botanists 2.docx

7/28/2019 BotaniSTS 2.docx

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One of the first known European writings about plants is by Theophrastus() (372-287 B.C). He made the

first classifications, based on the plant's similarities and differences in Historia plantarum and Causae plantarum. Is is an

encyclopaedia of what later became known as the plant kingdom, in which a draft taxonomy is sketched, together with a

basic classification of plant "elements". Differences between organs (external) and tissues (internal), and further more, he

made recording of different types of tissues. It was translated to Latin by Theodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483 . Theophrastus'

main groups were Tree, shrub, undershrub and herb, then divided by annual, biennial and perennial indeterminate and

determinate inflorescences, ovary position, polypetalous and gamopetalous corollas.His publication contained 500 plants.

Theophrastus was born on the Greek island Lesbos. He was a student of Plato and Aristotle. He presided over the

Peripatetic school for 35 years, and dealt with many scientific subjects.

Some of his names live today: Daucus,Asparagus, and Narcissus.

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Pedanius Dioscorides (Pedianos Dioskourides) (c.40 - c.90 A.C.) wroteDe Materia Medica (Peri ulhV iatrikhV), which was

one of the basic source of information about plants for 1500 years. It included around 5-600 plants, and dealt general

with their medical use, but also record something of their botany and living morphology including roots, foliage, and

sometimes flowers. It was sorted: "I shall endeavor to use a different arrangement [than alphabetic] and describe the

classes according to the properties of the individual drugs." His scheme was to organize by category or class and then by

the physiological effect of the drug on the body. The classification of drugs with similar pharmaceutical properties was too

subtle, however, and not comprehended.

Pedanius Dioscorides was born in Anazarbus, Greece (Nazarba, Turkey) - part of the Roman Empire. He had access to the

library at Alexandria, and may have studied at Tarsus. He became a leading physician, pharmacologist and botanist, and

his work on medical plants was a keystone to a medical carrier for 1 millennium.

The genus Dioscorea is named in his honour.

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Otto Brunfels (1488-1534) published his Herbarum vivae icones,1530 and 1536 and Contrafayt Kruterbuch, 1532-1537.

They contain new and good descriptions of the German plants he found during his botanical studies, under their German

vernacular names.

Otto Brunfels (also known as Brunsfels or Braunfels) was born in Bern, Switzerland. He studied theology and philosophy

in Mainz, and became a minister at Steinau an der Strae in 1521 and later, in Neuenburg am Rhein. His main interest

were the history of evangelical Church, but he also published books on pedagogic, Arabic language and pharmaceutics.

Due to the interest in healing plants, he took botany up. He study medicine at the University of Basel, got his M.D. in 1530,

and became the City physician in Bern two years later. The special about his publications on botany is; he describes the

plants he see, instead of using previous descriptions.

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Andrea Cesalpino (Andreas Caesalpinus) (15191603) based his system on the structure of the organs of fructification,

using the Aristotelian technique of logical division, published in De plantis libri XVI, 1583 with 1520 plants. His main

groups are herbal and woody, but he uses the flowers and fruits for lover classes. Make the concept of genera.

He was one of the first botanists to make a herbarium. He made one for Bishop Alfonso Tornabono in 1550-60. It contains

768 varieties of plants, and it still exists!


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Andrea Cesalpino was born in the Italian town Arezzo, Tuscany. He was a physician, philosopher and botanist, and in

1555, he became the director of the botanic garden in Pisa.

The family Caesalpinioideae is named in his honour.

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Pierre Magnol (1638-1715) grouped plants into 76 families in his publication Prodromus historiae generalis, in qua

familiae pertabulas disponutur from 1689. He is the first to use the concept of Family, and he used a combination of

morphological characters.

Pierre Magnol was born in Montpellier, France. He became Professor of Botany and Director of the Royal Botanic Garden

of Montpellier, and was the first to publish the concept of plant families as we know them, a natural classification, in

which groups of plant with associated common features were described.

He is honoured in the Magnolia genus and Division.

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Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708), who introduced an even more sophisticated hierarchy of class, section,

genus, and species, used an artificial system based on logical division which was widely used until Carl Linnaeus. His firstmajor work was Elments de botanique, ou Mthode pour reconnatre les Plantes from 1694. Here, he describesfungi and

puts lichen in a distinguish group, and his flower characters was innovative. Further more, he made a clear distinction

between genus and species, and give descriptions of the genera. He used this method to classified the 7,000 plant species

into 700 genera, a work Carl Linnaeus had great help of.

Joseph Pitton de Tournefort was born in Aix-en-Provence, France, and studied medicine at Montpellier, but was

appointed professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1683.

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Carl Linnaeus'

system, published in Species Plantarum 1753 was a toughly milestone in taxonomy, where the binomial nomenclaturewere introduced. He abandoned the long descriptive names of classes and orders and two-word generic names. Species

Plantarum presented a complete list of all the plant species known then, ordered for the purpose of easy identification.

A plant's class was determined by its stamens (male organs), and its order by its pistils (female organs). Even though only

11 of Linnaeus families are in use to day, it was a solid ground for the coming taxonomy. The down side by this was the

groups seems "unnatural". For instance, Linnaeus' Class Monoecia, Order Monadelphia included plants with separate

male and female "flowers" on the same plant (Monoecia) and with multiple male organs joined onto one common base

(Monadelphia). This order included conifers such as pines, firs, and cypresses (the distinction between true flowers and

conifer cones was not clear), but also included a few true flowering plants, such as the castor bean. "Plants" without

obvious sex organs were classified in the Class Cryptogamia, or "plants with a hidden marriage," which lumped together

the algae, lichens, fungi, mosses and other bryophytes, and ferns.

The system contained 24 classes (Greek numbers). The first 13 are divided on their equal long and separated stamens,the next two by uneven length, five with stamens grown together with them selves or the pistils, three classes with single

sex plants and one class with plants without flowers.

The force about this system is; it is easy to classify a plant right away, when you find it - if it flowers. The downside is; it

may not necessarily be related to the other plants in that bigger group. What has survived of the Linnaean system is its

method of hierarchical classification, a good graphic display and custom of binomial nomenclature.

Strangely enough, Carl Linnaeus did not assume plants evolved, but that they were given by God. Despites that, his

grouping by their sexual organs lead to an grouping, not that fare from modern DNA based evolutionary systematic.
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Personally, I can't let go of the thought Carl Linnaeus did have the thought of evolution, but being son of a priest and

living in those time let him keep those thoughts for him selves. Even a hundred years later, the thought did not alien with

other scientists thoughts and good Christian fait.

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The next system was created by Michel Adanson (1727-1806). InHistoire naturelle du Senegal1757, he bases his system

on shells. He founded his classification of all organized beings on the consideration of each individual organ, and not only

the flowers, like Carl Linnaeus. As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a corresponding number of

arbitrary arrangements. Those beings possessing the greatest number of similar organs were referred to one great

division, and the relationship was considered more remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. This made a much

more natural system, than Linn's.

In 1763, he published his Familles naturelles des plantes, where he uses the multi-characteristic system. The success of

this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms, which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular

sexual system of Linnaeus. Never the less, his way of classification opened up for more precise groupings, made by coming

taxonomists. His systematic were inspired by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort's system from 1694. As a system, his work is

brilliant, but his big mistake was to refused to use the new binomial nomenclature. Never the less; it open the way for the

establishment, by means principally of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu's Genera Plantarum (1789), of the natural method of

the classification of plants.

Michel Adanson was born at Aix-en-Provence, Franc. He worked with Bernard de Jussieu, and in the Jardin des Plantes.

In 1748, he went on on an exploring expedition to Senegal, where he remained for four years, describing plants and

animals. Some of the material he collected in Senegal were used in the creation of his Histoire naturelle du Senegalfrom

1757.

In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the French Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all

known beings and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of manuscript, employed in displaying the general

relations of all these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more, occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of

40,000 species; a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations; and a number of detached memoirs,

40,000 figures and 30,000 specimens of the three kingdoms of nature (animal, plant , mineral). The committee to which

the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly recommended Adanson to separate and publish all that was

peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation. He obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, atwhich he continued to labour, was never published.

He never recovered financially or mental over this blow, and his last years were lived in misery on a small pension from

the Academy of Sciences. He was without doubt the first Neo-Adansonian!

His work on the baobabs results in the Adansonia commemorating Adanson.

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Antoine Laurent de Jussieu

(17481836) and his uncle Bernard de Jussieu (1699-1777), also used a classification system that distinguishes

relationships between plants by considering a large number of characters, generally invented by Michel Adanson in 1757,

and combined it with Carl Linnaeus' binomial nomenclature. InGenera Plantarum secundum ordinesnaturalis

disposita ,1789, they distinguished 15 classes and 100 families (called Orders). 76 of his 100 families remain in botanical

nomenclature today!

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Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (17781841) published hisPrincipes lmentaires de botanique asan a introduction to

the third edition of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Flore franaise 1803-1815. In 1813, he published his own Thorie lmentaire

de la botanique with 135 families (still called Order). He wanted the system to be natural, like Adanson's, in opposed to


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the artificial, Linnaean System.

In 1821 came the first two (and only) volumes of Regni vegetabilis systema naturale. He tried to make it less extensive,

but only managed to make seven out of ten volumes ofProdromus systemati naturalis regni vegetabilis sive enumeratio

contracta ordinum, generum specierumque plantarum huc usque cognitarum, juxta methodi naturalis normas digesta,

which were finished by his son:Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame de Candolle (1806-1893) (See below), and his

grandson: Anne Casimir Pyrame de Candolle (1836-1918). It counts 161 families and 58000 species is treated.

The Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis was intended to be a descriptive classification of all known seedplants. Candolle's goal was not only to classify every known species, but also to include ecology, evolution, and the

biogeography of each. Candolle was a pioneer in the field of biogeography, an idea Armen Takhtajan used in 1966.

His work counts the less familiar groups, and remained the only systematic treatment available for some plant groups for

many years.

Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born in the Republic of Geneva (now Switzerland), he studied medicine and natural

history in Paris. He worked in many areas of botany, but the system was his favourites; he even coined the term

"taxonomy". He took the degree of medicine in 1804 and in 1808 he was appointed Professor of Botany and Director of

the Botanic Garden at the University of Montpelier. In 1817, he became professor of natural history at the University of

Geneva, and the director of the botanical gardens there, and established what is now one of the world's largest herbarium.

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George Bentham (1800-1884) made a system together with Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911) which were published

inGenera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita(1-3) 18621883. It consists of

Polypetalarum, Gamopetal , Monochlamide, Gymnosperme and Monocotyledones, with Series with a total of 25

Cohors with 119 families. It was a collection of generic descriptions taken from original observation, and very complete

and precise.

George Bentham was born in Stoke near Portsmouth. He had neither a school nor a college education. He was a gifted

young man, and when he got a copy of of A. P. de CandollesFlore franaise, his interest was caught. His first publication

on the subject was Catalogue des plantes indignes des Pyrnes et du Bas Languedoc from 1826. Ten years

later; Labiatarum genera et species. Then followed Commentationes de Leguminosarum generibus, and he frequently

wrote inProdromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Bentham began with the Flora Hongkongensis in 1861, a

comprehensive work on any part of the little-known flora of China and Hong Kong, including Hong Kong Croton. Then

came Flora Australiensis, in seven volumes (1863-1878), the first flora of any large continental area that had ever beenfinished. His greatest work was theGenera Plantarum, begun in 1862 and concluded in 1883 in collaboration with Sir

Joseph Dalton Hooker.

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker was born in Halesworth, Suffolk, England. He was son of the famous botanist Sir William

Jackson Hooker, and his interest in plants started early. He study medicine at Glasgow University, and got his M.D. in

1839.

He joined the navy's polar expedition under James Clark Ross on the world's last major voyage of exploration made

entirely under sail. The four year expedition lead them bye Madeira, Tenerife, Santiago, Quail Island in the Cape Verde

archipelago, St Paul Rocks, Trinidade east of Brazil, St Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, Crozet Islands, Crozet Islands,

Kerguelen Islands, Hobart, Van Diemen's Land, Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, Antarctica, Sydney, Bay of Islands in

New Zealand, Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, Cockburn Island and Ascension Island.

Hooker made plant collections at each location and while travelling drew these and specimens of algae and sea life pulled

aboard using tow nets. His collections from the voyage eventually formed one of two volumes published as the Flora

Antarctica184447 and Flora Novae-Zelandiae in 185153 and Flora Tasmaniae, 185359.

Darwin who asked Hooker if he would classify the plants that he had collected in the Galpagos.

In 1847 Hooker left England for his 3 year long Himalayan expedition; he would be the first European to collect plants in

the Himalaya. They expedition was granted by his father, the director og KEW. He went by ship, elephants and foot, and

were several times imprisoned.
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His findings were published in Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya,184951, Flora Indica in 1855 and the Himalayan

Journals from 1891.

He also visit Palestine in 1860, Morocco in1871, and the United States in 1877. In 1855 he was appointed assistant-

director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and in 1865 he succeeded his father as full director. He keep writing, and his

greatest botanical work was the Flora of British India, published in seven volumes between 1872 and 1897.

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Armen Leonovich (1910- ( , Takhtadjan or Takhtadzhian) published his Angiosperm

Classification in A system and phylogeny of the flowering plants in1966 (after having worked on it since 1940), where the

origin is taken in consideration, first used by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1818. It treats flowering plants as as a

division or phylum (Magnoliophyta) with two classes (monocots and dicots) which are organized into Subclasses. Higher

level organization is similar to the Cronquist System, but a bit more complex. He favours smaller orders and families, to

allow character and evolutionary relationships to be more easily grasped. However, Takhtajan uses the Superorder as the

basic unit of the Subclass and this pattern of organization is also used in the Thorne System of flowering plant

classification.

His work is published in Systema magnoliophytorum 1987, which counts 533 families, Evolutionary Trends in Flowering

Plants from 1991 and Diversity and classification of flowering plants from 1997 with 592 families.

Armen Leonovich Takhtajan was born in Susa (Shusha), Armenia. He started his education at the the Russian Academy of

Science., and finished in All-Union institute of subtropical cultures in Tbilisi, 1932. He worked in the Department of the

Morphology of Plants, at the Yerevan university from 1938 -1948. Then he worked at the Komarov Botanical Institute in

Leningrad, where he developed his classification scheme for flowering plants, which emphasized phylogenetic

relationships between plants. Lately, he have spend most time in New York Botanical Garden. His early work was brilliant

for it's time, but it did not reach the western world at that time.

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August Wilhelm Eichler (Augustus Guilielmus) (1839-1887) separate Phanerogamae in Angiosperms and

Gymnosperms and Angiosperms again in Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. It was published in Bltendiagramme, I-

II:1875-1878. In 1883, divided the plant kingdom into non-floral plants (Cryptogamae) and floral plants (Phanerogamae).

His system is significant in the perspective it is the first one in which the concept of Evolution. It is in line with Adolphe-

Thodore Brongniart's 1843 work.

Cryptogramae: Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta

Phanaerogramae: Gymnosperms, Angioperms

August Wilhelm Eichler was born in Neukirchen, Hesse, Germany. He studied at University of Marburg and became

professor of Botany in Technische Hochschule, Graz in 1871. In 1872 he received an appointment at the University of Kiel,

where he remained until 1878, when he became director of the herbarium at the University of Berlin.

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Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler (Adolf Engler) (18441930) and Karl Anton Eugen Prantl (1849-1893) made the Engler

and Prantl or Phylogenetic System, published in Die Natrlichen Pflanzenfamilien 1887-1915, where the plants weresorted by the basis of complexity of floral morphology. Characters like a perianth with one whorl, unisexual flowers and

pollination by wind were considered primitive as compared to perianth with two whorls, bisexual flowers and pollination

by insects. This was the first major Phylogenetic Classification and that gave a slightly changed August Wilhelm Eichler

system. They dealt with the primitive groups as well. It is in line with Adolphe-Thodore Brongniart's 1843 work.

Engler's taxonomic work was also published in Das Pflanzenreich1900-1968 and Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien 1924. It

contained more than Angiospermae; even green algae, which most taxonomists do not include in Plantae, and it is still one

of the most complete works on all plants and related.


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The Angiospermae part of the system was slightly changed by H. Melchior in 1964, and after that, it contained 62 ordos

with 343 families.

Main groups in 1964:

Divisio Embryophyta

Subdivisio Angiospermae

Classis Monocotyledoneae

Classis DicotyledoneaeSubclassis Archychlamydeae

Subclassis Sympetalae

Heinrich Gustav Adolf Engler was born in Sagan, Prussia (now aga), Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University

of Breslau (now Wrocaw, Poland) in 1866, and worked there for some years. Then he became the custodian of botanical

collections of the Botanische Institute of Munich. In 1878, he got professorship at the University of Kiel. In 1884, he went

back to Breslau as director of the Botanical Garden. From 1889 to 1921 he was professor at the University of Berlin and

director of the Berlin-Dahlem Botanical Garden.

Many plants are named in his honour, such as Englerastrum,Englerella, Engleria, Englerina, Englerocharis, Englerodaphne,

Englerodendron and Englerophytum.

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Richard Wettstein (Ritter von Westersheim) (1863-1931) publishedhis system in Handbuch der systematischen

Botanikfrom 1901-1935. It counts 48 ordos with 315 families, including Gymnospermae. His new idea is: Monocots

evolved from Ranales. He also used the phylogenetic system.

Richard Wettstein was born in Wien. He studied medicine and philosophy at the University of Vienna. He was a Professor

at the University of Prague from 1892, and at the University of Vienna from 1899. He laid out the Botanical Garden of the

University of Vienna.

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Charles Edwin Bessey (1845-1915) made his Bessey system, with focus on the evolutionary divergence of primitive

forms. The systems based on various 28 guiding rules, or dicta, to determine level of being, simple or advanced, of a

group of plants. It is considered by many as the system most likely to form the basis of a modern, comprehensive

taxonomy of the plant kingdom. It was published inThe phylogenetic taxonomy of flowering plants 1915. Here, he

considered Spermatophyta as having had polyphyletic origin, being composed by three different phyla, of which he

treated only Anthophyta. Full in line with Richard Wettstein ideas.

Charles Edwin Bessey was born in Milton Township, Wayne County, Ohio, USA. He studied at Michigan Agricultural

College, and become instructor in botany and horticulture at Iowa College of Agriculture, where he becomes a full

professor. In 1884, he is appointed professor of botany at University of Nebraska.

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Wilhelm Hofmeister, (born May 18, 1824, Leipzigdied January 12, 1877, Lindenau, near Leipzig), German botanist

whose investigations of plant structure made him a pioneer in the science of comparative plant morphology.

Hofmeister entered his fathers publishing business at the age of 17. Although he was completely self-taught, in 1863 he

was appointed professor of botany and director of the botanical garden at Heidelberg; he became professor at Tbingen

in 1872.

Hofmeisters first botanical paper was published in 1847. Die Entstehung des Embryo der Phanerogamen (The Genesis

of the Embryo in Phanerogams) was published two years later and won for him an honorary degree from the University
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of Rostock. In that paper he described in detail the behaviour of the nucleus in cell formation and proved the invalidity of

the theory that plant embryos develop from the tip of the pollen tube.

Hofmeisters most brilliant achievements are to be found in his book on comparative morphology,Vergleichende

Untersuchungen . . . (1851; On the Germination, Development, and Fructification of the Higher Cryptogamia and on the

Fructification of the Coniferae, 1862), in which he points out the relationships among various cryptogams and establishes

the position of the gymnosperms (e.g.,conifers) between the cryptogams (e.g., ferns, mosses, algae) and the angiosperms

(flowering plants). Hofmeister was also the discoverer of the regular alternation of a sexual and an asexual generation in

mosses, ferns, and seed plants.

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Stephan Endlicher, in full Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher (born June 24, 1804, Pressburg, Hung. [now Bratislava,

Slovakia]died March 28, 1849, Vienna, Austria), Austrian botanist who formulated a major system of plant

classification.

Endlicher turned from the study of theology to that of natural history and medicine while at the Universities of Budapest

and Vienna (M.D., 1840). In 1836 he became curator of the Vienna Museum of Natural History, to which he would

eventually donate his herbarium of 30,000 specimens. While reorganizing the museums botanical collections, he wrote

the Genera Plantarum Secundum Ordines Naturales Disposita (183640; Plant Genera Arranged According to a Natural

Order), a system of classification in which he treated 6,835 genera of plants (6,285 of vascular plants). He was appointed

professor of botany at the University of Vienna in 1840. Having exhausted his modest resources buying botanical

collections and books and publishing his own and others writings, Endlicher committed suicide.

Although Endlichers system was based on erroneous ideas concerning the modes of growth of different types of plant life,

it included a relatively modern approach to the classification of certain lower vascular plant families and was widely

adopted on the European continent for a time. HisGenera Plantarum, in which he divided the plant kingdom into

thallophytes (including the algae, fungi, and lichens) and cormophytes (including the mosses, ferns, and seed plants),

remained a valuable descriptive index to plant families and genera for more than a half century.

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Albertus Magnus (Albert) (~1200-1280) ( Saint Albert the Great, Albert of Cologne) produced a classification system

that recognized monocots and dicots, although he do not use those terms.

Albertus Magnus was born in Lauingen an der Donau, Germany. He became a Dominican friar who achieved fame for his

comprehensive knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He applied the Aristotle's

philosophy to Christian thoughts. In 1260, he became Bishop of Regensburg,

He was made a Saint in 1931 and, in 1941, made patron of natural scientists.

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Gaspard Bauhin (Caspar )

(15601624) described over 6000 plants in Pinax theatri botanici, 1623, which were 12 books with 72 sections based on

a wide range of common characteristics. The classification system was not particularly innovative, using traditional

groups such as "trees", "shrubs", and "herbs", and using other characteristics such utilization, for instance grouping spices

into the Aromata. He did correctly group grasses, legumes, and several others.

His most important contribution is in the description of genera and species. He introduced many names of genera that


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were later adopted by Carl Linnaeus, and remain in use.

For species, he carefully pruned the descriptions down to as few words as possible; in many cases a single word sufficed

as description, thus giving the appearance of a two-part name. However, the single-word description was still a

description intended to be diagnostic, not an arbitrarily-chosen name. This might very well have been the inspiration for

Carl Linnaeus to event the binomial nomenclature.

Later cameTheatrum Botanicum in 1658, but only one out of twelve volumes were published. Two more were written,but newer made it to the printer.

Caspar Bauhin was a Swiss botanist, who was born in Basel, and studied medicine at Padua, Montpellier, and in Germany.

He was appointed to a Greek professorship, the chair of anatomy and botany, city physician, professor of the practice of

medicine, rector of the university, and dean of his faculty.

The Bauhinia is named after him and his brother; Johann Bauhin, an other botanist.

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John Ray

(1627-1705) (Wray) listed over 18,000 plant species in his works, the first: Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam

nascentium from 1659. The 626 plants are listed alphabetically, but a system of classification differing little from Caspar

Bauhin's is sketched at the end of the book. In 1670 came Catalogus plantarum Angliae et insularum adjacentium. In 1674,

the paperA Discourse on the Seeds of Plants, distinguished between plants with a single seed leaf and those with two such

leaves, and he has established the monocot/dicot division (probatly after having read Albertus Magnus (se above). Later

same year, he laid down the definition of a species in terms of the structural qualities alone. This is followed up

inMethodus plantarum nova 1682 andHistoria generalis plantarum in 1686, 1688 and 1704, which described about 6,100

species.

Some of his subgroups like mustards, mints, legumes and grasses stand today although their names have been changed

(he probably also read Caspar Bauhin (se above)). He was the first to use species as the fundamental unit of classification.

John Ray was an English naturalist, born in Black Notley, near Braintree, in the county of Essex.

The first monocot and dicot division with that name. First to use species as the fundamental unit of classification.

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Pliny the Elder

or Gaius Plinius Secundus (23-79): Roman officer and encyclopedist, author of the Natural history

Book 12 and 13: Exotic trees

A.o., trees and their products, banyan, pepper, ginger-trees, cane-sugar, cotton-tree, resins, frankincense, myrrh,

cinnamon, cassia, balsam, perfumes, palm-trees, figs, papyrus, paper, varieties of paper, history of paper, citrus-wood,

aquatic trees.

Book 14: The vine

A.o., Italian trees, the decay of science and the spread of avarice, the vine, viticulture, varieties of vines and wines, Cato in

viticulture, successful vineyards, famous wines, physiological effects of wine, Italian wines, foreign wines, regulations

relating to wine, retsina, storage of wine, over-indulgence, famous drinkers, beer.

Book 15: Olive and other fruit trees

A.o., history of the olive-tree and the production of oil, mistaken ideas about the olive tree, uses of oil, Cato's instructions

for olive growing, artificial oil, apples, pears, grafts, storage of fruit, figs, stories about figs, cherry-trees, myrtle.


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Book 16: Forest trees and botany

A.o., the Chauci, military decorations, the Rostra, the award of wreaths, acorns, cork-tree, pitch-pine, ivy, aquatic shrubs

and reeds, bamboo, rushes, structure of trees, large trees, wood-borers, veneers, mistletoe.

Book 17: Other useful plants

A.o., early farming, treatises on agriculture, Cato on buying a farm, farmhouses, choosing a manager, secrets of good

farming, grain, pulses, wheat, barley, porridge, milling, bread, bakers at Rome, harvesting corn, the storage of grain.

Book 18: How to run a farm

Book 19: Horticulture

A.o., sailing, including a section on flax.

Book 20: Drugs obtained from garden plants

A.o., man's food and plants, cucumbers, onions, garlic, lettuce, cabbage, pennyroyal, poppies, opium.

Book 21 and 22: Drugs obtained from flowers and herbs

A.o., thyme, bees and honey, helenium, Greek weights and measures.

Book 23: Drugs obtained from the vine and the walnutA.o., power of vinegar, walnuts.

Book 24: Drugs obtained from forest trees

A.o., trees and remedies obtained from them, medicine, remedies from trees and plants, cork-trees, juniper-trees, tree-

moss, resin, ivy, holly and brambles, magical plants.

Book 25: Drugs obtained from herbs

A.o., plants used in medicine, Mithridates's interest in medicine, Greek writers in herbal medicine, moly, mandrake,

hemlock, erigeron and toothache.

Book 26: Diseases and remedies

A.o., new skin diseases, leprosy, ancient medicine, Asclepiades.

Book 27: Drugs obtained from wild plants

In a more or less alphabetic order: a.o., aconite, wormwood, and the potency of drugs.

>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

Lamarck

1778 published his Flore franaise, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the

student with facility to determine species. This work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, gained

for its author immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences.

The 11th and youngest child of poor aristocrats, he joined the army at 16, served in the Seven Years War, and then (for

health reasons) gave up the army and, after working in a bank, began to study medicine. His interest first focused on

botany, and his writing on this (especially his introduction of an easy key for classification) impressed the famousnaturalist ; he became botanist to the king in 1781 and, after the Revolution, a professor of zoology in Paris in 1793. After

that he worked mainly in zoology, especially on the invertebrates (a term he introduced; he was also a very early user of

the word biology)
http://www.livius.org/mi-mn/mithridates/mithridates.htmhttp://www.livius.org/mi-mn/mithridates/mithridates.htm

botanists 2.docx

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