Socialization and the Self(Chapter 4)

John Bradford, Ph.D.

PART I. NATURE VS. NURTURE

Nature or Nurture?

• Why do you do what you do?• How much of what we do is a

result of biology, such as our genetic makeup?

• And how much of what we do is a result of free will, or our environment?

Nature or Nurture?

• Sociobiology: the systematic study of how biology affects social behavior.

• Sociologists are usually skeptical of biological or genetic explanations of social behavior!

Nature or Nurture?

• To say of some behavior X that it is “biological”, “natural,” or “genetic” implies that it is INEVITABLE and UNCHANGEABLE. – ‘An explanation of the way things are that does

not threaten the way things are” – Levinas.

Nature or Nurture?

• How much of our behavior is genetically programmed? Here are three rules to keep in mind:

1. Predisposition ≠ Predetermination

2. Genetic ≠ Fixed3. Inherited ≠ Genetic

Rule #1: Predisposition ≠ Predetermination

• Genes do not pre-determine or program our behavior. Instead, Genes may give us a predisposition to certain behaviors and traits.

• What effects genes have (i.e. how they will be expressed) depends on environmental and developmental factors!

Rule #1: Predisposition ≠ Predetermination

• Most diseases are not genetically pre-determined! – "In fact, only 5% of cancer and

cardiovascular patients can attribute their disease to heredity. [Willett 2002]

– Only 7% of breast cancer patients have the ‘breast cancer gene’ and the not all women with this gene contract breast cancer.

Rule #2: Genetic ≠ Fixed

• Even when something is genetically pre-determined, this does not mean that this condition is fixed or unchangeable!

• Examples: i. a rare genetic defect that prevents people from

metabolizing copper can lead normal lives by taking medication that helps them get rid of the copper.

ii. Eye glasses can correct for poor eyesight.

Rule #3: Inherited ≠ Genetic

• The two social traits that have the highest resemblance between parents and children are: 1. religious sect, and 2. political party.

• There is no gene for Episcopalianism, and we are not born Republican or Democrat.

Nature via Nurture

• Epigenetic Effects: – The Environment influences which

genes get expressed and what they express!

– Environmental factors (e.g. radiation) can even cause genes themselves to change.

• Humans exhibit a great degree of phenotypical plasticity: humans have an *instinct to learn*

Nature via Nurture

Who we are depends on:1. our biological

makeup, our 2. environment (esp. in

early infancy and childhood!), and

3. our own decisions.

Nature via Nurture

• Genes, organisms, and their environments (‘niches’) constantly interact and co-create each other.

Triple Helix Model

Inheritance of IQ?

• In studies of identical twins who are adopted, the IQ scores of children are about 20x higher than their biological parents! And about the same as their adopted parents, who perform better on IQ tests.

PART II. SOCIALIZATION AND THE SELF

Feral (‘Wild’) Children

Socialization

• Socialization = the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the skills necessary to achieve cultural competency.– Agents of Socialization include the Family, Schools,

Mass Media, Peer Groups, and the Workplace• Social self = the relatively organized complex

of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors associated with an individual

Charles H. Cooley“The looking-glass self”• The individual internalizes the attitudes of

others toward him/her (“Me”) and responds or reacts to those attitudes (“I”)

• The self emerges out of social interaction: selves can only exist in definite relationships to others selves

• ‘Generalized Other’: we internalize or anticipate how others we don’t know will expect us to behave; – “the community and society in which we live”

(p.261)– The collectively shared consensual meanings in

society

Charles H. Cooley

“The looking-glass self”1. We imagine how we look to the

other person2. We imagine the other person’s

reaction to our appearance3. In response, we have some

feeling, such as pride or shame

George Herbert Mead• Influenced by Pragmatism, school of

American philosophy• Focus on practical conditions and

consequences of action The Self• Self = Dynamic interaction between the

“I” (subject) and the “Me” (object).• The ‘ME’ sees myself as an object, as

others see me; the ‘I’ is my response to my perception of how I think others see me in this situation.

• Children are not born with an I and a ME!

George Herbert Mead

• Play: in play, there are no rules; the child makes it up as he or she goes along.– Play is the first step toward constructing a “Me”

• Games: games have rules and specific roles (e.g. batter, pitcher, catcher, outfielder); the rules specify how the person in each role participates– In Mead’s view, the roles and the rules of games are

‘impersonal’. – Participating in games enhances the ability of children for

role-taking, to see other people’s points of view, and to acquire a generalized other (pg. 161)

Our 4 ‘selves’

1. Open2. Blind3. Hidden4. Unknown

PART III. TYPES OF INFLUENCE (POWER)

INFLUENCE

UNINTENDED(unconscious)EMERGENCE

INTENDED = POWER

1.FORCE 2.MANIPULATION 3.PERSUASION 4.AUTHORITY

Coercive

Induced

LegitimateCompetent

Personal

Types of Influence

Definitions of Power

1. Dennis Wrong: power is the capacity to intentionally influence others.

2. Bertrand Russell: “power is the actual production of intended effects”

3. Max Weber: ‘the chance of a man or a number of men to realize their own will even against the resistance of others...’

Russell(1872-1970)

Weber(1864-1920)

Forms of Power (intended influence)

I. ForceII. ManipulationIII. PersuasionIV. Authority: – Coercion, Induced, Legitimate, Competent, and

Personal• * Note: all forms of power except ‘force’

must be communicated.

1. Force• Force = treating a human as an object. Note: this only refers to

the application of force, not to the threat of force. • Violence is the ultimate form of force: assaulting the body to

inflict pain, injury, suffering, or even death.

Depiction of slave whippingMedieval torture

2. Manipulation(aka ‘Fraud’)

• Definition: any deliberate attempt to influence or elicit a desired response from another person, *where the desired response is not explicitly communicated to the other person*– Spontaneous, informal interaction

depends on the shared belief that manipulation isn’t taking place.

Shamwow!

3. Persuasion

• Persuasion occurs whenever someone agrees with someone else’s arguments or appeals after evaluating them independently in light of his/her own interests.

• Persuasion implies a context of open and free communication, with no anticipation of punishments or rewards, i.e. without any felt need to do what the other wants.

4. Authority

• Authority is successful ordering or forbidding– A relationship of command and obedience. – Persuasion = tested acceptance; Authority = untested

acceptance.• 5 types (based on motivations for obeying):

1. Coercion (punishments, threat of force)2. Induced (rewards such as money)3. Legitimate (rights to command, obligations to obey)4. Competent (based on perceived expertise)5. Personal (based on desire to please)

Personal authority

• Personal authority is usually low in extensiveness (# of people

it influences): e.g. a lover who declares ‘your wish is my command!’

• But charismatic leaders use personal authority to generate mass followings that challenge the traditional order.

Mussolini and Hitler are (negative) examples of charismatic leaders