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge.[90]

AftermathIn the morning, Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army, numbering over 15,000, which had marched fromthroughout New England.[91] Unlike the Powder Alarm, the rumors of spilled blood were true, and the RevolutionaryWar had begun. The militia army continued to grow as surrounding colonies sent men and supplies. The SecondContinental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army. Even now, after open warfarehad started, Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston. He persuaded the town's selectmen to surrender allprivate weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town.[92]

The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties. However, in terms of supporting the British politicalstrategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms, the battle was a significantfailure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent, and because few weapons wereactually seized.[84]

The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion. Within four days of the battle, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners. When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London, the

Battles of Lexington and Concord 26

Provincial Congress sent over 100 of these detailed depositions on a faster ship. They were presented to asympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage's report arrived.[91] Gage'sofficial report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone's opinion. George Germain, no friend of thecolonists, wrote, "the Bostonians are in the right to make the King's troops the aggressors and claim a victory."[93]

Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions. TheBritish troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington andConcord.[94]

The day after the battle, John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields. He became convincedthat "the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed."[95] Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of theargument between the colonies and the Home Country as "a kind of law-suit", but after news of the battle reachedhim, he "rejected the hardened, sullen-tempered Pharaoh of England forever."[96] George Washington received thenews at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend, "the once-happy and peaceful plains of America are either to bedrenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?"[96] A groupof hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June. It eventuallybecame the city of Lexington, Kentucky.[97]

LegacyIt was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence bemaintained for this first battle of the war. The history of Patriot preparations, intelligence, warning signals, anduncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades. The story of the woundedBritish soldier at the North Bridge, hors de combat, struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet, thepurported "scalping", was strongly suppressed. Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not publishedand were returned to the participants (this notably happened to Paul Revere[98] ). Paintings portrayed the Lexingtonfight as an unjustified slaughter.[98]

The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century. For example, older participants'testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775.All now said the British fired first at Lexington, whereas fifty or so years before, they weren't sure. All now said theyfired back, but in 1775, they said few were able to. The "Battle" took on an almost mythical quality in the Americanconsciousness. Legend became more important than truth. A complete shift occurred, and the Patriots were portrayedas actively fighting for their cause, rather than as suffering innocents. Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began toportray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance.[99]

By the rude bridge that arched the floodTheir flag to April's breeze unfurledHere once the embattled farmers stoodAnd fired the shot heard round the world.

a verse from Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Concord Hymn"

Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 "Concord Hymn". "Concord Hymn"became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution, and that for much of the19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution, helping to forge the identity of thenation.[100]

After 1860, several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "Paul Revere'sRide". Historically it is inaccurate (for example, Paul Revere never made it to Concord), but it captures the idea thatan individual can change the course of history.[101]

In the 20th century, popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day, often reflecting the political mood of the time. Isolationist anti-war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature

Battles of Lexington and Concord 27

of Paul Revere's contribution (if any) to the efforts to rouse the militia. Anglophilia in the United States after the turnof the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle. During World War I, a filmabout Paul Revere's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the UnitedStates and Britain.[102]

During the Cold War, Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol, but also as a capitalist one. In 1961, novelistHoward Fast published April Morning, an account of the battle from a fictional 15-year-old's perspective, andreading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools. A film version was produced fortelevision in 1987, starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones. In the 1990s, parallels were drawn betweenAmerican tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord.[103]

The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green, has been listed on the NationalRegister of Historic Places, and is a National Historic Landmark. Several memorials commemorating the battle havebeen established there.The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord, as well as approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) of the road alongwith surrounding lands and period buildings between Merriam's Corner and western Lexington are part ofMinuteman National Historical Park. There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that thecolonists might have used that skirted the road, and the Park Service often has personnel (usually dressed in perioddress) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day.[104] A bronze bas relief of MajorButtrick, designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915, is in the park, alongwith French's Minute Man statue.[105]

Commemorations

Daniel Chester French's Minute Man

Patriots' Day is celebrated annually in honor of the battle inMassachusetts, Maine, and by the Wisconsin public schools, on thethird Monday in April.[106] [107] [108] Re-enactments of Paul Revere'sride are staged, as are the battle on the Lexington Green, andceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge.

Centennial commemoration

On April 19, 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant and members ofhis cabinet joined 50,000 people to mark the 100th anniversaryof the battles. The sculpture by Daniel Chester French, TheMinute Man, located at the North Bridge, was unveiled on thatday. A formal ball took place in the evening at the AgriculturalHall in Concord.[109]

Sesquicentennial commemoration

In April 1925 the United States Post Office issued threestamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Battles atLexington and Concord. The Lexington—Concordcommemoratives were the first of many commemorativesissued to honor the 150th anniversaries of events thatsurrounded America's War of Independence. The three stamps were first placed on sale in Washington, D.C.and in five Massachusetts cities and towns that played major roles in the Lexington and Concord story:

Battles of Lexington and Concord 28

Lexington, Concord, Boston, Cambridge, and Concord Junction (as West Concord was then known).[110] Thisis not to say that other locations were not involved in the battles.

George WashingtonWashington atCambridgeissue of 1925.

Shot heard round the WorldBirth of Libertyissueof 1925

The Minute Manby Daniel Chester Frenchissueof 1925

Bicentennial commemorationThe Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government, the military,the diplomatic corps, the arts, sciences, and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles. OnApril 19, 1975, as a crowd estimated at 110,000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial inConcord, President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge, which was televised to thenation.[111]

Freedom was nourished in American soil because the principles of the Declaration of Independence flourishedin our land. These principles, when enunciated 200 years ago, were a dream, not a reality. Today, they are real.Equality has matured in America. Our inalienable rights have become even more sacred. There is nogovernment in our land without consent of the governed. Many other lands have freely accepted the principlesof liberty and freedom in the Declaration of Independence and fashioned their own independent republics. It isthese principles, freely taken and freely shared, that have revolutionized the world. The volley fired here atConcord two centuries ago, 'the shot heard round the world', still echoes today on this anniversary.[112]

— President Gerald R. Ford

Notes[1] French, pp. 2, 272-273[2] A controversial interpretation holds that the Battle of Point Pleasant, six months earlier, was the initial military engagement of the

Revolutionary War. Despite a 1908 United States Senate resolution designating it as such, few, if any, historians subscribe to thisinterpretation. (http:/ / www. wvculture. org/ history/ journal_wvh/ wvh56-5. html)

[3] Emerson's Concord Hymn[4] Fischer, p. 30[5] Brooks, pp. 30–31[6] Fischer, p. 51[7] Fischer, pp. 75–76[8] Brooks, pp. 37–38[9] Fischer, p. 89[10] Hafner discusses this incident in detail.[11] Fischer, p. 85[12] Tourtellot, pp. 71–72 (colonists have intelligence in late March) & p. 87 (Gage receives instructions April 16)[13] Tourtellot, p. 70[14] Fischer, pp. 80–85[15] Fischer, p. 87[16] Fischer, p. 96[17] Brooks, pp.41–42

Battles of Lexington and Concord 29

[18] Fischer, p. 97[19] Brooks, pp. 42–44[20] Brooks, p. 50[21] Fischer, pp. 138–145[22] Frothingham, p. 60[23] Frothingham, p. 58[24] Tourtellot, pp. 105–107[25] Fischer, pp. 70, 121[26] Tourtellot, pp. 109–115[27] Jeremy Lister's Journal[28] Fischer, pp. 127–128[29] The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 122[30] Fischer, p. 400[31] Fischer, p. 158[32] Fischer, p. 153[33] Fischer, David Hackett, Paul Revere's Ride, p. 151, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1994.[34] Tourtellot, Arthur Bernon, William Diamond's Drum: The Beginning of the War of the American Revolution, pp. 116-126, Doubleday &

Co., Inc., Garden City, New York, 1959.[35] Fischer, David Hackett, Paul Revere's Ride, pp. 43, 75-86, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1994.[36] Galvin, Gen. John R., US Army, The Minutemen - The First Fight: Myths and Realities of the American Revolution, 2nd edition, pp.

120-124, Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1989.[37] Coburn, p. 63[38] Isaiah Thomas deposition[39] Tourtellot, p. 123[40] Brooks pp. 52–53[41] Fischer, pp. 189–190[42] Fischer, pp.190–191[43] John Barker's Diary, p. 32[44] http:/ / www. motherbedford. com/ Chronology06. htm[45] Fischer, p. 193[46] Fischer, p. 402[47] Fischer discusses the shot on pp. 193–194, with detailed footnotes on pp. 399–403, in which he discusses some of the testimony in detail.[48] Urban, pp. 19–20[49] Fischer, pp. 194–195[50] Brooks, pp. 55–56[51] Fischer, pp. 198–200[52] Tourtellot, p. 152[53] Tourtellot, p. 154[54] Frothingham, p. 67[55] Fischer, p. 215[56] Fischer p.207[57] Martha Moulton deposition[58] Tourtellot, pp. 155–158[59] French, p. 197[60] Fischer, p. 208[61] Fischer, p. 209[62] Fischer, pp. 209–212[63] Fischer, p. 212[64] Brooks, p. 67[65] Tourtellot, pp. 165–166[66] Fischer, p. 214[67] Fischer, p. 216[68] Tourtellot, pp. 166–168[69] http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/ brvc/ mural. htm[70] Brooks, p. 71[71] Fischer, pp. 226–227[72] Brooks, pp. 72–73[73] Fischer, p. 232[74] Fischer, p. 161

Battles of Lexington and Concord 30

[75] Brooks, p. 79[76] Frothingham, p. 178[77] Tourtellot, pp. 184–185[78] Tourtellot, p. 185[79] Fischer, pp. 241–242[80] Brooks, pp. 81–82[81] Fischer, pp. 243–244[82] Fischer, pp. 245–246[83] Fischer, pp. 250–251[84] Tourtellot, p. 203[85] Fischer, p. 256[86] Fischer, p. 258[87] Tourtellot, p. 197[88] Fischer, p. 257[89] Hurd, p. 181[90] Fischer, p. 261[91] Brooks, p. 96[92] Fischer, p. 265[93] Fischer, pp. 275–276[94] Fischer, p. 263[95] Fischer, p. 279[96] Fischer, p. 280[97] Fischer, p. 271[98] Fischer, pp. 327-328[99] Fischer, p. 329[100] Napierkowski[101] Fischer, pp. 331–333[102] Fischer, pp. 336–338[103] Fischer, pp. 340–342[104] Minuteman National Historical Park Things To Do[105] "John Buttrick Memorial" (http:/ / siris-artinventories. si. edu/ ipac20/ ipac. jsp?session=1W80430D191F9. 6618& profile=ariall&

source=~!siartinventories& view=subscriptionsummary& uri=full=3100001~!340743~!0& ri=5& aspect=Browse& menu=search& ipp=20&spp=20& staffonly=& term=Quinn,+ Edmond+ Thomas,+ 1868-1929,+ sculptor. & index=AUTHOR& uindex=& aspect=Browse&menu=search& ri=5). Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2010-08-12.

[106] Massachusetts Legal Holidays[107] Maine Legal Holidays[108] Wisconsin School Observance Days[109] Concord Centennial Celebration Report[110] Scott's United States Stamp Catalog: First Day Covers[111] Time Magazine, April 25, 1974[112] New York Times on Ford's appearance

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books?id=EGdIAAAACAAJ). Eastern National. ISBN 1-888213-01-9.• Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Combined Publishing. ISBN 9780585234533.• Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston: An on-the-scene Account of the Beginning of the American

Revolution. New York: Crown. OCLC 890813.• Coburn, Frank Warren (1922). The Battle of April 19, 1775: In Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Arlington,

Cambridge, Somerville, and Charlestown, Massachusetts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cv1IIopyP-kC).The Lexington historical society. OCLC 2494350.

• Dana, Elizabeth Ellery (1924). The British in Boston: Being the Diary of Lieutenant John Barker of the King’sOwn Regiment from November 15, 1774 to May 31, 1776. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.OCLC 3235993.

• Davis, Kenneth C. (2009). America's Hidden History. London: Collins. ISBN 0061118192.

Battles of Lexington and Concord 31

• Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1837). "Emerson's Concord Hymn" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ mima/ hymn. htm).National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-10-02.

• Emerson, Ralph Waldo; Curtis, George William (1875). Proceedings at the Centennial Celebration of ConcordFight, April 19, 1875 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hXGkkYf3vQQC). Town of Concord.OCLC 4363293.

• Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=knC-kTFI9_gC).Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-508847-6. This book is extensively footnoted, and contains avoluminous list of primary resources concerning all aspects of these events.

• Ford, Gerald R. (April 19, 1975). "Remarks at the Old North Bridge, Concord, Massachusetts" (http:/ / www.presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=4847). The American Presidency Project. Retrieved 2008-09-22.

• French, Allen (1925). The Day of Concord and Lexington (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=LdorAAAAIAAJ& pg=PR3#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Boston: Little, Brown & Co.

• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1903). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, andBunker Hill (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Little and Brown. OCLC 221368703.

• Hafner, Donald L. (2006). "The First Blood Shed in the Revolution" (http:/ / escholarship. bc. edu/ cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1006& context=hrij_facp). Boston College. Retrieved 2007-12-21.

• Hurd, Duane Hamilton (1890). History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Volume 1: With BiographicalSketches of Many of Its Pioneers and Prominent Men. J. W. Lewis & co. OCLC 2155461.

• Kifner, John, Special to the New York Times (1975-04-20). "160,000 Mark Two 1775 Battles; ConcordProtesters Jeer Ford :President Greeted Warmly in Lexington 160,000 Observe Date of Battles in 1775 atLexington and Concord" (http:/ / www. proquest. com/ ). New York Times (1857-Current file). p. 1. ProquestDocument ID=1045581292. Retrieved 2008-11-04.

• Lister, Jeremy (1931). Concord Fight. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 1430477520.• Massachusetts Provincial Congress (1775). A Narrative of the Excursion and Ravages of the King’s Troops.

Worcester: Isaiah Thomas. OCLC http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XyIcOgAACAAJ.• Morrissey, Brendan (1995). Boston 1775 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dJlAdSPLi5MC). Osprey

Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-362-1.• Moulton, Martha. "Martha Moulton's testimony and reward, 4 Feb 1776" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/

forteachers/ upload/ Martha Moulton. pdf) (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2007-12-21.• Napierkowski, Marie Rose; Ruby, Mary K (1998). Poetry for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context and

Criticism on Commonly Studied Poetry. Gale Research. ISBN 9780787627249.• Tourtellot, Arthur B (1959). Lexington and Concord (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6WB5HgAACAAJ).

New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-00194-6.• Urban, Mark (2007). Fusiliers: Eight Years with the Red Coats in America. London: Faber and Faber.

ISBN 9780571224869. OCLC 153556036.• "Maine Legal Holidays" (http:/ / www. maine. gov/ bhr/ rules_policies/ policy_manual/ 12_5. htm). Human

Resources Policy and Practices Manual. Maine Bureau of Human Resources. Retrieved 2009-02-25.• "Massachusetts Legal Holidays" (http:/ / www. sec. state. ma. us/ cis/ cishol/ holidx. htm). Citizen Information

Service. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2009-02-25.• "Minute Man NHP Things To Do" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/ planyourvisit/ placestogo. htm). National Park

Service. Retrieved 2008-11-03.• "NPS Museum Collections "American Revolutionary War": Riflemen" (http:/ / www. cr. nps. gov/ museum/

exhibits/ revwar/ vafo/ vaforifle. html). Valley Forge National Historical Park. National Park Service MuseumCollections. Retrieved 2007-04-19.

• "Time Magazine, April 25, 1975" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,917381,00. html).Time Magazine. 1975-04-25. Retrieved 2008-11-04.

Battles of Lexington and Concord 32

• "Wisconsin Public School Observance Days" (http:/ / dpi. wi. gov/ eis/ observe. html). Wisconsin Department ofPublic Instruction. Retrieved 2009-02-25.

External links• National Park Service site for Minute Man National Historical Park (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/ )• Why We Remember Lexington and Concord and the 19th of April (http:/ / rjohara. net/ gen/ wars/ minuteman)• Rescued cannon returns to Concord (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/ My Webs/ myweb/ The Hancock Returns.

htm)• Battles of Lexington and Concord (http:/ / www. generalatomic. com/ AmericanHistory/ lexington. html)• Articles about the Concord Fight in Concord Magazine (http:/ / www. concordma. com/ concordfight/ toc. html)• Animated History of the Battles of Lexington and Concord (http:/ / www. revolutionarywaranimated. com/ lex)• Concord Massachusetts (http:/ / www. revolutionaryday. com/ usroute20/ concord/ default. htm)• Merriam's Corner (http:/ / www. justice101us. com/ merriam. htm)• "Colonial towns, by the numbers" (http:/ / www. wickedlocal. com/ lexington/ fun/ entertainment/ arts/

x1605763724). Retrieved 2010-04-25. Facts and figures on Acton, Bedford, Concord and Lexington of theperiod, including the rosters of the towns' Minute Men and Militia

• Statements of American combatants at Lexington and Concord (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ files/ 20636/20636-8. txt) contained in supplement “Official Papers Concerning the Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord” toThe Military Journals of Private Soldiers, 1758-1775, by Abraham Tomlinson for the Poughkeepsie, NYmuseum, 1855.

• Teach this article at the Wikischool (http:/ / www. wikischool. us/ instructor_pages/ vol_1_files/ Page315. htm)

33

Siege of Boston

Siege of BostonThe Siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War,in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town ofBoston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within. The Americans, led by GeorgeWashington, eventually forced the British to withdraw from the town after an 11-month siege.The siege began on April 19 after the battles of Lexington and Concord, when the militia from many Massachusettscommunities surrounded Boston and blocked land access to the then-peninsular town, limiting British resupply tonaval operations. The Continental Congress chose to adopt the militia and form the Continental Army, andunanimously elected George Washington as its Commander in Chief. In June 1775, the British seized Bunker andBreeds Hills, but the casualties they suffered were so heavy that they could not break the siege. For the rest of thesiege, there was little action other than occasional raids, minor skirmishes, and sniper fire. Both sides had to dealwith resource supply and personnel issues over the course of the siege.In November 1775, Washington sent a 25 year-old bookseller-turned-soldier named Henry Knox to bring heavyartillery that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga to Boston. In a technically complex and demanding operation,Knox brought many cannons to the Boston area in January 1776. In March 1776, these artillery were used to fortifyDorchester Heights, overlooking Boston and its harbor and threatening the British naval supply lifeline. The Britishcommander William Howe, realizing he could no longer hold the town, chose to evacuate it. He withdrew the Britishforces, departing on March 17 (celebrated today as Evacuation Day) for Halifax, Nova Scotia.

BackgroundPrior to 1775, the British had imposed taxes and import duties on the American colonies, to which the colonistsobjected, since they lacked representation in the British Parliament. In response to the Boston Tea Party and otheracts of protest, 4,000 British troops under the leadership of General Thomas Gage were sent to occupy the city ofBoston and to pacify the restive Province of Massachusetts Bay.[1] Gage, among other actions authorized by theBritish parliament in the so-called Intolerable Acts, disbanded the local provincial government (led by John Hancockand Samuel Adams), which reformed itself into a Provincial Congress, and continued to meet. The ProvincialCongress called for the organization of local militias and coordinated the accumulation of weapons and othermilitary supplies.[2] Under the terms of the Boston Port Act, Gage closed the Boston port, which caused muchunemployment and discontent.[3]

When British forces were sent to take military supplies from the town of Concord on April 19, 1775, militiacompanies from surrounding towns opposed them in the Battles of Lexington and Concord.[4] At Concord, some ofthe British forces were routed in a confrontation at the North Bridge. The British troops were again attacked in arunning battle on their return to Boston, suffering heavy casualties.[5] All of the New England colonies (and latercolonies further south) raised militias in response to this alarm, and sent them to Boston.[6]

Siege of Boston 34

Siege

1775 map of the Battle of Lexingtonand Concord and the Siege of

Boston.

Digging in

The Siege of Boston 1775-1776

In the immediate aftermath of the battles of the 19th,the Massachusetts militia, under the loose leadershipof William Heath, who was superseded by GeneralArtemas Ward late on the 20th,[7] formed a siegeline extending from Chelsea, around the peninsulasof Boston and Charlestown, to Roxbury, effectivelysurrounding Boston on three sides. They particularlyblocked the Charlestown Neck (the only land accessto Charlestown), and the Boston Neck (the only landaccess to Boston, which was then a peninsula),leaving only the harbor and sea access under Britishcontrol. In the days immediately following, the sizeof the colonial forces grew, as militias from NewHampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut arrivedon the scene.[6] General Gage wrote of his surpriseof the number of rebels surrounding the city: "Therebels are not the despicable rabble too many havesupposed them to be....In all their wars against theFrench they never showed such conduct, attention,and perseverance as they do now."[8]

In the surrounded city of Boston, Gage turned hisattention to fortifying easily defensible positions. Inthe south, at Roxbury, Gage ordered lines ofdefenses with 10 twenty-four pound guns. On the

peninsula of Boston itself, four hills were quickly fortified. They were to be the main defense of the city.[9] Overtime, each of these hills were strengthened.[10] Gage also decided to abandon Charlestown, removing thebeleaguered forces (that had retreated from Concord) to Boston. The town of Charlestown itself was entirely vacant,and the high lands of Charlestown (Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill) were left undefended, as were the heights ofDorchester, which had a commanding view of the harbor and the city.[11]

The British at first greatly restricted movement in and out of the city, fearing infiltration of weapons. Besieged and besiegers eventually reached an informal agreement allowing traffic on the Boston Neck, provided no firearms were carried. Residents of Boston turned in almost 2,000 muskets, and most of the Patriot residents left the city.[12] Many

Siege of Boston 35

Loyalists who lived outside the city of Boston left their homes and fled into the city. Most of them felt that it was notsafe to live outside of the city, because the Patriots were now in control of the countryside.[13] Some of the men, afterarriving in Boston, joined Loyalist regiments attached to the British army.[14]

Since the siege did not blockade the harbor, the city remained open for the Royal Navy under Vice Admiral SamuelGraves to sail in supplies from Nova Scotia and other places. Colonial forces could do little to stop these shipmentsdue to the naval supremacy of the British fleet and the complete absence of a Continental Navy in the spring of 1775.Nevertheless, the town and the British forces were on short rations, and prices rose quickly. In addition, theAmerican forces generally had information about what was happening in the city, but General Gage had no effectiveintelligence of rebel activities.[15]

Early skirmishesOn May 3, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized Benedict Arnold to raise forces for taking FortTiconderoga near the southern end of Lake Champlain in the Province of New York, which was known to haveheavy weapons, and to be only lightly defended. Arnold arrived in Castleton (in what is now Vermont, but was thendisputed territory between New York and New Hampshire) on the 9th, where he joined with Ethan Allen and amilitia company from Connecticut, all of whom had independently arrived at the idea of taking Ticonderoga. Thiscompany, under the joint leadership of Arnold and Allen, captured Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point. Theyalso captured the one large military vessel on Lake Champlain in a raid on Fort Saint-Jean.[16] They recovered over180 cannons, as well as other weaponry and supplies that the nascent Continental Army would find useful intightening their grip on Boston.[17]

Engraving depicting Ethan Allen demanding thesurrender of Fort Ticonderoga

In Boston, there was no regular supply of fresh meat, and many horsesneeded hay. On May 21, Gage ordered a party to go to Grape Island, inthe outer harbor, and bring hay to Boston.[18] When the Continentalson the mainland noticed this, they took alarm, and the militia werecalled out. As the British party arrived, they came under fire from themilitia. The militia set fire to a barn on the island, destroying 80 tons ofhay, and prevented the British from taking more than 3 tons.[18]

Continental forces, partly in response to the Grape Island incident,worked to clear the harbor islands of livestock and supplies useful tothe British. On May 27, in the Battle of Chelsea Creek, the British

Marines attempted to stop removal of livestock from some of the islands. The Americans resisted, and, in the courseof the action, the British schooner Diana ran aground and was destroyed, but not before the Continentals recoveredits weaponry.[19] In an attempt to help quell the rebellion, Gage issued a proclamation on June 12 offering to pardonall of those who would lay down their arms, with the exception of John Hancock and Samuel Adams.[20] Instead ofquelling the rebellion, it ignited anger among the Patriots, and more people began to take up arms.[20]

Siege of Boston 36

Breed's Hill

The Battle of Bunker Hill, Howard Pyle, 1897

Throughought May, the British had been receiving reinforcements,until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, threeGenerals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne,and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning to break out of the city.[19]

The plan decided on by the British command was to fortify bothBunker Hill and Dorchester Heights. They fixed the date for takingDorchester Heights at June 18. On June 15, the colonists' Committee ofSafety learned of the British plans. In response, they sent instructionsto General Ward to fortify Bunker Hill and the heights of Charlestown;he assigned Colonel William Prescott the task. On the night of June 16,Prescott led 1200 men over the Charlestown Neck, and constructed fortifications on Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill.[21]

On June 17, in the Battle of Bunker Hill, British forces under General Howe took the Charlestown peninsula.[22] TheBritish succeeded in their tactical objective of taking the high ground on the Charlestown peninsula, but theysuffered significant losses. With some 1,000 men killed or wounded, including 92 officers killed, the British losseswere so heavy that there were no further direct attacks on American forces.[23] The Americans, while ultimatelylosing the battle, had again stood against the British regulars with some success, as they had successfully repelledtwo assaults on Breed's Hill during the engagement.[24] From this point, the siege essentially became a stalemate.

StalemateOn July 3, George Washington arrived to take charge of the new Continental Army. He set up his headquarters at ahouse in Cambridge that would later also become well known as the home of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. By thistime forces and supplies were arriving, including companies of riflemen from as far away as Maryland andVirginia.[25] Washington began the work of molding the militias into something more closely resembling an army,appointing senior officers (where the militias had typically elected their leaders), and introducing more organizationand disciplinary measures to the encamped militias.[26] He required officers of different ranks to wear differentiatingapparel, so that they might be distinguished from their underlings and superiors.[27] Toward the end of July, about2,000 riflemen arrived in units raised in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. The accuracy of the rifle waspreviously unknown in New England, and these forces were used to harass the besieged forces.[28]

George Washington taking command of theArmy.

Washington also ordered the defenses to be improved. Trenches weredug on the Boston Neck, and then extended toward Boston. However,these activities had little effect on the British occupation.[29] Theworking parties, the soldiers who worked on the fortifications on thefront lines, were fired on from time to time, as were sentries guardingthe works. On July 30, in retaliation for an American attack, the Britishpushed back an American advanced guard, and burned a few houses inRoxbury.[30] Four days later, on August 2, an American rifleman waskilled, and his body hung up by the neck. In retaliation, other Americanriflemen marched to the lines and began to attack the British troops.

They continued their sharp shooting all day, killing or wounding many of the British, and losing only one man.[31]

On August 30, the British made a surprise breakout from the Boston Neck, set fire to a tavern, and withdrew to theirdefenses.[31] On the same night, 300 Americans attacked Lighthouse Island and burned the lighthouse, killingseveral British soldiers and capturing 23 at the loss of one life.[31] On another August night, Washington sent 1,200men to dig entrenchments on a hill near the Charlestown Neck. Despite a British bombardment, the Americanssuccessfully dug the trenches.[32]

Siege of Boston 37

In early September, Washington began drawing up plans for two moves; first, to dispatch 1,000 men from Bostonand invade Quebec, and second, to launch an attack on Boston.[33] Washington felt that he could afford to send sometroops to Quebec, as he had received intelligence from British deserters and American spies that the British had nointention of launching an attack from Boston until they were reinforced.[34] On September 11, about 1,100 troopsunder the command of Benedict Arnold left for Quebec.[35] Washington summoned a council of war, and made acase for an all out amphibious assault on Boston, by sending troops across Back Bay in flat-bottomed boats whichcould hold 50 men each.[36] Washington believed it would be extremely difficult to keep the men together whenwinter came. After discussion, the plan was unanimously rejected, and the decision was not to attack "for the presentat least."[36]

The British defenses in Boston, 1775.

September also saw the beginning of the Continental Navy, when onthe 2nd Washington authorized the appropriation and outfitting of localfishing vessels for intelligence-gathering and interdiction of supplies tothe British, to the extent possible. This authorization was in addition toauthorizations of privateering activities by the provincial Congresses ofConnecticut and Rhode Island.[37]

In early November, 400 British soldiers went to Lechmere's Point on araiding expedition to acquire some livestock. They made off with 10head of cattle, but lost two lives in the skirmish with colonial troopssent to defend the point.[38] [39] On November 29, colonial CaptainJohn Manley, commanding the schooner Lee, captured one of the mostvaluable prizes of the siege, the British brigantine Nancy, just outsideBoston Harbor. She was carrying a large supply of ordnance andmilitary stores intended for the British troops in Boston.[40] OnNovember 11, 1775, Washington wrote to Congress of an incidentduring the siege, in which Col. Woodbridge and part of his 25thRegiment (Massachusetts) joined with Col. William Thompson’sPennsylvania Regiment, defending against a British landing atLechmere’s Point, and “gallantly waded through the water, and soon obliged the enemy to embark under cover of aman-of-war…”[41]

As winter approached, both sides faced their own problems. The Americans were so short on gunpowder thatsoldiers were given spears to fight with in the event of a British attack.[42] Many of the American troops remainedunpaid and many of their enlistments would be up at the end of the year. On the British side Howe, who had replacedGage as commander in October, was faced with different problems. Wood was so scarce that they began cuttingdown trees and tearing down old houses. To add to this, supplying the city had become increasingly difficult becauseof winter storms and American privateers patrolling the waters outside of Boston.[42] The British troops were sohungry that many were ready to desert as soon as they could. Worse, scurvy and smallpox had broken out in thecity.[43]

Washington again proposed to assault Boston in October, but his officers thought it best to wait until the harbor hadfrozen over.[44] In February, when the water had frozen between Roxbury and Boston Common, Washington thoughtthat in spite of his shortage in powder he would try an assault by rushing across the ice; but his officers again advisedagainst it. Washington's desire to launch an attack on Boston arose from his fear that his army would desert in thewinter, and how easily he knew that Howe could break the lines of his army in its present condition. He had not yetlearned how completely he could trust in Howe's inactivity; he abandoned an attack across the ice with greatreluctance in exchange for a more cautious plan, to fortify Dorchester Heights using cannon arrived from FortTiconderoga.[45] [46]

Siege of Boston 38

In mid-January, on orders from London, British Major General Henry Clinton and a small fleet set sail for theCarolinas with 1,500 men. Their objective was to take a port in the southern colonies for further military operationsin the Southern theater[47] In early February a British raiding party crossed the ice and burned several farmhouses inDorchester.[48]

End of the siege

Henry Knox bringing his "noble train" of artilleryto Cambridge.

Between November 1775 and February 1776, Henry Knox and a teamof engineers used sledges to retrieve 60 tons of heavy artillery that hadbeen captured at Fort Ticonderoga. Bringing them across the frozenHudson and Connecticut rivers in a technically challenging andcomplex operation, they arrived back at Cambridge on January 24,1776.[49]

Fortification of Dorchester Heights

Some of the Ticonderoga cannons, which were of a size and range notpreviously available to the Americans, were emplaced in fortificationsaround the city, and on the night of March 2, the Americans began tobombard the city with those cannon, to which the British responded with cannonades of their own.[50] The Americanguns, under the direction of Colonel Knox, continued to exchange fire with the British until March 4. The exchangeof fire did little damage to either side, although it did damage houses and kill some British soldiers in Boston.[51] OnMarch 5, Washington moved more of the Ticonderoga cannon and several thousand men overnight to occupyDorchester Heights, overlooking Boston. Since it was winter and the continental army was unable to dig into thefrozen ground on Dorchester Heights, rather than entrenching themselves, Washington's men used logs, branches andanything else available to fortify the position overnight. General Howe is said to have exclaimed, "My God, thesefellows have done more work in one night than I could make my army do in three months."[52] The British fleet waswithin range of the American guns on Dorchester Heights, putting it and the troops in the city at risk.[53]

The immediate response of the British was a two hour cannon barrage at the heights, which had no effect because theBritish guns could not reach the American guns at such height.[54] After the failure of the barrage, Howe and hisofficers agreed that the colonists must be removed from the heights if they were to hold Boston. They planned anassault on the heights; however, due to a storm the attack never took place, and the British elected instead towithdraw.[55]

On March 8, some prominent Bostonians sent a letter to Washington, stating that the British would not destroy thetown if they were allowed to depart unmolested. Washington was given the letter, but formally rejected it, as it wasnot addressed to him by either name or title.[56] However, the letter had the intended effect: when the evacuationbegan, there was no American fire to hinder the British departure. On March 9, after seeing movement on Nook'sHill on Dorchester, the British opened a massive fire barrage that lasted all night. It killed four men with onecannonball, but that was all the damage that was done.[57] The next day, the colonists went out and collected the 700cannonballs that had been fired at them.[57]

EvacuationOn March 10, General Howe issued a proclamation ordering the inhabitants to give up all linen and woolen goods that could be used by the colonists to continue the war. A Loyalist, Crean Brush, was authorized to receive these goods, in return for which he gave certificates that were effectively worthless.[58] Over the next week, the British fleet sat in Boston harbor waiting for favorable winds, while loyalists and the remaining British soldiers were loaded onto the ships. During this time, American naval activities outside the harbor successfully captured and diverted to

Siege of Boston 39

ports under colonial control several British supply ships.[59] On March 15, the wind became favorable, but beforethey could leave, it turned against them. On March 17 the wind once again turned favorable. The troops, who wereauthorized to burn the town if there were any disturbances while they were marching to their ships,[58] began tomove out at 4:00 a.m. By 9:00 a.m., all ships were underway.[60] The fleet departing from Boston included 120ships, with more than 11,000 people aboard. Of those, 9,906 were British troops, 667 were women, and 553 werechildren.[61]

Aftermath

Americans clean upOnce the British fleet sailed away, the Americans moved to reclaim Boston and Charlestown. At first, they thoughtthat the British were still on Bunker Hill, but it turned out that the British had left dummies in place.[61] Due to therisk of smallpox, at first only men picked for their prior exposure to the disease entered Boston under the commandof Artemas Ward. More of the colonial army entered on March 20, once the risk of disease was judged low.[62]

While Washington had essentially acceded to the British threat to burn Boston, and had not hindered their departurefrom the city, he did not make their escape from the outer harbor entirely easy. He directed Captain Manley to harassthe departing British fleet, in which he had some success, capturing among other prizes the ship carrying CreanBrush and his plunder.[63]

General Howe, when his fleet finally left the outer harbor, left in his wake a small contingent of vessels whoseprimary purpose was to intercept any arriving British vessels. While they successfully redirected to Halifaxnumerous ships carrying British troops originally destined for Boston, some unsuspecting British troop ships landedin Boston, only to fall into American hands.[64]

The British departure ended major military activities in the New England colonies. Washington, fearing that theBritish were going to attack New York City, departed on April 4 with his army for Manhattan, which would beginthe New York and New Jersey campaign.[65]

Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, by John Trumbull

Fate of the British Generals

General Howe would be severely criticized in theBritish press and Parliament for his failures in theBoston campaign. General Gage was never givenanother command. General Burgoyne would see actionin the Saratoga Campaign, a disaster that saw hiscapture, as well as that of 7,500 troops under hiscommand. General Clinton would command the Britishforces in America for four years (1778–1782), only tobe recalled.[66]

Fate of the Loyalists

Many Massachusetts Loyalists left with the British when they evacuated Boston. Some returned to England torebuild lives there, and some returned to America after the war. Many stayed in Nova Scotia, settling in places likeSaint John, and many became active in the future development of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.[67]

Siege of Boston 40

Fate of the City of BostonBoston effectively ceased to be a military target. It continued to be a focal point for revolutionary activities, with itsport acting as an important point for fitting ships of war and privateers. Its leading citizens would have importantroles in the development of the future United States.[68] Boston and other area communities mark the March 17 endof the siege as Evacuation Day.

Footnotes[1] Chidsey, p. 5[2] Frothingham, pp. 35, 54[3] Frothingham, p. 7[4] McCullough, p. 7[5] See Battles of Lexington and Concord for the full story.[6] Frothingham, pp. 100-101[7] McCullough, p. 35[8] Harvey, p. 1[9] French, p. 236[10] French, p. 237[11] French, pp. 126-128,220[12] Chidsey, p. 53[13] French, p. 228[14] French, p. 234[15] McCullough, p. 118[16] Fisher, pp. 318-321[17] Chidsey, p. 60[18] French, p. 248[19] French, p. 249[20] French, p. 251[21] French, pp. 255-258[22] French, p. 288[23] French, p. 284[24] French, pp. 272-273[25] Chidsey, p. 117[26] Chidsey, p. 113[27] Chidsey, p. 112[28] Frothingham, pp. 227-228[29] McCullough, p. 10[30] French, p. 337[31] McCullough, p. 39[32] French, p. 311[33] McCullough, p. 50[34] McCullough, p. 51[35] Smith, pp. 57-58[36] McCullough, p. 53[37] French, pp. 319-320[38] French, p. 338[39] Frothingham, p. 267[40] Chidsey, p. 133[41] Sparks, Jared: The Writings of George Washington, Vol III, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston (1855) p. 157.[42] McCullough, p. 60[43] McCullough, p. 61[44] French, p. 330[45] Fisher, p. 1[46] Frothingham, pp. 295-296[47] McCullough, p. 78[48] McCullough, p. 86[49] McCullough, p. 84

Siege of Boston 41

[50] McCullough, p. 91[51] McCullough, p. 92[52] McCullough, p. 93[53] Frothingham, pp. 298-299[54] McCullough, p. 94[55] McCullough, p. 95[56] Frothingham, pp. 303-304[57] McCullough, p. 99[58] McCullough, p. 104[59] Frothingham, p. 308[60] Frothingham, p. 309[61] McCullough, p. 105[62] Frothingham, pp. 310-311[63] French, p. 429[64] French, p. 436[65] McCullough, p. 112[66] French, pp. 437-438[67] French, pp. 438-439[68] French, pp. 441-443

References• Boatner, Mark (1966). The Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. McKay. ISBN 0811705781.• Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r8yRAAAAIAAJ&

pgis=1). New York: Crown Publishers.• Fisher, Sydney George (1908). The Struggle for American Independence (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=rDQSAAAAYAAJ). J.B. Lippincott Company.• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). McMillan.• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and

Bunker Hill (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Little and Brown.• Harvey, Robert (2002). A Few Bloody Noses: The Realities and Mythologies of the American Revolution.

Overlook Press. pp. 160. ISBN 1585672734.• McCullough, David (2005). 1776. Simon and Schuster Paperback. ISBN 0743226720.• Smith, Justin H (1903). Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=vlU06ifA9ZEC). New York: G. P. Putnams Sons.

Battle of Bunker Hill 42

Battle of Bunker HillThe Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, mostly on and around Breed's Hill, during the Siege ofBoston early in the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after the adjacent Bunker Hill, which wasperipherally involved in the battle and was the original objective of both colonial and British troops, and isoccasionally referred to as the "Battle of Breed's Hill."On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British generals were planningto send troops out from the city to occupy the unoccupied hills surrounding the city. In response to this intelligence,1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill,constructed an earthen redoubt on Breed's Hill, and built lightly fortified lines across most of the CharlestownPeninsula.When the British were alerted to the presence of the new position the next day, they mounted an attack against them.After two assaults on the colonial lines were repulsed with significant British casualties, the British finally capturedthe positions on the third assault, after the defenders in the redoubt ran out of ammunition. The colonial forcesretreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, suffering their most significant losses on Bunker Hill.While the result was a victory for the British, they suffered heavy losses: over 800 wounded and 226 killed,including a notably large number of officers. The battle is seen as an example of a Pyrrhic victory, because theimmediate gain (the capture of Bunker Hill) was modest and did not significantly change the state of the siege, whilethe cost (the loss of nearly a third of the deployed forces) was high. Meanwhile, colonial forces were able to retreatand regroup in good order having suffered few casualties. Furthermore, the battle demonstrated that relativelyinexperienced colonial forces were willing and able to stand up to regular army troops in a pitched battle.

GeographyBoston, situated on a peninsula,[1] was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surroundingit, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775, the colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men[2] had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Underthe command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but,lacking a navy, were unable to control or even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The Britishtroops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to beresupplied and reinforced by sea.[3] They were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely.However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, which could be used to advantage.[4] Ifthe militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city untilthe occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by HenryKnox, later transported cannon from Fort Ticonderoga to the Boston area.[5]

The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as theCharlestown Neck) at its northwest, extending about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill,with an elevation of 110 feet (34 m), lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed's Hill, at a height of 62 feet(19 m), was more southerly and nearer to Boston.[6] The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end ofthe peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1000 feet (305 m) separated the Charlestown Peninsula from theBoston Peninsula, where Copp's Hill was at about the same height as Breed's Hill. While the British retreat fromConcord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, hadwithdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man'sland.[7]

Battle of Bunker Hill 43

British planning

The Battle of Bunker Hill, by Howard Pyle, 1897.

Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support,the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength ofabout 6,000 men. On May 25, three Generals arrived onHMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton.Gage began planning with them to break out of the city,[8] finalizing aplan on June 12.[9] This plan began with the taking of the DorchesterNeck, fortifying the Dorchester Heights, and then marching on thecolonial forces stationed in Roxbury. Once the southern flank had beensecured, the Charlestown heights would be taken, and the forces inCambridge driven away. The attack was set for June 18.[10]

On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee ofSafety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity" had, while visitingBoston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown.[11] On June 15, theMassachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected.[12] General Ward directedGeneral Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.[13]

Prelude to battle

The first British attack on Bunker Hill. Shadedareas are hills.

Fortification of Breed's Hill

On the night of June 16, colonial Colonel William Prescott led about1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from whichartillery fire could be directed into Boston.[14] This force was made upof men from the regiments of Prescott, Putnam (the unit wascommanded by Thomas Knowlton), James Frye, and EbenezerBridge.[15] At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, CaptainRichard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate theirdefense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed's Hillwas closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguablyagainst orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there.[16]

Prescott and his men, using Gridley's outline, began digging a squarefortification about 130 feet (40 m) on a side with ditches and earthenwalls. The walls of the redoubt were about 6 feet (1.8 m) high, with awooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over thewalls.[17]

The works on Breed's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm.[18] Then, in the early predawn, around 4:00 am, a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, temporarily halting the colonists' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke, irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered.[19] He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he became fully aware of the situation in the morning. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp's Hill in Boston, to fire on the colonial position, which had relatively little effect.[20] The rising sun also alerted Prescott to a significant problem with the location of the redoubt – it could

Battle of Bunker Hill 44

easily be flanked on either side.[18] He promptly ordered his men to begin constructing a breastwork running downthe hill to the east, deciding he did not have the manpower to also build additional defenses to the west of theredoubt.[21]

1775 map of the Boston area (contains someinaccuracies)

British preparations

When the British generals met to discuss their options, GeneralClinton, who had urged an attack as early as possible, recommended anattack beginning from the Charlestown Neck that would cut off thecolonists' retreat, reducing the process of capturing the new redoubt toone of starving out its occupants. However, he was outvoted by theother three generals. Howe, who was the senior officer present andwould lead the assault, was of the opinion that the hill was "open andeasy of ascent and in short would be easily carried".[22] Orders werethen issued to prepare the expedition.[23]

When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized hisbrother-in-law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight?" asked Gage. "[A]s to his men, I cannot answer for them;" repliedWillard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell."[24] Prescott lived up to Willard's word, but his menwere not so resolute. When the colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica,[25] a young privatekilled by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him asolemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.[24]

It took almost six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade.General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the colonial left flank, and take them from the rear.Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt, and Major JohnPitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe's initial forces (consistingof about 1,500 men) to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton's Point.[26] [27] By 2 pm, Howe'schosen force had landed.[26] However, while crossing the river, Howe noted the large number of colonial troops ontop of Bunker Hill. Believing these to be reinforcements, he immediately sent a message to Gage, requestingadditional troops. He then ordered some of the light infantry to take a forward position along the eastern side of thepeninsula, alerting the colonists to his intended course of action. The troops then sat down to eat while they waitedfor the reinforcements.[27]

Battle of Bunker Hill 45

Colonists reinforce their positions

The second British attack on Bunker Hill.

Prescott, seeing the British preparations, called for reinforcements.Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren, the popular youngleader of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, and Seth Pomeroy,an aging Massachusetts militia leader. Both of these men heldcommissions of rank, but chose to serve as infantry.[26] Prescottordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend theleft flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, andtopped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three smallv-shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott's breastwork.Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under ColonelsJohn Stark and James Reed. Stark's men, who did not arrive until afterHowe landed his forces (and thus filled a gap in the defense that Howecould have taken advantage of, had he pressed his attack sooner),[28]

took positions along the breastwork on the northern end of the colonialposition. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to thenorth, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water's edge.[28] [29] Colonel Stark placed astake about 100 feet (30 m) in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it.[30] Just priorto the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer,Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, as well as Callender's company of artillery.[31]

Behind the colonial lines, confusion reigned. Many units sent toward the action stopped before crossing theCharlestown Neck from Cambridge, which was under constant fire from gun batteries to the south. Others reachedBunker Hill, but then, uncertain about where to go from there, milled around. One commentator wrote of the scenethat "it appears to me there never was more confusion and less command".[32] While General Putnam was on thescene attempting to direct affairs, unit commanders often misunderstood or disobeyed orders.[32]

AssaultBy 3 pm, the British reinforcements, which included the 47th Foot and the 1st Marines, had arrived, and the Britishwere ready to march.[33] Brigadier General Pigot's force, gathering just south of Charlestown village, were takingcasualties from sniper fire, and Howe asked Admiral Graves for assistance in clearing out the snipers. Graves, whohad planned for such a possibility, ordered incendiary shot fired into the village, and then sent a landing party to setfire to the town.[34] The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as thewinds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle.[35]

Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn's Marines, were to feintan assault on the redoubt. However, they continued to be harried by snipers in Charlestown, and Pigot, when he sawwhat happened to Howe's advance, ordered a retreat.[36]

General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank, expecting aneasy effort against Stark's recently arrived troops.[37] His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, in column,in order to turn the far left flank of the colonial position.[38] The grenadiers were deployed in the middle. They linedup four deep and several hundred across. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurelyfired, drawing an ineffective volley of return fire from the regulars. When the regulars finally closed within range,both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, using the fence to steady and aimtheir muskets, and benefit from a modicum of cover. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regularsretreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.[39]

Battle of Bunker Hill 46

The third and final British attack on Bunker Hill

The regulars reformed on the field and marched out again. This time,Pigot was not to feint; he was to assault the redoubt, possibly withoutthe assistance of Howe's force. Howe, instead of marching againstStark's position along the beach, marched instead against Knowlton'sposition along the rail fence. The outcome of the second attack wasmuch the same as the first. One British observer wrote, "Most of ourGrenadiers and Light-infantry, the moment of presenting themselveslost three-fourths, and many nine-tenths, of their men. Some had onlyeight or nine men a company left ..."[40] Pigot did not fare any better inhis attack on the redoubt, and again ordered a retreat.[41] Meanwhile, inthe rear of the colonial forces, confusion continued to reign. GeneralPutnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops fromBunker Hill to Breed's Hill to support the men in the redoubt and alongthe defensive lines.[42]

The British rear was also in some disarray. Wounded soldiers that weremobile had made their way to the landing areas, and were being ferried back to Boston, and the wounded lying onthe field of battle were the source of moans and cries of pain.[43] General Howe, deciding that he would try again,sent word to General Clinton in Boston for additional troops. Clinton, who had watched the first two attacks, sentabout 400 men from the 2nd Marines and the 63rd Foot, and then followed himself to help rally the troops. Inaddition to the new reserves, he also convinced about 200 of the wounded to form up for the third attack.[44] Duringthe interval between the second and third assaults, General Putnam continued trying to direct troops toward theaction. Some companies, and leaderless groups of men, moved toward the action; others retreated. John Chester, aConnecticut captain, seeing an entire company in retreat, ordered his company to aim muskets at that company tohalt its retreat; they turned about and headed back to the battlefield.[45]

The third assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the colonists' flank), was successful, although thecolonists again poured musket fire into the British ranks, and it cost the life of Major Pitcairn.[46] The defenders hadrun out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered theredoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets while most of the colonists were not. ColonelPrescott, one of the last colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre.[47]

It is during the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed.[48]

The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat ofthe forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of thehill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and militaryskill", was so effective that most of the wounded were saved;[49] most of the prisoners taken by the British weremortally wounded.[49] General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of thecolonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists sufferedmost of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 pm, the colonists had retreated over the CharlestownNeck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.[48]

Battle of Bunker Hill 47

Aftermath

The Bunker Hill Monument

The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they suffered 1,054casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), with a disproportionate number of theseofficers. The casualty count was the highest suffered by the British in any singleencounter during the entire war.[50] General Clinton, echoing Pyrrhus of Epirus,remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put anend to British dominion in America."[51] British dead and wounded included 100commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in NorthAmerica.[52] Much of General Howe's field staff was among the casualties.[53]

Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombiefatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported thefollowing officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):[54]

• 1 lieutenant colonel killed• 2 majors killed, 3 wounded

• 7 captains killed, 27 wounded• 9 lieutenants killed, 32 wounded• 15 sergeants killed, 42 wounded• 1 drummer killed, 12 woundedThe colonial losses were about 450, of whom 140 were killed. Most of the colonial losses came during thewithdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was technically the highest ranking colonial officer to die in the battle; he washit by cannon fire on Charlestown neck, the last person to be killed in the battle. He was later commemorated by thededication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine.[55] A serious loss to the Patriot cause, however, was the death of Dr.Joseph Warren. He was the President of Massachusetts' Provincial Congress, and he had been appointed a MajorGeneral on June 14. His commission had not yet taken effect when he served as a volunteer private three days laterat Bunker Hill.[56] Only thirty men were captured by the British, most of them with grievous wounds; twenty diedwhile held prisoner. The colonials also lost numerous shovels and other entrenching tools, as well as 5 out of the 6cannon they had brought to the peninsula.[57]

Political consequencesWhen news of the battle spread through the colonies, it was reported as a colonial loss, as the ground had been takenby the enemy, and significant casualties were incurred. George Washington, who was on his way to Boston as thenew commander of the Continental Army, received news of the battle while in New York City. The report, whichincluded casualty figures that were somewhat inaccurate, gave Washington hope that his army might prevail in theconflict.[58]

"We have ... learned one melancholy truth, which is, that the Americans, if they were equally well commanded, are full as goodsoldiers as ours."[59]

A British officer in Boston, after the battle

The Massachusetts Committee of Safety, seeking to repeat the sort of propaganda victory it won following the battles at Lexington and Concord, commissioned a report of the battle to send to England. Their report, however, did not reach England before Gage's official account arrived on July 20. His report unsurprisingly caused friction and argument between the Tories and the Whigs, but the casualty counts alarmed the military establishment, and forced many to rethink their views of colonial military capability.[60] King George's attitude toward the colonies hardened, and the news may have contributed to his rejection of the Continental Congress' Olive Branch Petition, the last substantive political attempt at reconciliation. Sir James Adolphus Oughton, part of the Tory majority, wrote to Lord

Battle of Bunker Hill 48

Dartmouth of the colonies, "the sooner they are made to Taste Distress the sooner will [Crown control over them] beproduced, and the Effusion of Blood be put a stop to."[61] This hardening of the British position also led to ahardening of previously weak support for the rebellion, especially in the southern colonies, in favor ofindependence.[61]

Gage's report had a more direct effect on his own career. His dismissal from office was decided just three days afterhis report was received, although General Howe did not replace him until October 1775.[62] Gage wrote anotherreport to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed toreduce these people", that would require "the hiring of foreign troops."[63]

AnalysisMuch has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tacticalmissteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some thingsseem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.

Colonial faultsThe colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam leading inthe field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening page of the drama, when a tacticaldecision was made that had strategic implications. Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention oforders, decided to fortify Breed's Hill rather than Bunker Hill.[16] The fortification of Breed's Hill was moreprovocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibilityof being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and takecontrol of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewercasualties.[64]

A historic map of Bunker Hill featuring militarynotes

While the front lines of the colonial forces were generally wellmanaged, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, wassignificantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain ofcommand. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward'sand Putnam's authority,[65] and some commanders also disobeyedorders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on thethird British assault. Several officers were subjected to court martialand cashiered.[66] Colonel Prescott was of the opinion that the thirdassault would have been repulsed, had his forces in the redoubt beenreinforced with either more men, or more supplies of ammunition andpowder.[67]

British faultsThe British leadership, for its part, was slow to act once the works on Breed's Hill were spotted. It was 2 pm whenthe troops were ready for the assault, roughly ten hours after the Lively first opened fire. This leisurely pace gave thecolonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended.[68] Gage and Howe decidedthat a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control ofCharlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory.[64] (This move would not have been withoutrisks of its own, as the colonists could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground inCambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient tobeat the strength of the province".[69]

Battle of Bunker Hill 49

"View of the Attack on Bunker's Hill with theBurning of Charlestown" by Lodge

Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted(twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flankingmaneuver against the colonial left. It was only with the third attack,when the flank attack was merely a feint,[70] and the main force (nowalso reinforced with additional reserves) was squarely targeted at theredoubt, that the attack succeeded.[71]

Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had atactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge.General Clinton proposed this to Howe; having just led three assaultswith grievous casualties, he declined the idea.[72] Howe was eventuallyrecognized by the colonial military leaders to be a tentative decision-maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of theBattle of Long Island, he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington's army into his hands,but again refused to act.[73]

"The whites of their eyes"The famous order "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" was popularized in stories about the battle ofBunker Hill. It is uncertain as to who said it there, since various histories, including eyewitness accounts,[74] attributeit to Putnam, Stark, Prescott or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It wasalso not an original statement. It was used by General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, when his troopsdefeated Montcalm's army on September 13, 1759.[75] The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingenon June 27, 1743, where Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal ScotsFusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white's of their e'en."[76] The phrase was also used by Prince Charles ofPrussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the colonialmilitary leaders were familiar with.[77] Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the colonialmilitary leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have thegreatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.[78]

Notable participants

- According to the John Trumbull painting, this flag of New England was carried by

the colonists during the battle. - This flag, known as the Bunker Hill flag, is also associated with the battle. A significant number of notable people fought in this battle. Henry Dearborn and William Eustis, for example, went on to distinguished military and political careers; both served in Congress, the Cabinet, and in diplomatic posts. Others, like John Brooks, Henry Burbeck, Christian Febiger, Thomas Knowlton, and John Stark, became well known for later actions in the war.[79] [80] Stark became known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his role in the 1777 Battle of Bennington. Free African-Americans also fought in the battle, notable examples include Barzillai Lew, Salem Poor, and Peter Salem[81] [82] (the leadership would not allow slaves to fight, as this was anathema to the very idea of the freedom for which they were fighting). Another notable participant was Daniel

Battle of Bunker Hill 50

Shays, who later became famous for his army of protest in Shays' Rebellion.[83] Israel Potter was immortalized inIsrael Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, a novel by Herman Melville.[84] [85] Colonel John Patterson (New York),commanded the Massachusetts First Militia, served in Shay's Rebellion, and became a US Congressman from NewYork.[86] Lt. Col. Seth Read, who served under John Patterson at Bunker Hill, went on to settle Geneva, New Yorkand Erie, Pennsylvania, and was said to have been instrumental in the phrase E Pluribus Unum being added to USCoins.[87] [88] [89] [90] </ref>[91]

CommemorationsJohn Trumbull's painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (pictured above), while anidealized and inaccurate depiction of Warren's death, shows a number of participants in the battle. John Small, aBritish officer who was among those storming the redoubt, was a friend of Israel Putnam's and an acquaintance ofTrumbull. He is depicted holding Warren and preventing a redcoat from bayoneting him.[92]

The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 221 feet (67 m) high on Breed's Hill. On June 17, 1825, thefiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and anaddress delivered by Daniel Webster.[93] (When Lafayette died, he was buried next to his wife at the Cimetière dePicpus under soil from Bunker Hill, which his son Georges sprinkled upon him.)[94] The Leonard P. Zakim BunkerHill Memorial Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument.[95] There is also a statue of WilliamPrescott showing him calming his men down.The National Park Service operates a museum dedicated to the battle near the monument, which is part of the BostonNational Historical Park.[96] A cyclorama of the battle was added in 2007 when the museum was renovated.[97]

Bunker Hill clipper ship

Bunker Hill Day, observed every June 17, is a legal holiday in SuffolkCounty, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston), as well asSomerville in Middlesex County. Prospect Hill, site of colonialfortifications overlooking the Charlestown neck, is now located inSomerville, which was previously part of Charlestown.[98] [99] Stateinstitutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher)located in Boston also celebrate the holiday.[100] [101] However, thestate's FY2011 budget requires all state and municipal offices inSuffolk County be open on Bunker Hill Day and Evacuation Day.[102]

On June 16 and 17, 1875, the centennial of the battle was celebrated with a military parade and a reception featuringnotable speakers, among them General William Tecumseh Sherman and Vice President Henry Wilson. It wasattended by dignitaries from across the country.[103] Celebratory events also marked the sesquicentennial (150thanniversary) in 1925 and the bicentennial in 1975.[104] [105]

Battle of Bunker Hill 51

Statue of William Prescott inCharlestown, Massachusetts

References[1] 18th century Boston was a peninsula. Primarily in the 19th century, much land around the

peninsula was filled, giving the modern city its present geography. See the history of Boston fordetails.

[2] Chidsey, p. 72 New Hampshire 1,200, Rhode Island 1,000, Connecticut 2,300, Massachusetts11,500

[3] Alden, p. 178[4] Visitors to Boston, upon seeing the nearby hills, may conclude that they are too low. The hills

were once higher, but were lowered by excavations to obtain landfill used to expand Boston in the19th century.

[5] Martin, James Kirby (1997). Benedict Arnold: Revolutionary Hero. New York: New YorkUniversity Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780814755600. OCLC 36343341.

[6] Chidsey p. 91 has an historic map showing elevations.[7] French, p. 220[8] French, p. 249[9] Brooks, p. 119[10] Ketchum, pp. 45–46[11] Ketchum, p. 47[12] Ketchum, pp. 74–75[13] French, p. 255[14] Frothingham, pp. 122–123[15] Ketchum, pp. 102, 245[16] Frothingham, pp. 123–124[17] Frothingham, p. 135[18] Ketchum, p. 115[19] Frothingham, p. 125[20] Brooks, p. 127[21] Ketchum, p. 117[22] Ketchum, pp. 120–121[23] Ketchum, p. 122[24] Graydon, p. 424[25] Chidsey, p. 84[26] Frothingham, p. 133[27] Ketchum, p. 139[28] Ketchum, p 143[29] Chidsey p. 93[30] Chidsey p. 96[31] Frothingham, p. 136[32] Ketchum, p. 147[33] Ketchum, pp. 152–153[34] Ketchum, pp. 151–152[35] Frothingham, pp. 144–145[36] Ketchum, p. 160[37] Ketchum, p. 152[38] Fusillers, Mark Urban p38[39] Frothingham, pp. 141–142[40] Ketchum, p. 161[41] Ketchum, p. 162[42] Frothingham, p. 146[43] Ketchum, p. 163[44] Ketchum, p. 164[45] Ketchum, pp. 165–166[46] Chidsey p. 99[47] Frothingham, p. 150[48] Frothingham, p. 151[49] Ketchum, p. 181[50] Brooks, p. 237

Battle of Bunker Hill 52

[51] Clinton, p. 19. General Clinton's remark is an echoing of Pyrrhus of Epirus's original sentiment after the Battle of Heraclea, "one more suchvictory and the cause is lost".

[52] Brooks, pp. 183–184[53] Frothingham, pp. 145, 196[54] Frothingham, pp. 387–389 lists the officer casualties by name, as well as this summary[55] Bardwell, p. 76[56] Ketchum, p. 150[57] Ketchum, p. 255[58] Ketchum, pp. 207–208[59] Ketchum, p. 209[60] Ketchum, pp. 208–209[61] Ketchum, p. 211[62] Ketchum, p. 213[63] Scheer, p. 64[64] Frothingham, p. 155[65] Frothingham, pp. 158–159[66] French, pp. 274–276[67] Frothingham, p. 153[68] French, pp. 263–265[69] Frothingham, p. 156[70] French, p. 277[71] Frothingham, p. 148[72] Frothingham pp. 152–153[73] Jackson, p. 20[74] Lewis, John E., ed. The Mammoth Book of How it Happened. London: Robinson, 1998. Print. P. 179[75] R. Reilly, "The Rest to Fortune: The Life of Major-General James Wolfe" (1960)[76] Anderson, p. 679[77] Winsor, p. 85[78] French, pp. 269–270[79] Abbatt, p. 252[80] Ketchum, pp. 132,165[81] Woodson, p. 204[82] Ketchum, p. 260[83] Richards, p. 95[84] Ketchum, p. 257[85] Melville[86] Congressional bio of John Patterson (http:/ / bioguide. congress. gov/ scripts/ biodisplay. pl?index=P000101)[87] Buford, Mary Hunter (1895). Seth Read, Lieut.-Col.Continental Army; Pioneer at Geneva, New York, 1787, and at Erie, Penn., June, 1795.

His Ancestors and Descendants. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ABlMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA5& lpg=PA5& dq=buford+ mary+hunter+ 1895+ "seth+ read"& source=web& ots=_540EB_Xa8& sig=L2OHCI7kvzQ2l582XuF0fvFBMUk). Boston, Mass.. pp. 167 Pages onCD in PDF Format.. .

[88] Marvin, p. 425, 436[89] "Massachusetts Coppers 1787-1788: Introduction" (http:/ / www. coins. nd. edu/ ColCoin/ ColCoinIntros/ MA-Copper. intro. html).

University of Notre Dame. . Retrieved 2007-10-09.[90] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qJUUAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA107& lpg=RA1-PA107& dq=Seth+ Reed-+ petition+ to+ mint+

coins+ in+ Massachusetts& source=web& ots=qDWGjJDk6o& sig=aicPPy3A917xqvyTcIGUvuhdbPk& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result&resnum=5& ct=result#PRA1-PA107,M1

[91] "e pluribus unum FAQ #7" (http:/ / 205. 168. 45. 71/ education/ faq/ coins/ portraits. shtml). www.treas.gov. . Retrieved 2007-09-29.[92] Bunce, p. 336[93] Hayward, p. 322[94] Clary[95] MTA Bridges[96] Bunker Hill Museum[97] McKenna[98] MA List of legal holidays[99] Somerville Environmental Services Guide[100] University of Massachusetts, Boston, observed holidays[101] Bunker Hill Day closings

Battle of Bunker Hill 53

[102] "Commonwealth of Massachusetts FY2011 Budget, Outside Section 5" (http:/ / www. mass. gov/ bb/ gaa/ fy2011/ os_11/ h5. htm). July14, 2010. . Retrieved August 6, 2010.

[103] See the Centennial Book for a complete description of the events.[104] Sesquicentennial celebration[105] New York Times, June 15, 1975

Major sourcesMost of the information about the battle itself in this article comes from the following sources.• Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing. ISBN 1-58097-007-9.

OCLC 42581510.• Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston. Boston, MA: Crown. OCLC 890813.• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and

Bunker Hill, Second Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xl4sAAAAMAAJ). Boston, MA: Charles C. Littleand James Brown. OCLC 2138693.

• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). New York:McMillan. OCLC 3927532.

• Ketchum, Richard (1999). Decisive Day: The Battle of Bunker Hill. New York: Owl Books.ISBN 0-385-41897-3. OCLC 24147566. (Paperback: ISBN 0-8050-6099-5)

Minor sourcesSpecific facts not necessarily covered by the major sources come from the following sources.• Bunce, Oliver Bell (1870). The romance of the revolution: being true stories of the adventures, romantic

incidents, hairbreath escapes, and heroic exploits of the days of '76 (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=s7ZEAAAAIAAJ& lpg=PA336& dq="John Small" "Bunker Hill"& pg=PA337#v=onepage& q="JohnSmall" "Bunker Hill"). Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. OCLC 3714510.

• Abbatt, William (ed) (1883). The Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries, volume 8 (http:/ / books.google. com/ ?id=k34FAAAAQAAJ). A.S. Barnes. OCLC 1590082.

• Alden, John R (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80366-6.• Anderson, William (1863). The Scottish Nation: Or, The Surnames, Families, Literature, Honours, and

Biographical History of the People of Scotland, volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=otxpAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA679& dq=Agnew+ cavalry+ Dettingen). Fullarton. OCLC 1290413.

• Bardwell, John D (2005). Old Kittery. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-2476-4.• Clinton, Henry; Willcox, William B. (ed) (1954). The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative of His

Campaigns, 1775–1782 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=H2AsAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press.OCLC 1305132.

• Graydon, Alexander; Littell, John Stockton (ed) (1846). Memoirs of His Own Time: With Reminiscences of theMen and Events of the Revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wvQEAAAAYAAJ). Philadelphia: Lindsay &Blakiston. OCLC 1557096.

• Hayward, John (1854). A Gazetteer of the United States of America (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=hlJ_1U2IaAIC). self published. OCLC 68756962.

• Jackson, Kenneth T; Dunbar, David S (2005). Empire City: New York Through the Centuries. ColumbiaUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10909-3.

• Melville, Herman (1855). Israel Potter: his fifty years of exile: his fifty years of exile (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=oK4BAAAAQAAJ). G. Routledge. OCLC 13065897.

• Richards, Leonard L (2003). Shays's Rebellion: The American Revolution's Final Battle. University ofPennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1870-1.

Battle of Bunker Hill 54

• Scheer, George F; Rankin, Hugh F (1987). Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes ofThose Who Fought and Lived It. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80307-9.

• Winsor, Justin; Jewett, Clarence F (1882). The Memorial History of Boston: Including Suffolk County,Massachusetts, 1630–1880, Volume 3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=z64TAAAAYAAJ). James R. Osgood.OCLC 4952179.

• Woodson, Carter Godwin; Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1917). The Journal of Negro History, Volume 2 (http:/ /books. google. com/ ?id=AECdAAAAMAAJ). Association for the Study of Negro Life and History.OCLC 1782257.

CommemorationsVarious commemorations of the battle are described in the following sources.• "Charles River Bridges" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070928042628/ http:/ / www. masspike. com/ bigdig/

background/ crb. html). Massachusetts Turnpike Authority. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. masspike.com/ bigdig/ background/ crb. html) on September 28, 2007. Retrieved November 26, 2008.

• "Massachusetts List of Legal Holidays" (http:/ / www. sec. state. ma. us/ cis/ cishol/ holidx. htm). MassachusettsSecretary of State. Retrieved December 16, 2008.

• "Environmental Guide 2008" (http:/ / www. somervillema. gov/ CoS_Content/ documents/EnvironmentalGuide2008. pdf) (pdf). City of Somerville, Massachusetts. Retrieved February 26, 2009.

• "UMass Boston Holidays observed" (http:/ / www. umb. edu/ faculty_staff/ administration_finance/Human_Resources/ Benefits/ holidays. html). University of Massachusetts, Boston. Retrieved March 16, 2009.

• "Bunker Hill Day Closings" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ local/ articles/ 2007/ 06/ 18/bunker_hill_day_closings/ ). Boston Globe. June 18, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2009.

• ), Boston (Mass; Winsor, Justin (1875). Celebration of the centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Z9V3AAAAMAAJ). Boston, MA: Boston City Council. OCLC 2776599.

• Celebration of the sesquicentennial anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1925. Boston, MA: City ofBoston. 1925. OCLC 235594934.

• "Bunker Hill Museum" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ bost/ historyculture/ bhmuseum. htm). National Park Service.Retrieved March 17, 2009.

• Clary, David (2007). Adopted Son: Washington, Lafayette, and the Friendship that Saved the Revolution (http:/ /books. google. com/ ?id=cgGgAAAACAAJ& dq=adopted+ son). New York City: Bantam Books. pp. 443–448.ISBN 9780553804355. OCLC 70407848.

• Kifner, John (July 15, 1975). "Not Unusual Occurrence: British Take Bunker Hill" (http:/ / proquest. umi. com/pqdweb?did=118450359& sid=1& Fmt=2& clientId=67991& RQT=309& VName=HNP). New York Times.Retrieved March 17, 2009. (ProQuest document number: 118450359)

• McKenna, Kathleen (June 10, 2007). "On Bunker Hill, a boost in La Fayette profile" (http:/ / www. boston. com/news/ local/ articles/ 2007/ 06/ 10/ on_bunker_hill_a_boost_in_lafayette_profile/ ). Boston Globe. RetrievedMarch 17, 2009.

Battle of Bunker Hill 55

Further reading• Doyle, Peter (1998). Bunker Hill. Charlottesville, VA: Providence Foundation. ISBN 1-887456-08-2.

OCLC 42421560.• Drake, Samuel Adams (1875). Bunker Hill: the story told in letters from the battle field by British Officers

Engaged (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=7jVCAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover). Boston: Nichols and Hall.• Elting, John R. (1975). The Battle of Bunker's Hill. Monmouth Beach, NJ: Phillip Freneau Press.

ISBN 0-912480-11-4. OCLC 2867199.• Fast, Howard (2001). Bunker Hill. New York: ibooks inc. ISBN 0-7434-2384-4. OCLC 248511443.• Swett, S (1826). History of Bunker Hill Battle, With a Plan, Second Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=QM3KyrZKnZAC). Boston, MA: Munroe and Francis. OCLC 3554078. This book contains printings of bothGage's official account and that of the Massachusetts Congress.

External links

Pages about the battle• Library of Congress page about the battle (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ ammem/ today/ jun17. html)• Bunker Hill Web Exhibit (http:/ / www. masshist. org/ bh) of the Massachusetts Historical Society• SAR Sons of Liberty Chapter list of colonial fallen at Bunker Hill (http:/ / revolutionarywararchives. org/

bunkerfallen. html)• SAR Sons of Liberty Chapter description of the battle (http:/ / revolutionarywararchives. org/ bunkerhillbattle.

html)• The Battle of Bunker Hill: Now We Are at War, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP)

lesson plan (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ NR/ twhp/ wwwlps/ lessons/ 42bunker/ 42bunker. htm)• TheAmericanRevolution.org description of the battle (http:/ / theamericanrevolution. org/ battles/ bat_bhil. asp)• BritishBattles.com description of the battle (http:/ / www. britishbattles. com/ bunker-hill. htm)• Animated History of the Battle of Bunker Hill (http:/ / www. revolutionarywaranimated. com/ bunnker-hill)

Pages about people in the battle• WGBH Forum Network-Patriots of Color:Revolutionary Heroes (http:/ / www. forum-network. org/ wgbh/

forum. php?lecture_id=1251& state=afn)• Israel Putnam Website (http:/ / www. israelputnam. com/ index. html)• Genealogy of Captain Samuel Cherry, who fought at Bunker Hill (http:/ / www. jhowell. com/ tng/ getperson.

php?personID=I1956& tree=1)• Dr. John Hart, Regimental Surgeon of Col Prescott's Regiment who treated the wounded at Bunker Hill

Other external pages• Boston National Historical Park Official Website (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ bost/ )

Battle of Chelsea Creek 56

Battle of Chelsea Creek

The Battle of Chelsea Creek was the second military engagement of the Boston campaign of the AmericanRevolutionary War. It is also known as the Battle of Noddle's Island, Battle of Hog Island and the Battle of theChelsea Estuary. This battle was fought on May 27 and 28, 1775, on Chelsea Creek and on salt marshes, mudflats,and islands of Boston Harbor, northeast of the Boston peninsula.[1] Most of these areas have since been united withthe mainland by land reclamation and are now part of East Boston, Chelsea, Winthrop, and Revere.The British colonists met their goal of strengthening the siege of Boston by removing livestock and hay on thoseislands from the reach of the British regulars. The British armed schooner Diana was also destroyed and itsweaponry was appropriated by the Colonial side. This was the first naval capture of the war, and it was a significantboost to the morale of the Colonial forces.

BackgroundThe Battle of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775 drew thousands of militia forces from throughout NewEngland to the towns surrounding Boston. These men remained in the area and their numbers grew, placing theBritish forces in Boston under siege when they blocked all land access to the peninsula. The British were still able tosail in supplies from Nova Scotia, Providence, and other places because the harbor side of the city remained underBritish naval control.[2] Colonial forces could do little to stop these shipments due to the naval supremacy of theBritish fleet and the complete absence of a Continental Navy in the spring of 1775.[3] However, there was oneremaining local area that continued to supply the British forces in Boston after the war began.Farmers to the east of the city in coastal areas and on the Boston Harbor islands found themselves vulnerable oncethe siege began because they were exposed to British influence from the sea. If they continued to sell livestock to theregulars they would be viewed as Loyalists in the eyes of the Patriots, but if they refused to sell then the Britishwould consider them rebels and raiding parties would simply take what they wanted.[4] On May 14, theMassachusetts Committee of Safety under Joseph Warren issued the following order:

Resolved, as their opinion, that all the live stock be taken from Noddle's Island, Hog Island, Snake Island, andfrom that part of Chelsea near the sea coast, and be driven back; and that the execution of this business becommitted to the committees of correspondence and selectmen of the towns of Medford, Malden, Chelsea, andLynn, and that they be supplied with such a number of men, as they shall need, from the regiment now atMedford.[4]

A few days before the battle, Warren and General Artemas Ward, commander of the besieging forces, inspectedNoddle's Island and Hog Island, which lay to the northeast of Boston, and east of Charlestown. They found noBritish troops there but plenty of livestock. The animals in other coastal areas had been moved inland by theirowners.[2] On May 21, the British had sailed troops to Grape Island in the outer harbor near Weymouth to get hayand livestock, and had been driven off by militia mustered from the nearby towns, which then removed the livestockand burned the hay on the island.[5]

The British Navy around occupied Boston was under the command of Vice-Admiral Samuel Graves. The RoyalMarines were under the command of Major John Pitcairn. The British forces as a whole were led by GovernorGeneral Thomas Gage.[6] Graves had, in addition to hay and livestock, hired storage on Noddle's Island for a varietyof important naval supplies, which he felt were important to preserve, owing to the "almost impossibility of replacingthem at this Juncture."[7]

Battle of Chelsea Creek 57

Prelude to Battle

Colonel John Stark led the Colonialexpedition.

Vice-Admiral Graves, apparently acting on intelligence that the Colonialsmight make attempts on the islands, posted guard boats near Noddle'sIsland. These were longboats that included detachments of Marines.[7]

Sources disagree as to whether or not any regulars or marines were stationedon Noddle's Island to protect the naval supplies.[8]

The "regiment now at Medford" mentioned by the Committee of Safety wasColonel John Stark's 1st New Hampshire Regiment of about 300 menstationed near Winter Hill with its headquarters in Medford.[9] [10] Takinghis instructions from General Ward, Stark and his regiment crossed thebridge over the Mystic River just after midnight on May 27. Their route tookthem far to the north of Chelsea Creek through Malden and parts of what arenow the towns of Everett and Revere. Additional local men most likelyjoined them during their march.[9] Hog Island was accessible at low tidefrom the east by fording Belle Isle Creek near the current location of Belle

Isle Marsh Reservation.[2] This crossing was effected without Graves' guard boats taking notice.[7]

Stark began to move his force to Hog Island at about 10 am and directed most of his men to round up livestock therewhile he forded Crooked Creek to Noddle's Island with a group of thirty men. Stark's small contingent on Noddle'sIsland scattered into small groups, killed the animals they could find, and set fire to haystacks and barns.[2]

Battle

IslandsThe British first took notice when they spotted the smoke from the burning hay. Vice-Admiral Graves on hisflagship, HMS Preston saw smoke from the burning hay at about 2 pm, and signaled for the guard marines to land onNoddle's island, which they did, engaging Stark's scattered forces. Graves also ordered the schooner Diana, underthe command of his nephew Lieutenant Thomas Graves, to sail up Chelsea Creek to support the operation and cut offthe colonists' escape.[7] Eventually, a combined force of roughly 400 marines was landed, formed ranks and began tosystematically drive Stark's men back to the east. The colonists fled without fighting until they reached CrookedCreek. There they dropped into marshy ditches and fired on their pursuers from strong defensive positions.[2] Apitched battle followed, in which the colonists "Squat[t]ed down in a Ditch on the ma[r]sh" and engaged in "a hotfiar untill the Regulars retreated".[11]

The Marines withdrew from their positions to the interior of Noddle's Island, and Stark's men left Crooked Creek tojoin the main body of his forces on Hog Island. Diana and the other vessels continued northeast up Chelsea Creek inpursuit. By sunset, hundreds of cattle, sheep, and horses had been driven from Hog Island to the mainland.[2] Alsoaround sunset, Diana turned about in an attempt to avoid being trapped in the shallows of the creek. However,Lieutenant Graves realized he would require assistance, and raised a signal. Vice-Admiral Graves ordered bargesmanned by marines into the creek to tow Diana out, along with the sloop Britannia, tender of HMS Somerset (underthe command of another of Graves nephews, Lieutenant John Graves) to assist and provide additional firepower.[11]

It must be noted that sources disagree on the timing of the dispatching of the various vessels. A number of sources(Frothingham and A Documentary History of Chelsea among them) claim that Diana, Britannia, and the barges wereall dispatched together;[12] [13] Nelson and Ketchum, possibly on the basis of more recent research, claim the accountas told above.[11] [14]

Battle of Chelsea Creek 58

Thomas Graves, who commanded Diana, wenton to become an admiral in the Royal Navy.

Mainland coast

Some of Stark's men were engaged in driving the livestock further upthe coast. Others noticed that Diana was in trouble, and called forreinforcements.[11] General Putnam and as many as 1000 troops(including Joseph Warren) came up on the shore near Diana, a place atthe mouth of Chelsea Creek, in the modern Chelsea neighborhood bythe McArdle bridge to East Boston.[15] Putnam waded out into theharbor up to his waist and offered quarter to the sailors of Diana if theywould surrender, but its cannon continued to fire, and attempts to towher into deeper water continued. Colonial forces continued firing onthe ship, supported by two field pieces positioned on the shore.Britannia and field pieces the British had landed on Noddle's Islandalso joined the cannonade.[16] At about 10 pm, the British rowers wereforced to abandon the rescue of Diana due to the heavy fire. Dianadrifted and ran aground again on the Mystic River side of the Chelseacoast, tipping onto one side. Lieutenant Graves abandoned Diana andtransferred his men to Britannia, which was successfully towed todeeper water.[2]

American forces boarded Diana and rapidly removed everything of value, including guns, rigging, sails, clothing,and money. They laid hay under the stern to serve as kindling, and the vessel was set on fire at about 3 am to preventit from falling back into British hands.[17] The guns recovered were probably used in the American positions duringthe Battle of Bunker Hill.[18]

AftermathThis skirmish was apparently the first use of field pieces by the Colonists in the American Revolution. They sufferedno fatalities, with only a small number of wounded, and their morale was greatly boosted by the successful captureand destruction of Diana. The action was also a boost to Israel Putnam, whose appointment by the SecondContinental Congress as a General in the Continental Army was unanimously approved, in part due to reports of thisskirmish.[19]

General Gage was understated in his casualty report to London: "Two men were killed and a few wounded."[]

Others, however, apparently exaggerated, reporting large casualties: "The regulars were said to have suffered verymuch, not to have had less than two hundred killed and wounded. The loss was probably greatly exaggerated; that,however, had a good effect on the provincials. The affair was a matter of no small triumph to them and they feltupon the occasion more courageous than ever."[] Gage ordered cannon mounted on Copp's Hill in Boston, andVice-Admiral Graves moved the Somerset, which had been stationed in the shallow waters between Boston andCharlestown, into deeper waters to the east of Boston, where it would have improved maneuverability if fired uponfrom land.[] He also belatedly sent a detachment of regulars to secure Noddle's Island; the Colonists had long beforeremoved or destroyed anything of value on the island.[20]

Battle of Chelsea Creek 59

A satellite image of East Boston. The narrowneck visible in the upper left is the boundary

between Noddle's and Hog Island. The boundarybetween Hog Island and the mainland is out of

shot to the north.

Geographic changes

In the years since the American Revolution, the geography of theBoston area has undergone significant expansion, and the islandsnamed Hog and Noddle's are no longer islands. In the late 19th andearly 20th century, the channel that separated Noddle's and Hog wasfilled in,[21] and that between Hog Island and the mainland was filledin over the first half of the 20th century.[22] In terms of moderngeography, the Orient Heights neighborhood of East Boston is thepresent location of Hog Island,[23] and much of the remainder of EastBoston is what was then Noddle's Island.[24]

While occasional attempts have been made to locate the remains of theDiana in Chelsea Creek, which has been extensively dredged andindustrialized in the years since the battle, no wrecks found in thatbody have been identified as hers. In 2009, the National Park Servicegave funds for an state-led effort to locate the wreck.[25]

Notes[1] In 1775, unlike today, Boston was a peninsula. Much land was filled around the Boston peninsula, primarily in the 19th century. See the

history of Boston for details.[2] McKay[3] Callo, pp. 22–23. Formal naval organization did not begin until Washington took command in June 1775.[4] A Documentary History of Chelsea, p. 431[5] Frothingham, p. 108[6] Beatson, p. 61[7] Nelson, p. 18[8] Nelson, p. 18 claims that no troops were stationed on Noddle's. Ketchum, p. 69, implies as much. A Documentary History of Chelsea states

(in testimony from British General Charles Sumner) that marines were present on the island.[9] A Documentary History of Chelsea, pp. 442–443[10] "Chelsea Historical Society page about the battle" (http:/ / www. olgp. net/ chs/ war/ second. htm). . Retrieved 2007-08-15.[11] Ketchum, p. 69 (spelling in original)[12] Frothingham, p. 109[13] A Documentary History of Chelsea, p. 443[14] Nelson, p. 19[15] Kales, p. 88[16] Ketchum, p. 72[17] A Documentary History of Chelsea, p. 438[18] Ketchum, p. 91[19] A Documentary History of Chelsea, p. 437[20] Morrissey, p. 50[21] Seasholes, p. 367[22] Seasholes, pp. 364, 379[23] Register of Old Suffolk Chapter, p. 24[24] Shurtleff, p. 440[25] LeBlanc (2009)

Battle of Chelsea Creek 60

References• Beatson, Robert;Lygon Beauchamp, William (1804). Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain, from 1727 to

1783 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EZwFAAAAIAAJ). 4. Longman, Hurst, Rees and Orme.ISBN 9780839801894.

• Callo, Joseph F (2006). John Paul Jones: America's First Sea Warrior. Naval Institute Press.ISBN 9781591141020.

• Chamberlain, Mellen; Watts, Jenny C.; Cutter, William, R.; Massachusetts Historical Society (1908). ADocumentary History of Chelsea: Including the Boston Precincts of Winnisimmet, Rumney Marsh, and PullenPoint 1624-1824 Volume II (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sJclBFtbTqgC& pg=PA442). UniversityPress. OCLC 1172330.

• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). McMillan.OCLC 3927532.

• Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, andBunker Hill (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Little and Brown. OCLC 221368703.

• Kales, David (2004). The Phantom Pirate: Tales of the Irish Mafia and the Boston Harbor Islands. AuthorHouse.ISBN 9781418459987.

• Ketchum, Richard M (1999). Decisive Day: The Battle for Bunker Hill. Macmillan. ISBN 9780805060997.• LeBlanc, Steve (July 20, 2009). "In Chelsea, hunt is on for remains of lost Revolutionary War ship" (http:/ /

www. boston. com/ news/ local/ massachusetts/ articles/ 2009/ 07/ 20/in_chelsea_hunt_is_on_for_remains_of_lost_revolutionary_war_ship/ ). Associated Press/Boston.com. Retrieved2009-07-20.

• McKay, Robert D (1928). The Battle of Chelsea Creek: An account of the second engagement of the AmericanRevolution, May 27, 1775. Chelsea Evening Record.

• Morrissey, Brendan (1995). Boston 1775: The Shot Heard Around the World. Osprey Publishing.ISBN 9781855323629.

• Nelson, James L (2008). George Washington's Secret Navy: How the American Revolution Went to Sea.McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 9780071493895.

• Sons of the American Revolution Massachusetts society, Old Suffolk chapter (1901). Register of Old SuffolkChapter, Sons of the American Revolution, 1900 ... Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop, Massachusetts: Chelsea,Revere and Winthrop, Massachusetts (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=yrBYAAAAMAAJ). W. Spooner.

• Seasholes, Karen (2003). Gaining Ground. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19494-5.• Shurtleff, Nathaniel Bradstreet (1871). A Topographical and Historical Description of Boston (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=UWkUAAAAYAAJ). Boston City Council.

Further reading• The above-cited Documentary History of Chelsea, in addition to the analysis and recounting of this action based

on reliable accounts, contains in an appendix (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sJclBFtbTqgC&pg=PA442#PPA643,M1) a variety of first-person accounts that vary considerably in their quality and reliability.

• Henry Harrison Metcalf, John Norris McClintock (eds), Oris Grant Hammond (compiler) (1918). The GraniteState Monthly, volumes 50-51 (1918-1919) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mstYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA120). Granite Monthly Co. This bound periodical contains an account of the action.

Noble train of artillery 61

Noble train of artillery

Noble train of artillery

An ox team hauling Ticonderoga's gunsParticipants Henry Knox

Location British provinces of New York and Massachusetts Bay

Date November 17, 1775–January 25, 1776

Result Fortification of Dorchester Heights

The noble train of artillery, also known as the Knox Expedition, was an expedition led by Continental ArmyColonel Henry Knox to transport heavy weaponry that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga to the ContinentalArmy camps outside Boston, Massachusetts during the winter of 1775–1776.Knox went to Ticonderoga in November 1775, and, over the course of 3 winter months, moved 60 tons[1] of cannonsand other armaments by boat, horse and ox-drawn sledges, and manpower, along poor-quality roads, across twosemi-frozen rivers, and through the forests and swamps of the lightly inhabited Berkshires to the Boston area.[2] [3]

Historian Victor Brooks has called Knox's feat "one of the most stupendous feats of logistics" of the entire AmericanRevolutionary War.[4]

The route by which Knox moved the weaponry is now known as the Henry Knox Trail, and the states of New Yorkand Massachusetts have erected markers along the route.

BackgroundShortly after the American Revolutionary War broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775,Benedict Arnold, a militia leader from Connecticut who arrived with his unit in support of the Siege of Boston,proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety that Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain in the Province ofNew York, be captured from its small British garrison. One reason he gave to justify the move was the presence atTiconderoga of heavy weaponry. On May 3, the committee gave Arnold a Massachusetts colonel's commission andauthorized the operation.[5]

The idea to capture Ticonderoga had also been raised to Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys in the disputedNew Hampshire Grants territory (present-day Vermont).[6] Allen and Arnold joined forces, and on May 10 a force of83 men captured the fort without a fight. The next day a detachment of men captured the nearby Fort Crown Point,again without combat.[7]

Arnold began to inventory the two forts for usable military equipment.[8] Hampered by a lack of resources andconflict over command of the forts first with Allen, and later with a Connecticut militia company sent to hold the fortin June, Arnold eventually abandoned the idea of transporting the armaments to Boston and resigned hiscommission.[9]

Noble train of artillery 62

Expedition planningIn July 1775 George Washington assumed command of the forces outside Boston.[10] One of the significantproblems he identified in the nascent Continental Army there was a lack of heavy weaponry, which made offensiveoperations virtually impossible. While it is uncertain exactly who proposed the operation to retrieve the Ticonderogacannon (biographers tend to credit either Knox or Arnold with the giving Washington the idea), Washingtoneventually chose the young Henry Knox for the job.[11]

Henry Knox later in life

Knox, a 25-year-old bookseller with an interest in military matters, served in theMassachusetts militia, and become good friends with Washington on his arrivalat Boston. When Washington gave Knox the assignment, he wrote that "notrouble or expense must be spared to obtain them."[12] On November 16Washington issued orders to Knox to retrieve the cannon (and authorized £1000for the purpose), and wrote to General Philip Schuyler asking him to assist Knoxin the endeavour.[13] Washington's call for the weapons was echoed by theSecond Continental Congress, which issued Knox a colonel's commission inNovember that did not reach him until he returned from the expedition.[14]

Knox departed Washington's camp on November 17, and after traveling to NewYork City for supplies, reached Ticonderoga on December 5. The night beforehis arrival, at Fort George at the southern end of Lake George, he shared a cabinwith a young British prisoner named John André. André had been taken prisoner

during the Siege of Fort St. Jean and was on his way south to a prison camp. The two were of a similar age andtemperament, and found much common ground to talk about.[15] It was not to be their last meeting; the next timethey met Knox presided over the court martial that convicted and sentenced André to death for his role in BenedictArnold's treasonous behavior.[16]

Sources

The apparent route of the expedition, overlaid on a 1779 map

The primary sources for much of the daily activity in thisjourney are Knox's diary and letters. While hisdescription of some of the events and dates is detailed,there are significant gaps, and significant portions of thejourney, especially much of the Massachusetts section,are poorly documented. Some of these gaps occurbecause Knox did not write about them, and othersbecause pages are missing from the diary.[17] While thereare other sources that confirm some of Knox's details orreport additional details, parts of the route are not knownwith certainty, and modern descriptions (including theplacement of markers for the Henry Knox Trail) of thoseparts are based on what is known about roads acrossMassachusetts at the time.[18]

Noble train of artillery 63

AlbanyKnox arrived at Ticonderoga on December 5, and immediately set about identifying the equipment to take, andorganize its transport.[19] He selected 59 pieces of equipment include cannons ranging in size from four totwenty-four pound, mortars, and howitzers. He estimated the total weight to be transported at 119,000 pounds (about60 tons, or 54 metric tons). The largest pieces, the twenty-four pound "Big Berthas", were 11 feet (3.4 m) long andestimated to weigh over 5000 pounds (2300 kg).[12]

The equipment was first carried overland from Ticonderoga to the northern end of Lake George, where most of thetrain was loaded onto a scow-like ship called a gundalow.[12] On December 6, the gundalow set sail for the southernend of the lake, with Knox sailing ahead in a small boat. Ice was already beginning to cover the lake, but thegundalow, after grounding once on a submerged rock, reached Sabbath Day Point. The next day they sailed on, againwith Knox sailing ahead. While he reached Fort George in good time, the gundalow did not appear when expected.A boat sent to check on its progress reported that the gundalow had foundered and sunk not far from Sabbath DayPoint. While this at first appeared to be a serious setback, Knox's brother William, captain of the gundalow, reportedthat she had foundered, but that her gunnels were above the water line, and that she could be bailed out. This wasdone, the ship was refloated, and two days later the gundalow arrived at the southern end of the lake.[20]

On December 17 Knox wrote to Washington that he had built "42 exceeding strong sleds, and have provided 80 yokeof oxen to drag them as far as Springfield",[21] and that he hoped "in 16 or 17 days to be able to present yourExcellency a noble train of artillery".[19]

General Philip Schuyler

Knox then set out toward Albany ahead of the train. At Glens Falls, hecrossed the frozen Hudson River, and proceeded on through Saratoga,reaching New City (present-day Lansingburg), just north of Albany, onChristmas Day. Two feet (0.6 m) of snow fell that day, slowing hisprogress as the snow-covered route needed to be broken open. Thenext day, again slowed by significant snow in the ground, he finallyreached Albany. There he met with General Philip Schuyler, and thetwo of them worked over the next few days to locate and send northequipment and personnel to assist in moving the train south from LakeGeorge. While the snowfall was sufficient for the use of sleds to movethe train overland, the river ice was still too thin to move it over theHudson. Knox and his men tried to accelerate the process of thickeningthe river ice by pouring additional water on top of existing ice. ByJanuary 4, the first of the cannon had arrived at Albany. On the route

toward Albany, and again on crossing the Hudson heading east from there toward Massachusetts, cannons crashedthrough the ice and fell into the river. In every instance the cannon was recovered. On January 9 the last of cannonshad crossed the Hudson, and Knox rode ahead to oversee the next stage of the journey.[22]

Noble train of artillery 64

Crossing the Berkshires

19th-century drawing depicting the arrival of theweapons.

Details of the remaining journey are sketchy, as Knox's journal ends onJanuary 12. He reached the vicinity of Claverack, New York onJanuary 9, and proceeded through the Berkshires, reaching Blandford,Massachusetts two days later.[23] There the lead crew refused tocontinue owing to a lack of snow and the upcoming steep descent tothe Connecticut River valley. Knox hired additional oxen andpersuaded the recalcitrant crew to continue. As the train moved furthereast, news of its travel spread, and people from area towns came out towatch it pass. In Westfield, Knox loaded one of the big guns withpowder and fired it to the applause of the assembled crowd.[24]

At Springfield Knox had to hire new work crews, as his NewYork-based crews wanted to return home.[25] John Adams reportedseeing the artillery train pass through Framingham on January 25. Twodays later, Knox arrived in Cambridge and personally reported toWashington that the artillery train had arrived. According to Knox'saccounting he spent £521 on an operation he had hoped would taketwo weeks, that instead took ten weeks to complete.[26]

ArrivalFurther information: Fortification of Dorchester HeightsWhen the equipment began to arrive in the Boston area, Washington, seeking to end the siege, formulated a plan todraw at least some of the British out of Boston, at which point he would launch an invasion of the city across theCharles River. Pursuing this plan, he placed cannon from Ticonderoga at Lechmere's Point and Cobble Hill inCambridge, and on Lamb's Dam in Roxbury.[27] These batteries opened fire on Boston on the night of March 2,while preparations were made to fortify the Dorchester Heights, from which cannon could threaten both the city andthe British fleet in the harbor. On the night of March 4 Continental Army troops occupied this high ground.[28] [29]

An engraving depicting the evacuation of Britishtroops from Boston

British General William Howe first planned to contest this move byassaulting the position, but a snowstorm prevented its execution. Afterfurther consideration, he decided instead to withdraw from the city. OnMarch 17, British troops and Loyalist colonists boarded ships andsailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.[30]

Henry Knox went on to become the chief artillery officer of theContinental Army, and later served as the first United States Secretaryof War.[31]

Noble train of artillery 65

LegacyTo commemorate Knox's achievement, at the time of its sesquicentennial (150th anniversary) the states of New Yorkand Massachusetts both placed historical markers along the route he was believed to have taken at the time. In 1972markers in New York were moved when new information surfaced about the train's movements between Albany andthe state boundary. Most of the markers in Massachusetts are along a route the train was assumed to take, given thesparsity of documentation and what was known about roads in Massachusetts at the time.[32]

Notes[1] Ware (2000), p. 18[2] Ware (2000), pp. 19–24[3] N. Brooks (1900), p. 38[4] V. Brooks (1999), p. 210[5] Martin (1997), pp. 63–65[6] Martin (1997), p. 67[7] Martin (1997), pp. 70–73[8] Martin (1997), p. 76[9] Martin (1997), pp. 80–95[10] N. Brooks (1900), p. 32[11] See for example: N. Brooks, p. 38, and Martin, p. 106. This trend is visible in other biographies of Knox and Arnold, although Knox is more

likely to be explicitly credited.[12] Ware (200), p. 19[13] N. Brooks (1900), pp. 38–39[14] N. Brooks (1900), p. 34[15] Callahan (1958), p. 39[16] Callahan (1958), p. 40[17] See the diary contents at Knox (1876), pp. 322-326[18] See e.g. the inventory record for marker 21 on the trail.[19] N. Brooks (1900), p. 40[20] Ware (200), p. 20[21] Ware (2000), pp. 21-22[22] Knox (1867), pp. 323-324. Callahan (1958), pp. 46-50[23] Knox (1867), p. 325[24] Ware (2000), p. 24[25] Callahan (1958), p. 54[26] Drake (1873), p. 23[27] V. Brooks (1999), p. 224[28] French (1911), p. 406[29] V. Brooks (1999), p. 225[30] V. Brooks (1999), pp. 228–230[31] Drake (1873), pp. 21, 127[32] Knox Trail official New York site

References• Brooks, Noah (1900). Henry Knox, a Soldier of the Revolution: Major-general in the Continental Army,

Washington's Chief of Artillery, First Secretary of War Under the Constitution, Founder of the Society of theCincinnati; 1750–1806 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=S5wcAAAAMAAJ). New York: G.P. Putnam'sSons. OCLC 77547631.

• Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing. ISBN 1-58097-007-9.OCLC 42581510.

• Callahan, North (1958). Henry Knox: General Washington's General. New York: Rinehart.• Drake, Francis Samuel (1873). Life and correspondence of Henry Knox (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=qkRsqkHRcO0C& pg=PA21#v=onepage). S. G. Drake. OCLC 2358685.

Noble train of artillery 66

• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). New York:Macmillan. OCLC 3927532.

• Martin, James Kirby (1997). Benedict Arnold: Revolutionary Hero (An American Warrior Reconsidered). NewYork University Press. ISBN 0-8147-5560-7. (This book is primarily about Arnold's service on the American sidein the Revolution, giving overviews of the periods before the war and after he changes sides.)

• Knox, Henry; Waters, Henry Fitz-Gilbert (ed) (1876). Henry Knox's Diary (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=nS_5UjIFfJ0C& dq=Henry Knox diary& lr=& pg=RA1-PA321#v=onepage& q=Henry Knox diary&f=false). New England Historical and Genealogical Register.

• Ware, Susan (2000). Forgotten Heroes: Inspiring American Portraits from Our Leading Historians. Portland,OR: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684868721. OCLC 45179918.

• "Knox Trail official New York site" (http:/ / www. nysm. nysed. gov/ services/ KnoxTrail/ ). New York StateMuseum. Retrieved 2010-01-08.

• "Knox Trail marker 21" (http:/ / www. nysm. nysed. gov/ services/ KnoxTrail/ ktsignm21. html). New York stateMuseum. Retrieved 2010-01-08.

External links• HMDB listing of commemorative markers (http:/ / www. hmdb. org/ results. asp?SeriesID=92)

Fortification of Dorchester HeightsThe Fortification of Dorchester Heights was a decisive action early in the American Revolutionary War thatprecipitated the end of the siege of Boston and the withdrawal of British troops from that city.On March 4, 1776, troops from the Continental Army under George Washington's command occupied DorchesterHeights, a series of low hills with a commanding view of Boston and its harbor, and mounted powerful cannonsthere. General William Howe, commander of the British forces occupying the city, considered contesting this act, asthe cannon threatened the town and the military ships in the harbor. After a snowstorm prevented execution of hisplans, Howe decided instead to withdraw from the city. The British forces, accompanied by Loyalists who had fledto the city during the siege, left the city on March 17 and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia.

BackgroundThe siege of Boston began on April 19, 1775, when, in the aftermath of the Battles of Lexington and Concord,Colonial militia surrounded the city of Boston.[1] Benedict Arnold, who arrived with Connecticut militia to supportthe siege, told the Massachusetts Committee of Safety that cannons and other valuable military stores were stored atthe lightly defended Fort Ticonderoga, and proposed its capture. On May 3, the Committee gave Arnold a colonel'scommission and authorized him to raise troops and lead a mission to capture the fort.[2] Arnold, in conjunction withEthan Allen, his Green Mountain Boys, and militia forces from Connecticut and western Massachusetts, captured thefort and all of its armaments on May 10.[3]

After George Washington took command of the army outside Boston in July 1775, the idea of bringing the cannonsfrom Ticonderoga to the siege was raised by Colonel Henry Knox. Knox was eventually given the assignment totransport weapons from Ticonderoga to Cambridge. Knox went to Ticonderoga in November 1775, and, over thecourse of 3 winter months, moved 60 tons[4] of cannons and other armaments by boat, horse and ox-drawn sledges,and manpower, along poor-quality roads, across two semi-frozen rivers, and through the forests and swamps of thelightly inhabited Berkshires to the Boston area.[5] [6] Historian Victor Brooks has called Knox's feat "one of the moststupendous feats of logistics" of the entire war.[7]

Fortification of Dorchester Heights 67

Geography and strategyThe British military leadership, headed by General William Howe, had long been aware of the importance of theDorchester Heights, which, along with the heights of Charlestown, had commanding views of Boston and its outerharbor. The harbor was vital to the British, as the Royal Navy, at first under Admiral Samuel Graves, and later underAdmiral Molyneux Shuldham,[8] provided protection for the troops in Boston, as well as transportation of supplies tothe besieged city. Early in the siege, the British planned to seize both of these heights, beginning with those inDorchester, which had a better view of the harbor than the Charlestown hills. It was the leaking of this plan thatprecipitated events leading to the Battle of Bunker Hill.[9]

George Washington at DorchesterHeights by Gilbert Stuart, 1806

When Washington took command of the siege in July 1775, he considered takingthe unoccupied Dorchester Heights, but rejected the idea, feeling the army wasnot ready to deal with the likely British attack on the position.[10] The subject ofan attempt on the heights was again discussed in early February 1776, but thelocal Council of Safety believed the British troop strength too high, andimportant military supplies like gunpowder too low, to warrant action at thattime.[11] By the end of February, Knox had arrived with the cannon fromTiconderoga, as had additional supplies of powder and shells.[12] Washingtondecided the time was right to act.

Fortification

Washington first placed some of the heavy cannons from Ticonderoga atLechmere's Point and Cobble Hill in Cambridge, and on Lamb's Dam inRoxbury.[13] As a diversion against the planned move on the Dorchester Heights,he ordered these batteries to open fire on the town on the night of March 2,

which fire the British returned, without significant casualties on either side. These cannonades were repeated on thenight of March 3, while preparations for the taking of the heights continued.[14]

On the night of March 4, 1776, the batteries opened fire again, but this time the fire was accompanied by action.[15]

General John Thomas and about 2,000 troops quietly marched to the top of Dorchester Heights, hauling entrenchingtools and cannon placements. Hay bales were placed between the path taken by the troops and the harbor in order tomuffle the sounds of the activity. Throughout the night, these troops and their relief labored at hauling cannon andbuilding earthworks overlooking the town and the harbor. General Washington was present to provide moral supportand encouragement, reminding them that March 5 was the sixth anniversary of the Boston Massacre.[16] By 4 am,they had constructed fortifications that were proof against small arms and grapeshot. Work continued on thepositions, with troops cutting down trees and constructing abbatis to impede any British assault on the works.[15] Theoutside of the works also included rock-filled barrels that, while appearing to be a part of the defensive structure,could be rolled down the hill at attacking troops.[17]

"The rebels have done more in one night than my whole army would have done in a month."

General Howe, March 5, 1776[18]

Washington anticipated that General Howe and his troops would either flee or try to take the hill,[19] an action thatwould have probably been reminiscent of the Battle of Bunker Hill, which was a disaster for the British.[20] If Howedecided to launch an attack on the heights, Washington planned to launch an attack against the city from Cambridge.As part of the preparations, he readied two floating batteries and boats sufficient to carry almost 3,000 troops.[21]

Washington's judgment of Howe's options was accurate; they were exactly the options Howe considered.

Fortification of Dorchester Heights 68

British reactionAdmiral Shuldham, commander of the British fleet, declared that the fleet was in danger unless the position on theheights was taken. Howe and his staff then determined to contest the occupation of the heights, and made plans foran assault, preparing to send 2,400 men under cover of darkness to attack the position.[22] Washington, notified ofBritish movements, increased the forces on the heights until there were nearly 6,000 men on the Dorchester lines.[23]

However, a snow storm began late on March 5 and halted any chance of a battle for several days.[24] By the time thestorm subsided, Howe reconsidered launching an attack, reasoning that preserving the army for battle elsewhere wasof higher value than attempting to hold Boston.[25]

Howe, through intermediaries, informed Washington that the city would not be burned to the ground if his troopswere allowed to leave unmolested.[26] After several days of activity, and several more of bad weather, the Britishforces departed Boston by sea on March 17 and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia, taking with them more than 1,000Loyalist civilians.[27]

The Dorchester Heights Monument, completed in1902

Legacy

The fortifications on the Heights were maintained through the end ofthe war, and then abandoned. During the War of 1812, the Heightswere refortified and occupied against potential British invasion.Following that war, the fortifications were completely abandoned, and,in the later years of the 19th century, the Dorchester hills were used asa source of fill for Boston's expanding coastline.[28]

In 1902, following revived interest in the local history, a monumentwas constructed on the (remaining) high ground in what is now SouthBoston.[28] The large Irish population in the area was also instrumentalin having March 17 (which is also Saint Patrick's Day) named as theEvacuation Day holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts, whichincludes the city of Boston.[29] [30]

The site was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966,and in 1978 came under the administration of the National ParkService as part of Boston National Historical Park.[28]

Notes[1] Frothingham (1903), pp. 91–93[2] Palmer (2006), pp. 84–85[3] Palmer (2006), pp. 88–90[4] Ware (2000), p. 18[5] Ware (2000), pp. 19–24[6] N. Brooks (1900), p. 38[7] V. Brooks (1999), p. 210[8] Frothingham (1903), p. 292[9] French (1911), p. 254[10] Frothingham (1903), p. 218[11] Frothingham (1903), pp. 290–291[12] Frothingham (1903), p. 295[13] V. Brooks (1999), p. 224[14] French (1911), p. 406[15] V. Brooks (1999), p. 225[16] Gilman (1876), p. 59[17] V. Brooks (1999), p. 226

Fortification of Dorchester Heights 69

[18] Frothingham (1903), p. 298[19] Frothingham (1903), p. 296[20] Frothingham (1903), p. 194. British win, but suffer over 1,000 casualties.[21] French (1911), p. 390[22] French (1911), p. 412[23] V. Brooks (1999), p. 229[24] Frothingham (1903), pp. 298–300[25] V. Brooks (1999), p. 231[26] Frothingham (1903), pp. 303–305[27] Frothingham (1903), p. 311[28] National Park Service[29] O'Connor, p. 124[30] MA List of legal holidays

References• Brooks, Noah (1900). Henry Knox, a Soldier of the Revolution: Major-general in the Continental Army,

Washington's Chief of Artillery, First Secretary of War Under the Constitution, Founder of the Society of theCincinnati; 1750–1806 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=S5wcAAAAMAAJ). New York: G.P. Putnam'sSons. OCLC 77547631.

• Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing. ISBN 1-58097-007-9.OCLC 42581510.

• French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). New York:Macmillan. OCLC 3927532.

• Frothingham, Richard (1903). History of the Siege of Boston, and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, andBunker Hill: Also an Account of the Bunker Hill Monument (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 221368703.

• Gilman, Arthur; Dudley, Dorothy; Greely, Mary Williams (1876). Theatrum Majorum: The Cambridge of 1776(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CYQUAAAAYAAJ). Cambridge, MA: Lockwood, Brooks.OCLC 4073105.

• O'Connor, Thomas H. (1994). South Boston, My Home Town: The History of an Ethnic Neighborhood. Boston:UPNE. ISBN 9781555531881. OCLC 29387180.

• Palmer, Dave Richard (2006). George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots. Washington,DC: Regnery Publishing. ISBN 9781596980204. OCLC 69027634.

• Ware, Susan (2000). Forgotten Heroes: Inspiring American Portraits from Our Leading Historians. Portland,OR: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684868721. OCLC 45179918.

• "Massachusetts List of Legal Holidays" (http:/ / www. sec. state. ma. us/ cis/ cishol/ holidx. htm). MassachusettsSecretary of State. Retrieved 2008-12-16.

• "NPS page for Dorchester Heights" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ bost/ historyculture/ dohe. htm). National ParkService. Retrieved 2009-01-12.

Article Sources and Contributors 70

Article Sources and ContributorsBoston campaign  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458709965  Contributors: Aitias, Alai, Andonic, Andrwsc, Arvand, Az81964444, Backwalker, Bletch, Bmicomp, Bobbis,Bobblewik, Bobo192, Caerwine, Canterbury Tail, Civil Engineer III, Dang Fool, Durova, Fireworks1350, Flying Jazz, Fram, Frietjes, Gene93k, Hamiltondaniel, Headbomb, Hmains, Huckamike,Infrogmation, J.delanoy, Jaispeed, Japanese Searobin, Kevin Myers, MECU, Magicpiano, Mercury, Ndteegarden, North Shoreman, Nsaa, Phoe, Qxz, Red4tribe, Revfreak86, RickDC, Rjwilmsi,Roux-HG, Skapur, Sldoran, Steinsky, The ed17, Tide rolls, Trip Johnson, VoteyDisciple, Wittyname, XavierGreen, 51 anonymous edits

Powder Alarm  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442172861  Contributors: Anilocra, Antigravityece, Bluemoose, Cla68, Flying Jazz, Frietjes, Gurch, Historical Perspective,Hmains, Jengod, Kevin Myers, Koavf, Leandrod, Longbow4u, Magicpiano, Melaen, NekoDaemon, Nsaa, RepublicanJacobite, Ryt, Ryuhaku, Swalgal, The ed17, Til Eulenspiegel, Tim!,WikiParker, Wittyname, 13 anonymous edits

Battles of Lexington and Concord  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462328245  Contributors: -Bobby, 1exec1, 2andrew2, 95thfoot, A D Monroe III, ABCD, AMeLf12,Abrowneckel, Academic Challenger, Acroterion, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Aj00200, Alan smithee, Alansohn, Alexf, AlexiusHoratius, AlfredRussel, Alison, Alphax, Amerika, Anaraug,Andrewpmk, Andrwsc, Antandrus, Aquatics, Art LaPella, Arvand, Asm76, Atif.t2, Atlzgangsta4u, AxelBoldt, Az81964444, Barneca, Bassguitarhero, Bcorr, Bcrounse, Beland, Bender6,Ber06122, Bernstein2291, Bibliomaniac15, BillyTFried, Black Kite, Blue387, Bo, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bookworm212, BorgQueen, Breffni Whelan, BrokenSegue, Bryan Derksen, Bsadowski1,Bsroiaadn, CPAScott, Cac303, Caknuck, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CarbonCopy, Carnildo, Carolmooredc, Carpo, Carptrash, Catmoongirl, Cbjohnny, Centrx,Chadloder, Christian Historybuff, ChristianJR, ChristianRuud, Civil Engineer III, Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cmulrooney, 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XAlpha, XXTheRaidersXx, Xdamr, Xenograftsoul, Zahid Abdassabur, Zazpot, Zoe, Zoicon5, Zoomy otter, Zsinj, とある白い猫, 1273 anonymous edits

Siege of Boston  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461964822  Contributors: AlexiusHoratius, Andrwsc, Antandrus, Assawyer, Az81964444, Barts1a, Beland, Bender235,Biruitorul, Bluemoose, Bongwarrior, Bped1985, Bree123, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Centrx, Civil Engineer III, ColWilliam, Condem, Conrad Dorku, CrabCakesX, Czmtzc, Debivort,Dick Kimball, Driftwood87, Dukeofomnium, Falcon8765, FartSniffer, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Flux.books, Flyerhell, Flying Jazz, Galoubet, Gdr, GreenReaper, Harland1, Historybuff483s, Hmains,Ilikepie2221, Intothewoods29, J.delanoy, J04n, Jabamula, Jaraalbe, Jeff G., Jojhutton, Jp347, Jubbie13, JustAGal, Kaiba, Kalki, Ken Gallager, Kevin Myers, Kieran4, Kingpin13, Koavf, Ktalon,Leandrod, Lockesdonkey, Lord Cornwallis, LouI, M2545, Magicpiano, Mandarax, Marc29th, Marco polo, Markhamman, Mboverload, Meeeeeeeeee123, Mentifisto, Midnightdreary, MisfitToys,Mkoyle, Nehrams2020, Nick C, Nick Number, North Shoreman, Num1dgen, Paweł ze Szczecina, Peloneous, Peruvianllama, Philip Baird Shearer, Piledhigheranddeeper, Pinkadelica, Postdlf,Profitoftruth85, PurpleHz, RHB, Rawling, Red4tribe, Rjwilmsi, Rklisowski, Roy Al Blue, Ryuhaku, Seba5618, Shadowjams, Shauni, Shoreranger, Slinga, Spellcast, Synergy, Syrthiss, Tabletop,Tide rolls, Tim!, Tirronan, Tony1, Trevor MacInnis, Trip Johnson, WikiParker, Wild Wolf, WilliamKF, Wittyname, Yankee529, YellowTurban, Zengar Zombolt, Zurishaddai, 154 anonymousedits

Battle of Bunker Hill  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461731436  Contributors: -xfi-, 10geisler, 6SJ7, 8472, A p3rson, A3 nm, ABF, AMuseo, AaronS, Abce2, Abjlsdhflas,Aboutmovies, Acalamari, Acebrock, Adam Bishop, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajdv94, AlexPlank, Algebraist, Allen94306, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andrwsc, Angela, Ann Stouter,Annandale, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Arch dude, Arvand, Assasin Joe, Aude, Awotter, Axl, Ayrton Prost, Bahamallama, Barliner, Bbatsell, Bcortez 2mass, Beeblebrox, Beland,Bellhalla, Beutjes, Bgeer, Bkonrad, Blue, Blue520, Bluemoose, Bob Burkhardt, Bob Smith the Wierdo, Bobblewik, Bobo192, BradBeattie, BrokenSphere, Brooksbetz, BruinEric, Bryan Derksen,Bucephalus, Bullseye123456, Burntsauce, Burzmali, Calidore Chase, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canute, Capecodeph, Capricorn42, Centrx, Chadloder, CharonX,Cholmes75, Chris the speller, Christian Historybuff, Chuck02, CirrusHead, Civil Engineer III, 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Battle of Chelsea Creek  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=442171491  Contributors: Andrwsc, CommonsDelinker, Emeraude, Flying Jazz, Frietjes, JustAGal, Koavf, MJ94,Magicpiano, Micah taylor, Mìthrandir, Natl1, Red4tribe, Rjwilmsi, Ryuhaku, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Sewnmouthsecret, Swampyank, Tabletop, The Thing That Should Not Be, The ed17, Tim!,Trip Johnson, Wwoods, 24 anonymous edits

Article Sources and Contributors 71

Noble train of artillery  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431120554  Contributors: Az81964444, Chris the speller, John of Reading, Koavf, Lowellian, Magicpiano, 3anonymous edits

Fortification of Dorchester Heights  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456997593  Contributors: Alansohn, Andrwsc, BlueMoonlet, Bobblehead, Chris the speller, CivilEngineer III, Danwild6, Frietjes, GraemeL, Greatdane1995, HansHermans, Historybuff483s, Hmains, Jabamula, Jackyd101, John254, Joshua Scott, Kbandy, Kevin Myers, Kieran4, KyraVixen,Magicpiano, Mandarax, Megapixie, Metarhyme, Neutrality, Nixeagle, Oneiros, Raime, Reach Out to the Truth, Red4tribe, Shell Kinney, Storm Rider, Tim!, Trevor MacInnis, Trip Johnson,WikiParker, WilliamKF, Wittyname, 53 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 72

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:North Bridge Fight Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:North_Bridge_Fight_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amos Doolittle (engraver)and Ralph Earl.. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia.File:Boston, 1775bsmall1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston,_1775bsmall1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sir Thomas Hyde PageFile:Washingtoncongress.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washingtoncongress.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Currier & IvesFile:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surrender_of_General_Burgoyne.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Davepape,Dspark76, Huntj, Jappalang, Magicpiano, Mbdortmund, Michael Devore, Neutrality, PericlesofAthens, Rcbutcher, Teofilo, UpstateNYer, 9 anonymous editsFile:Boston_1775.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston_1775.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J. DeCostaFile:Powder House 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Powder_House_2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Erik EdsonFile:Thomas Gage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: not specifiedFile:Francis Smith.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francis_Smith.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FalconL, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Sebastian Wallroth,2 anonymous editsFile:Margaret Kemble Gage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Margaret_Kemble_Gage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ardfern, Frank C. Müller,Infrogmation, Kilom691, Léna, Magicpiano, Mattes, Sebastian Wallroth, Shakko, TFCforever, ThorvaldssonFile:Concord Expedition and Patriot Messengers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concord_Expedition_and_Patriot_Messengers.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: United States National Park Service. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipediaFile:Lexington Concord Siege of Boston.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_Concord_Siege_of_Boston.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Clindberg, Flying Jazz, Gaius Cornelius, Jeff G., M2545, Magicpiano, Nonenmac, Urban, 3 anonymous editsFile:Battle of Lexington Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Lexington_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amos Doolittle (engraver),Ralph Earl. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia.File:British Army in Concord Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Army_in_Concord_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44,Magicpiano, Sfan00 IMG, Smooth O, Verica Atrebatum, 4 anonymous editsFile:Old North Bridge, Concord, Massachusetts, July 2005.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_North_Bridge,_Concord,_Massachusetts,_July_2005.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Daderot at en.wikipediaFile:Minuteman statue 3 - Old North Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minuteman_statue_3_-_Old_North_Bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Dave PapeFile:Concord Retreat.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concord_Retreat.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Park Service. Original uploader wasIrayo at en.wikipediaFile:Minute Man Statue Lexington Massachusetts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minute_Man_Statue_Lexington_Massachusetts.jpg  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: Magicpiano, Man vyi, Postdlf, Urban, WstFile:Percy's Rescue at Lexington Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percy's_Rescue_at_Lexington_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AmosDoolittle (engraver) and Ralph Earl.. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia.File:Percys return.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percys_return.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J. De Costa. Original uploader was Flying Jazz aten.wikipediaFile:Jason Russell House - Arlington, Massachusetts.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jason_Russell_House_-_Arlington,_Massachusetts.JPG  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: DaderotFile:Minuteman statue 1 - Old North Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minuteman_statue_1_-_Old_North_Bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Dave PapeFile:Washington at Cambridge 1925 Issue-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_at_Cambridge_1925_Issue-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: US Post OfficeFile:Lexington and Concord-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_and_Concord-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post OfficeFile:Lexington Concord-5c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_Concord-5c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GwillhickersFile:Siege of Boston.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siege_of_Boston.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors:History Department, United States Military AcademyFile:Fort Ticonderoga 1775.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_Ticonderoga_1775.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Heppenheimer & MaurerFile:Bunker Hill by Pyle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_by_Pyle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Cecil, Concord, Howcheng,Krinkle, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Mattes, Quibik, Shauni, 4 anonymous editsFile:Washingtoncommandarmy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washingtoncommandarmy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: C. RogersFile:Siegeofbostonartillery.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Siegeofbostonartillery.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: M.A. WagemanFile:Bunker hill first attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_first_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, J Clear, Magicpiano,Will Pittenger, 1 anonymous editsFile:Bunker hill second attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_second_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, MagicpianoFile:Bunker hill final attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_final_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, Magicpiano, 5anonymous editsFile:Bunker Hill Monument 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_Monument_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: MECU (self)File:Map of the Battle of Bunker Hill area.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_the_Battle_of_Bunker_Hill_area.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:George E EllisFile:AttackBunkerHill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AttackBunkerHill.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by Lodge after the drawing by MillarImage:New England pine flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_England_pine_flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was IMeowbotat en.wikipediaImage:Bunker Hill Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was DevinCook aten.wikipedia (Original text : DevinCook (talk))File:bunkerhillclipper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunkerhillclipper.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/photos/pantufla/File:Statue of william prescott in charlestown massachusetts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statue_of_william_prescott_in_charlestown_massachusetts.jpg License: unknown  Contributors: Unknown; Sculptor: William Wetmore Story (1819–1895)File:John stark.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_stark.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Daderot, Kilom691, Sebastian Wallroth,Wknight94File:ThomasGravesBHC2722 700.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThomasGravesBHC2722_700.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: w:JamesNorthcoteJames NorthcoteFile:KBOS Aerial NGS.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KBOS_Aerial_NGS.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Cleared as filed aten.wikipediaImage:HenryKnox.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HenryKnox.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Connormah, Magicpiano, Sadads, Signaleer, Spellcast,WikiParker, 3 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 73

Image:HenryKnoxTrail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HenryKnoxTrail.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Claude Sauthier,User:Magicpiano, authors of File:Blank US Map.svgImage:Schuyler.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schuyler.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mirror-image copy of a portrait of Philip Schuyler. Painted byJacob H. Lazarus (1822-91) from a miniature painted by John TrumbullImage:Henry Knox entering camp with artillery cph.3g09060.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry_Knox_entering_camp_with_artillery_cph.3g09060.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: William H. van Ingen, b.Image:SiegeBoston.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SiegeBoston.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J. Godfrey after M.A. WagemanFile:WashingtonAtDorchesterHeightsByStuart.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WashingtonAtDorchesterHeightsByStuart.jpeg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Docu, Jacklee, Magicpiano, Mogelzahn, Pitke, TeofiloFile:Dorchester Heights Monument (Boston, MA) - general view.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dorchester_Heights_Monument_(Boston,_MA)_-_general_view.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jet Lowe.

License 74

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/