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    Contributed article as seen in The Construction Specifier Feb. 2008 Edition

    A Return to SteelPerformance and aesthetics of steel framing curtain walls

    By Jeff Razwick

    The benefits of designing with natural light are well known in the building industry. From energy and operating cost savings, to

    improved occupant productivity and enhanced aesthetics, facility designs incorporating daylight are increasingly popular. Naturally,

    much of the discussion on how to effectively implement daylighting focuses on the glazing material itself such as the effect of

    various coatings, films, and tints on translucency, reflectivity, and emissivity, or the proper placement of windows and skylights. Yet,

    a critical factor often overlooked is the framing systems role in ensuring an appropriate amount of light reaches interior spaces.

    According to Gregg D. Ander, FAIA, of the Southern California Edison Company, the simplest method to maximize daylight within a

    space is to increase the glazing area.1 This observation relates directly to the framing system. In comparison to traditional alumi-

    num assemblies, newer steel framing systems enable narrower frame profiles and larger areas of uninterrupted glass, while meet-

    ing a range of other performance and design needs.

    In the first half of the 1900s, steel was a popular material for window framing. It was readily available, strong, and well understood

    and accepted by architects and designers due to its use as a structural element throughout buildings. Steel framing was used to de-

    velop revolutionary designs, including the first application of a glazed curtain wall in the Hallidie Building in San Francisco in 1918.

    Over time, steel fell out of favor as a window framing material because it was heavy, and in early applications, prone to rust. In the

    middle of the century, aluminum became many designers framing material of choice because it was lightweight, easy to work with

    and malleable enough to be readily formed into different mullion profiles.

    However, steel is once again emerging as a pioneering material for glazed windows and doors, as well as curtain walls. European

    manufacturing processes now allow the alloy to be formed into a wide range of framing profiles, matching the flexibility in profile

    choice provided by aluminum framing systems. Architects and designers in Europe have used these advanced steel framing systems

    for years, which are only now being introduced in North America.

    The frames are well adapted for numerous design applications, including large and open straight walls, curved and serpentine

    walls, and vaulted ceilings and atriums. Due to steels greater strength, larger spans of glass and minimal frame dimensions are

    also possible, which allow in more natural light and can improve the buildings aesthetics.

    Technical properties of steel

    In comparison to assemblies made of traditional materials, steel has many physical properties that provide superior performance

    for glazed curtain walls and window and door framing systems.

    Modulus of elasticity

    Steel has a modulus of elasticity (i.e. Youngs modulus) of about 207 million kPa (30 million psi) compared to aluminums approxi-

    mate 69 million kPa (10 million psi). With three times the stiffness value, steel frames of a given profile or cross-section deflect less,

    providing substantially greater load capacity (Figure 1 p2). As a result, for a given framing profile cross-section, steel can achieve

    larger glazing spans than aluminum (Figure 2 p2). Or, for identical load and deflection requirements, narrower steel frame profiles

    can be employed. In either case, steel enables larger areas of uninterrupted glass with less framing than aluminum.

    The difference in frame profile sizes can be dramatic, with steel framing systems allowing much thinner profiles than a typical

    aluminum assembly. Figure 3 (p2) depicts a standard two-story curtain wall span with a given set of design criteria. In this specific

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    application, steel frames have a face width of only 45 mm (1.75 in.),

    versus a typical 64 mm (2.5 in.) face width of aluminum, providing a

    significantly reduced sightline. Steel also allows for a narrower frame

    depth: 146 mm (5.75 in.) back mullion versus a required depth of

    almost 200 mm (8 in.) for a typical aluminum curtain wall. Internal

    reinforcements can further reduce required frame depths.

    A general rule of thumb is that for the same size frame profile, steelallows for glass panes approximately three times the surface area as

    possible with aluminum framing. For fixed design criteria (e.g. load),

    the primary benefit of steel is a more visually appealing system with

    thinner framing.

    Thermal expansion coefficient

    The thermal expansion coefficient of steel is approximately 7.3 in/

    in. F x 10-6 which is of the same general order of magnitude as glass

    at 5.0 and concrete at 8.0, compared to an expansion coefficient for

    aluminum of approximately 12.3 (Figure 4). Steels lower susceptibil-ity to thermal expansion allows for greater design and installation

    flexibility as temperature changes, the glass, steel framing, and

    surrounding concrete all expand and contract together, requiring

    fewer, if any, framing expansion joints.

    Figure 2: Glass Size Comparison

    The strength of steel framing allows for glass sizes

    larger than possible with aluminum framing, for the

    same framing profile cross section.

    Figure 3: Mullion Section Comparison

    This image illustrates typical steel and aluminum

    curtainwall mullion sections for a given set of design

    criteria.

    Figure 1: Wind Load Capacity Comparison

    With a higher modulus of elasticity, steel framing has three times

    greater wind load capacity than typical aluminum framing systems.

    ALUMINUM

    wind load

    3XX

    STEEL

    wind load

    1000 1000

    2000 2000

    2000

    2000

    ALUMINUMSTEEL

    mullion section

    typical aluminum curtainwall system

    13/4"

    (45)Dlo Dlo

    2

    1/8"

    (54.4

    mm)

    5

    3/4"

    (146mm)

    7

    7/8"

    (200.4

    mm)

    21/2"

    (63.5)Dlo Dlo

    10

    1/2

    "

    (266.7

    m

    m)

    7

    15/16"

    (202.2

    mm)

    2

    9/16"

    (64.5

    mm)

    mullion section

    steelbuilt curtainwall system

    oVerall heiGht: 20' ( d )

    oVerall wiDth: 9' 113/16"

    Glass panel siZe: 36" x 797/16"

    DesiGn pressure: 25 psF

    DeFlection: l/240+1/4" l/175 < 13'6" l/240+1/4" > 13'6"

    curtainwall illustration DesiGn criteria

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    Heat transfer

    Compared to aluminum framing, steel systems reduce heat trans-

    fer in two ways. First, steel has one-fourth the thermal conductiv-

    ity of aluminum (approximately 31 Btu per hour for steel versus

    about 118 Btu per hour for aluminum). Second, the potential for

    narrower frame profiles provides a smaller area of metal through

    which heat can pass. Together, these characteristics result in

    lower heat loss/gain and reduced likelihood of interior condensa-tion (i.e. sweating) on frames. Specifically, National Fenestration

    Rating Council (NFRC) 100 computer simulations on steel curtain

    wall systems combined with 25 mm (1 in.) insulating glass units

    (IGUs) incorporating clear low-emissivity (low-E) glass provided U-

    values of 0.31 far exceeding the thermal performance of many

    aluminum curtain walls.

    Anti-corrosion and durability

    To address earlier steel framings propensity to

    rust, modern systems are available with highanti-corrosion protection, such as double-sided

    pre-galvanization. With todays technology,

    liquid zinc can be applied to thicknesses of up

    to 20 (0.001 in.), or 28 g (0.9 oz ) per 0.09 m2

    (1 sf), which is on par with ASTM International G

    90, Standard Practice for Performing Accelerat-

    ed Outdoor Weathering of Nonmetallic Materi-

    als Using Concentrated Natural Sunlight.

    Steel frames are therefore suitable for either

    interior or exterior use. After the framing com-

    ponents are fabricated and before installation,

    they can be either powder- or wet-coated to

    match any desired color scheme. In addition,

    numerous stainless steel options are available,

    commonly desired for high-end storefronts and

    coastal area applications.

    With steel systems, galvanization occurs prior

    to cutting, and the powder or wet coatings are

    applied after to protect the cut ends. With theproper coating specified, painted steel should

    perform similar to coated aluminum. Powder

    coats are extremely durable, and if necessary, field touch-ups are possible by qualified personnel.

    As a framing material, steel also offers unmatched long-term durability. With back mullions and cover caps made of steel, curtain

    wall and window and door assemblies are significantly more resistant to scratches and dents over a buildings life. This quality is

    especially beneficial in areas prone to abuse such as storefront entrances, as well as in door assemblies where steel can withstand

    long-term hard use with lower potential for sagging or joint failure.

    Figure 5: Structural Member Mounting Examples

    Modular steel framing systems enhance design freedom by allowing attachment to a wide range

    of structural members, including I-beams, wood, round steel tubes and stainless steel profiles.

    Clamp isolator bush system

    ensures accurate screw alignment

    andcorrect pressure

    Universal use

    Small contact area and underside

    ventilation

    avoids contact corrosion

    Protection against water penetratio

    by full width EPDM gasket

    Secure gasket guide

    Figure 4: Thermal Expansion Comparison

    Steel has a thermal expansion coefficient substantially lower than alumi-num, and is comparable to glass and concrete.

    THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT

    Glass

    in/in.

    Fx10-6

    Concrete Steel Aluminum

    5.05.0

    0

    10.0

    15.0

    8.0

    7.3

    12.3

    by free choice of under construction

    materials

    Continuous screw fixing channel

    variable fixing points of glazing beads

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    Installation and costs

    Steel framing systems are installed in a similar fashion to traditional aluminum assemblies. One system includes a plug-and-screw

    connection for framing components, which allows the framing to be readily assembled without welding the result is crisp corner

    joints without visible fasteners or weld beads.

    The new generation of steel framing versus hollow metal or welded frames provides a clean finished look previously available

    only with aluminum systems. The unique roll forming process of modern steel framing results in linear edges that are crisper than

    the break-shape profiles of traditional hollow metal steel.

    The framing is made watertight by a back seal, which covers the frame profile and is secured in grooves. Steel framing systems have

    been tested for dynamic water penetration (American Architectural Manufacturers Association [AAMA] 501.1, Standard Test Method

    for Water Penetration of Windows, Curtain Walls and Doors Using Dynamic Pressure) and static water penetration (ASTM E 331,

    Standard Test Method for Water Penetration of Exterior Windows, Skylights, Doors, and Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure

    Difference). They have also been measured for air performance (ASTM E 283, Standard Test Method for Determining Rate of Air

    Leakage Through Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under Specified Pressure Differences Across the Specimen) and struc-

    tural performance (ASTM E 330, Standard Test Method for Structural Performance of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights, and Curtain

    Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference).

    Modular steel framing system options are also available with back mullions customizable to almost any profile, including L-shaped

    U-shaped, T-shaped, I-shaped, and hollow sections. Instead of limiting them to traditional square tube aluminum to support a

    glazed curtain wall, the new modular steel systems allow designers to use almost any structural member as a curtain wall mul-

    lion, including I-beams, wood glue-laminated (glulam) beams, round steel tubes, and stainless steel profiles (Figure 5). This choice

    provides incredible design flexibility for curtain wall projects, in contrast to aluminum systems that do not offer the same range of

    back mullion profiles.

    With respect to first costs, steel from a raw material to a finished frame product will generally come at a higher price than alumi-

    num, which is common for many building systems offering higher performance characteristics and product features. Nevertheless,

    when considering cost, it is also important to keep in mind steel curtain walls are able to use fewer frame mullions than aluminum

    (due to their higher strength and lower deflection) and that large glass lights and less framing can reduce system material costs and

    labor and installation expenses since the number of system joints and complexity is potentially lower.

    Steel framing for fire-rated applications

    Steel framing is also available to meet fire ratings, and can be used for fire-rated curtain walls in areas such as large enclosed

    stairwells, elevator cores, and exterior walls. Before the advent of modern fire-rated glass and framing systems, exit corridors and

    other critical areas that divide a building into fire-blocking compartments required solid walls made of materials like masonry and

    gypsum. Now, fire-rated glazing can be used throughout a building, allowing natural light to filter in and open the interior.

    During the last two decades, the glazing industry has witnessed dramatic changes in the specialty field of fire-rated glass and

    framing. Modern fire-rated glass looks like the glass of ordinary windows, outperforms wired glass in fire testing, and can provide

    substantially better impact safety and thermal insulation. (See More Than a Pretty Frame: Putting Glass to the Test.) From an aes-thetic perspective, fire-rated glass is also available in large sizes, and a range of finishes such as beveled edges, etched surfaces,

    and varied textures.

    Fire-rated framing has also considerably improved in recent years, advancing beyond the functional, yet bulky wrap-around-style

    hollow metal frames of the past. Those older style frames perform well at blocking fire and smoke, but do not necessarily accom-

    modate many design considerations, especially those of glazed curtain walls.

    New narrow profile steel frames offer a very different look than traditional hollow metal steel. Specialized manufacturing methods

    create an extremely strong product that is thinner than traditional fire-rated framing.

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    Advances in fire-rated framing have enabled the development of fire-rated curtain wall systems, allowing architects and designers

    to stretch large expanses of fire-rated glass across multiple stories. Floor-to-ceiling fire-rated curtain walls are sometimes used to

    divide interior spaces while offering security, daylighting, and aesthetic appeal, along with life safety. For example, fire-rated curtain

    walls are especially suitable for lobbies and atriums as they provide uninterrupted views.

    For exterior applications, most building codes do not require fire-rated materials for a buildings skin, unless it is close to a property

    line. However, the outside of a building can significantly help prevent the spread of fire inside. An example that illustrates the im-

    portance of the building envelope is the 1988 fire at the First Interstate Bank building in Los Angeles. In this case, the building en-

    velope did not include fire-rated materials, allowing flames to spread to higher floors along the outside of the building. In contrast,fire-rated curtain wall can more effectively contain the spread of fire within a building, as well as to adjacent facilities.

    Conclusion

    Aluminum continues to be a popular framing material for glazing given its high strength-to-weight ratio. It is well suited for many

    applications, including those requiring less stringent design criteria for glazing sizes, spans, and framing sightlines. However, for

    higher performance needs, architects and designers may wish to consider the benefits of steel framing systems to meet their design

    and challenges. When specifying steel, it is crucial to ensure the design takes advantage of this materials inherent strengths.

    Notes1 See section D of Gregg D. Anders Daylighting. Visit www.wbdg.org/design/daylighting.php.

    Additional Information

    Abstract

    The implementation of effective daylighting often focuses on glazing material and the proper placement of window glass and

    skylights. However, when it comes to curtain walls, framing also plays a critical factor. Steel assemblies can enhance daylighting by

    enabling much larger areas of uninterrupted glass and narrower frame profiles than their traditional counterparts, while meeting a

    range of performance and design needs.