Micaeli C. RourkeCC303 Literature Review

The Effects of Sexism and The Effects of Sexism and Gender Stereotyping in 2008 Gender Stereotyping in 2008

Presidential Campaign Presidential Campaign CoverageCoverage

Abstract

• . From Hillary Rodham Clinton’s narrow defeat in obtaining the Democratic nomination, to the first Republican nomination of a female Vice-Presidential candidate, Senator Clinton and Governor Sarah Palin illustrate that American women have made strides proving their legitimacy as politicians in America. This fact remains especially true, considering that women were still striving towards gaining suffrage less than a century ago.

• However, an analysis of the scholarly literature on mainstream media coverage reveals that the face of sexism is still revealed in the coverage of female candidates. The gender bias displayed by the mainstream media largely contributed to the framing of their coverage of not only female candidates, but also the entire 2008 election. By evaluating proven gender stereotypes in American leadership, the history of female politicians in the eyes of the American news media, as well as a critical analysis of the

2008 Presidential election coverage.

Abstract

• This analysis will evaluate the negative coverage of both candidates, and how that negative coverage affected

the candidate’s popularity, through national polls.

Men and Women of the Corporation

R.M. Kanter, 1977

Governing Codes;

Gender, Metaphor, and Political Identity

Anderson, Sheeler, 2005

Scholarly Intent

• Through this study, I hope to learn about the obstacles female politician face when campaigning:– pre-existing gender stereotypes, – gender biased media coverage, – Sociological barriers– Gender socialization

• My intent is to adapt these theory-based obstacles, and apply them to Clinton and Palin’s campaigns.

• In order to fully understand the content, I will also analyze the rhetorical styles of both candidates, and how their campaign styles help or hurt their quest for political legitimacy.

Research Questions

• I intend to prove if the media’s coverage of Clinton and Palin portrayed a gender bias that contributed to the downfall, and eventual defeat of both female candidates.

• I will be specifically analyzing the gender framing applied to news stories about the Clinton and (McCain)Palin campaigns, and whether negative news cycles directly swayed public opinion polls.

• I will be comparing the coverage of both female candidates’ campaigns, in regards to one another’s, and those of their competitors.

IntroductionFemales as Politicians

• 1872-Victoria Woodhull- first female to run for President, Equal Rights Party

• 1920- 19th Amendment ratified, granting female suffrage

• 1984- Geraldine Ferraro- First woman on major national party ticket

• 1999-Elizabeth Dole-First female front runner for Presidential nomination (GOP)

Introduction Representation of Females in U.S. Politics

“…Even though women make up slightly more than half of the U.S. population and vote in higher proportion than men, men outnumber women by a factor of three in state legislatures and a factor of five in Congress...At virtually every level, women are less than a quarter of officeholders. Women are nowhere near parity.” (Jost, 267).

-Currently: 17 women serving in Senate, 6 female governors, 17 women in Congress, and 3 female Supreme Court Justices.

Introduction

Graph courtesy of CQ Researcher Online

IntroductionWhy the Under Representation?

• -“CBS News conducted a poll in February 2006 that found 92 percent of those polled said that they would vote for a woman for president if she were qualified.” (Gutgold, 2)Graph courtesy of “A Year Ahead, Republicans Face Tough Political Terrain: Clinton Propelled by Support from Young

Women in ‘08 Test” Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, Oct 31, 2007

“Women are less likely to run as candidates when they’re young and have children…Women [enter politics] at an older age and thus can make fewer leaps up the ladder.” (Scholzman, c/o Jost 270)

“In some ways, the political system has not shown that it is capable of making the kind of changes that women want to see it make…You have to have a diverse and critical mass of women to sit there and really change how it affects women’s lives.” (White House Project’s Wilson)

IntroductionWhy the Under representation?

The Gender Gap

• “Women have been more likely to vote Democratic than men in presidential elections since 1964” (Gutgold, 273).

• “In 2004, nearly 9 million more women voted in the presidential race than men” (Jost, 346).

• See graph:

The Gender Gap, Prior to 2008

Note: The Gender Gap is calculated as the difference between the percentage of women voting Democrat minus the percentage of men voting Democrat in each presidential context. Graph c/o CQ Researcher Online.

The Double Bind

Kathleen Hall Jamieson- Beyond the Double Bind (1995)- “The ways in which conflicts between role expectations trap women in double binds that curtail their options and circumscribe their power.” (Jamieson, 7)

• “As a result of this culturally-pervasive containment logic, women leaders are often placed in a double bind.” (Andersen and Sheeler, 6)

• Jamieson proves that the double bind serves as a context for the candidacy of any woman “…Our assessment suggests that the double bind effects different candidates in different ways…Party influence, geographical location, and personal style influence the rhetorical options at her disposal for challenging the double bind.” (Andersen and Sheeler, 6).

Kanter and Moss’ Gender Frames Explained

• Mother -”The assumption that women are sympathetic and good listeners…A mother is not necessarily vulnerable to sexual pursuit…nor do men need to compete for her favors, since they are available to everyone. (232)

• Seductress-”Introduces an element of sexual competition and jealousy…Should the woman cast as a sex object…share her attention widely, she risks the debasement of being a whore. Yet, should she form a close a close alliance with any man in particular, she arouses resentment…there are just not enough women to go around.” (234)

• Pet/Child-”…Amusing little thing and symbolically taken along on group events as mascot-a cheerleader for shows of prowess…Humor was often a characteristic…Shows of competence on her part were treated as special and complimented just because they were unexpected…” (235)

• Iron Maiden-”Women who resisted to fall into the first three roles, and…resisted overtures that would trap them in a role…might consequently be responded to as ‘tough’ or dangerous.” (236)

• The pioneer- “…A trailblazer or groundbreaker…Most of these women were the first elected governor of their state and have many other ‘firsts’ lining their biographies.” (14)

• The puppet-”…An instrument…to be manipulated by some more powerful other-most often a man, and more specifically a husband…Political spouses (First Ladies)…have been cast as extensions of their husbands’ political careers who, if they spoke publicly at all, acted as political mouthpieces for the candidates…” whom they were affiliated with. (16)

• The host/ beauty queen- “Encapsulates a cluster of metaphors representing all things that traditional women are allowed praise in public…Sometimes giddy, attractive, social creatures who win popularity contests and enjoy playing hostess and caretaker.”(20)

• The unruly woman- A reversal of the host/ beauty queen “Creates disorder..she will not condone herself to her proper place…Is excessively physical…Makes jokes, or laughs herself…Old or a masculizined crone…Associated with thresholds, borders…taboo.” (28)

Andersen and Sheeler- Metaphor Clusters

Definitions

• Media framing-“…focuses on how issues and other objects of interest are reported by news media as well as what is emphasized in such reporting.” -(Weaver, McCombs, Shaw, 2005)

• “What matters to successful exertion of political power is whether a frame has a decisive impact on two key audiences…first, citizens lacking strong ideological or partisan predispositions...whose attitudes are most malleable; and second, political elites themselves.” (Entman, 392).

3 Themes in the Media Representation of Women

1. Women are under represented in the media

2. News about female candidates is presented in forms of sex-role stereotypes.

3. Gender roles physiologically consign women to limited nurturing and supporting roles.

2008 Campaign Coverage Analysis

• “Both clung to stereotypical portrayals of women when it appeared to suit their needs, and both demanded that they be considered “candidates who happen to be women” rather than women candidates when sexism surfaced. Both, however, did experience overt sexism.” (Carlin, Winfrey 327)

Analysis of 2008 Campaign Coverage:Hillary Rodham Clinton

• Puppet

• Mother

• Iron Maiden

• Pet/Child

• “The authenticity issue”

• The double bind

Analysis of 2008 Campaign Coverage:Hillary Rodham Clinton

Analysis of 2008 Campaign Coverage:Sarah Palin

• Pioneer

• Puppet

• Hostess/Beauty Queen

• Unruly woman

• Triumph of the double bind

Analysis of 2008 Campaign Coverage:Sarah Palin

Trends in 2008 Campaign Coverage

• Over-sexualizing both candidates

• Coverage of wardrobe v. coverage of issues

• Objectification of both candidates

• Family roles under hyper scrutiny

Findings

• “There is no denial that both Palin and Clinton had strikes against them that contributed to their lack of success, and there are a sufficient number of analyses to point out flawed campaigns and inexperience. But those strikes were unrelated to their being women. Palin was inexperienced…Hillary Clinton has long been a polarizing figure…However, if one accepts the shortcomings of the two campaigns, and the two women themselves on political merits, there is still no reason for sexist attacks to enter into the debate.” -(Carlin and Winfrey, p. 339).

Findings

• “We found the greatest similarity between cartoons about Palin and Clinton occurred when they were “neutralized”, that is, when they were pictured along with a running mate or other candidate without and particular reference to gender. This suggests that women as political leaders is becoming normalized in the American social imagination.”

-(Edwards and McDonald, 326)

References