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1. What do you mean by Data Communication?
The process of transmission of information from one location to another location is called data
communication. Certain hardware,software and procedures are used in Data Communication.
2. What is Simplex?
Simplex is one direction. Ex: Keyboard to cpu.
3. What is half duplex?
A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in both directions, but only one direction at atime (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop
transmitting, before replying (antennas are of trans-receiver type in these devices, so as to transmit and receive the
signal as well).
Ex- Walkie Talkie
4. What is Full duplex?
A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex system, allows communication in both directions,
and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since
they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a
two-lane road with one lane for each direction.
Ex-Mobile phone
5. What is Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked
through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
6. What is distributed Processing?
Distributed processing is a phrase used to refer to a variety of computer systems that use more than
one computer (or processor) to run an application. This includes parallel processing in which a single computer uses
more than one CPU to execute programs. More often, however, distributed processing refers to local-area networks
(LANs) designed so that a single program can run simultaneously at various sites. Most distributed processing
systems contain sophisticated software that detects idle CPUs on the network and parcels out programs to utilize
them.
7. What is Point to Point Connection?
Innetworking, the Point-to-Point Protocol(PPP) is adata linkprotocolcommonly used inestablishing a direct connection between twonetworking nodes. It can provide connectionauthentication,
transmissionencryption, andcompression.
8. What is Multipoint Connection? Aconnectionwith more than two endpoints or nodes.
9. What is Topology?
Network topologyis the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links,nodes,
etc.) of acomputer.
10.Define Lan man and Wan.
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For
historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network.
Common examples of area network types are:
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LAN - Local Area Network
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
WAN - Wide Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
PAN - Personal Area Network
DAN - Desk Area Network
LAN and WAN were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many
years of technology evolution.
11.Define Internet.
The Internetis a global system of interconnectedcomputer networksthat use the standardInternet
protocol suite(TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad
array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range
ofinformationresources and services, such as the inter-linkedhypertextdocuments of theWorld Wide Web(WWW)
and theinfrastructureto supportelectronic mail.
12.What is a Protocol?
A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to connect and transmit data to one another.Protocols determine how data are transmitted between computing devices and over networks. They define issues
such as error control and data compression methods. The protocol determines the following: type of error checking to
be used, data compression method (if any), how the sending device will indicate that it has finished a message and
how the receiving device will indicate that it has received the message. Internet protocols include TCP/IP (Transfer
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
13.What is TCP/IP Protocol Model?
The TCP/IP model(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a descriptive framework for
the Internet Protocol Suite ofcomputer network protocols,The TCP/IP model describes a set of general design
guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over
anetwork. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed,
transmitted,routedand received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication
services between computers.
14.Describe the functions of the five layers.
Link Layer
TheLink Layer(or Network Access Layer) is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host isattached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet
protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP is able to be implemented on top of
virtually any hardware networking technology.
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The Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link.
The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in thesoftwaredevice
driverfor thenetwork card, as well as onfirmwareor specializedchipsets. These will performdata linkfunctions such
as adding apacket headerto prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over aphysicalmedium.
The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol
to data link addressing, such asMedia Access Control(MAC), however all other aspects below that level are implicitly
assumed to exist in the Link Layer, but are not explicitly defined.
This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over avirtual private networkor othernetworking
tunnel. In this scenario, the Link Layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation
of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be
established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as atunnelin the Link Layer of
the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.
Internet Layer
TheInternet Layersolves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks.Internetworkingrequires
sending data from the sourcenetworkto the destination network. This process is calledrouting.[8]
In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:
Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical addressing system (seeIP
address).
Packet routing: This is the basic task of getting packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by
sending them to the next network node (router) closer to the final destination.
IP can carry data for a number of differentupper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a
uniqueprotocol number: for example,Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) andInternet Group Management
Protocol(IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.
Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and
IGMP (used to manageIP Multicastdata) are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This
illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model.
Transport Layer
TheTransport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying
network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port
numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized aseitherconnection-oriented, implemented inTransmission Control Protocol(TCP), orconnectionless, implemented
inUser Datagram Protocol(UDP).
The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure
that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is
responsible for safe delivery.
The Transport Layer provides this service of connecting applications through the use ofservice ports. Since IP provides
only abest effort delivery, the Transport Layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a
reliable data link protocol such as theHigh-Level Data Link Control(HDLC). Protocols above transport, such as RPC,
also can provide reliability.
For example, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous
reliability issues to provide areliable byte stream:
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data arrives in-order
data has minimal error (i.e. correctness)
duplicate data is discarded
lost/discarded packets are resent
includes traffic congestion control
The newerStream Control Transmission Protocol(SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism.
It isMessage-stream-oriented notbyte-stream-orientedlike TCP and provides multiple streams multiplexed
over a single connection. It also providesmulti-homingsupport, in which a connection end can be represented by
multipleIP addresses(representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not
interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transportSS7overIP), but can also be used for
other applications.
User Datagram Protocol is a connectionlessdatagramprotocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol.
Reliability is addressed througherror detectionusing a weakchecksumalgorithm. UDP is typically used for
applications such as streaming media (audio, video,Voice over IPetc.) where on-time arrival is more important than
reliability, or for simple query/response applications likeDNSlookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable
connection is disproportionately large.Real-time Transport Protocol(RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for
real-time data such asstreaming audio and video.
TCP and UDP are used to carry an assortment of higher-level applications. The appropriate transport protocol is
chosen based on the higher-layer protocol application. For example, theFile Transfer Protocolexpects a reliable
connection, but theNetwork File System(NFS) assumes that the subordinateRemote Procedure Callprotocol, not
transport, will guarantee reliable transfer. Other applications, such as VoIP, can tolerate some loss of packets, but not
the reordering or delay that could be caused by retransmission.
The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDPport. By convention certain well
known ports are associated with specific applications. (SeeList of TCP and UDP port numbers.)
Application Layer
TheApplication Layerrefers to the higher-level protocols used by most applications for network communication.
Examples of application layer protocols include theFile Transfer Protocol(FTP) and theSimple Mail Transfer
Protocol(SMTP).[9]
Data coded according to application layer protocols are thenencapsulatedinto one or
(occasionally) more transport layer protocols (such as theTransmission Control Protocol(TCP) orUser Datagram
Protocol(UDP)), which in turn uselower layer protocolsto effect actual data transfer.
Since the IP stack defines no layers between the application and transport layers, the application layer must include
any protocols that act like the OSI's presentation and session layer protocols. This is usually done throughlibraries.
Application Layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as "black boxes" which provide a
stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities
of the transport layer connection such as theend pointIP addressesandport numbers. As noted above, layers are not
necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. Application layer protocols are most often associated
withclientserverapplications, and the commonerservershave specificportsassigned to them by
theIANA:HTTPhas port 80;Telnethas port 23; etc.Clients, on the other hand, tend to useephemeral ports, i.e. port
numbers assigned at random from a range set aside for the purpose.
Transport and lower level layers are largely unconcerned with the specifics of application layer
protocols.Routersandswitchesdo not typically "look inside" the encapsulated traffic to see what kind of application
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protocol it represents, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, somefirewallandbandwidth
throttlingapplications do try to determine what's inside, as with theResource Reservation Protocol(RSVP). It's also
sometimes necessary forNetwork Address Translation(NAT) facilities to take account of the needs of particular
application layer protocols. (NAT allows hosts on private networks to communicate with the outside world via a
single visible IP address usingport forwarding, and is an almost ubiquitous feature of modern domesticbroadband
routers).
15.What is Multiplexing?
multiplexing(also known asmuxing) is a method by which multiple analog message signals or digital data streams
are combined into one signal over ashared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in
telecommunications, severaltelephone callsmay be carried using one wire. Multiplexing originated intelegraphy, and
is now widely applied in communications.
16.What is ISO-OSI Model?
TheOpen Systems Interconnection model(OSI model) is a product of theOpen Systems Interconnectioneffort at
theInternational Organization for Standardization. It is a prescription of characterizing and standardizing the functionsof acommunications systemin terms ofabstraction layers. Similar communication functions are grouped into logical
layers. An instance of a layer provides services to its upper layer instances while receiving services from the layer
below.
17.How data is transmitted in a medium?
Transmitted in the form of bits (1s and 0s of computer code)
18.Compare analog and digital signals.
19.Define bandwidth.
20.What are the factors on which data rate depends?
Data rate depends on three factors:
a. The bandwidth available
b. The level of the signals we use
c. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
21.Define bit rate and bit Interval.
Bit Rate-The transmission rate ofbinarysymbols(0 and 1), equal to the total number of bits
transmitted in one second sent or received across a network or communications channel, abbreviated asbps(bits
per second), a measure of data transmission speed.
Bit interval, also known as bit time, refers to the amount of time a digital signal is left at a particular voltage level to
indicate a value. Usually, the level will indicate the value of a single bit, but it is possible to encode more than a
single bit in a voltage level, thereby transmitting more than one bit in a single bit interval. In general, the longer the
bit interval, the slower the transmission rate. For example, when encoding a single bit at a time, a bit interval of .01
second means a transmission rate of only 100 bits per second (bps).
22.What is Nyquist Bit rate formula?
The Nyquist rate is the minimumsampling raterequired to avoidaliasing, equal to twice the highest
frequency contained within the signal.
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23.Define Shannon Capacity.
channel capacity is the tightest upper bound on the amount ofinformationthat can be reliably
transmitted over acommunications channel. By thenoisy-channel coding theorem, the channel capacity of a
givenchannelis the limiting information rate (in units ofinformationper unit time) that can be achieved with
arbitrarily small error probability.
24.What is sampling?
Sampling is the key technique used todigitizeanaloginformation
25.Define Pulse amplitude modulation.
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the transmission of data by varying the amplitude s ( voltage or power levels)
of the individual pulses in a regularly timed sequence of electrical or electromagnetic pulses.
26.What is nyquist Theorem?
27.What are the modes of Data Transmission?
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex connections
28.What is Asynchronous data transmission mode?
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a standard switching technique designed to unify telecommunication and
computer networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing,[1][2] and it encodes data into small, fixed-sized
cells.
29.What is synchronous data transmission mode?
Synchronous systems negotiate the communication parameters at thedata linklayer before communication
begins. Basic synchronous systems will synchronize the signal clocks on both sides before transmission begins,
reset their numeric counters and take other steps. More advanced systems may negotiate things likeerror
correctionand compression.
30.Name the Different types of Multiplexing.
space-division multiplexing (SDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and
code division multiplexing (CDM)
31.Define Pulse code modulation.
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the standard form
for digital audio in computers and various Blu-ray, Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as
digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in which the magnitude of
the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with each sample being quantized to the nearest value
within a range of digital steps.
32.What is FDM?
33.What are the different Types of transmission medium?
34.What are different guided medium?
Twisted Pair , Optical Fibers , Coaxial cables
35.Describe the different guided medium.
36.What is wireless communication?
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37.What do you mean by switching?
Switching is a process which uses the hardware address or MAC address of a device to switch a packet from one
device to another.
38.What are the switching methods?
39.What are the duties of Data link Layer?
Data Link layer is the 2nd layer of theOSI model. It is used for the reliable transfer of data across data link beingused. Data Link Layer gets the raw data from physical layer try to make physical link reliable and provides the
methods to activate and maintain the link. It gives guarantee to the higher layers that data send by this layer will
be free oferrors. It attempts to detect and recover the data that it gets from physical layer.
It uses two protocols as HDLC and LLC for providing its services. HDLC is known as high Level Data link
Control. It is used on point to point data links. It can also be used on multi point data links. We can use it in a
number of different ways because it is a general purpose data link control protocol. LLC is known as Logical Link
Control. Its function is to provide reliable transfer of data across the data link between two communication
bodies.
By using unacknowledged connectionless service user can initiate the transfer of data service with minimum
protocol overheads. By using connection oriented services user can establish a logical connection, before
sending the transfer of any data service.
40.What are the types of the errors?
41.What do you mean by Redundancy?
42.Define Parity check.
parity checking refers to the use of parity bits to check thatdata has been transmitted accurately. The parity bit is
added to every data unit (typically seven or eight bits ) that are transmitted. The parity bit for each unit is set so that
all bytes have either an odd number or an even number of set bits.
43.Define CRC.
44.What is hamming Code?
45.What do you mean by flow Control?
In data communications, flow control is the process of managing the pacing of data transmission between two nodes
to prevent a fast sender from outrunning a slow receiver. It provides a mechanism for the receiver to control the
transmission speed, so that the receiving node is not overwhelmed with data from transmitting node. Flow control
should be distinguished from congestion control, which is used for controlling the flow of data when congestion has
actually occurred [1]. Flow control mechanisms can be classified by whether or not the receiving node sends
feedback to the sending node.
Flow control is important because it is possible for a sending computer to transmit information at a faster rate than
the destination computer can receive and process them. This can happen if the receiving computers have a heavy
traffic load in comparison to the sending computer, or if the receiving computer has less processing power than the
sending compute
46.What do you mean by error Control?
47.Define Stop n Wait ARQ.
48.Define Go-Back ARQ.
49.Define Selective Repeat ARQ
50.What do you mean by pipelining? Is there any pipelining in error control?
51.What is HDLC?
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Short for High-level Data Link Control, a transmission protocol used at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI seven
layer model for data communications. The HDLC protocol embeds information in a data frame that allows devices to
control data flow and correct errors. HDLC is an ISO standard developed from the Synchronous Data Link Control
(SDLC) standard proposed by IBM in the 1970's.
52.What do you mean by Point to Point Protocol?
53.What do you mean by Point to Point Protocol stack?
54.What do you mean by line control protocol?55.What do you mean by authentication protocol?
56.What do you mean by Network control protocol?
57.What do you mean by CSMA?
58.What is Bluetooth?
59.What is IP address?
60.What do you mean by Sub netting?
Subnetting is essentially the modification of a single IP network to create two or more logically visible sub-sections. It
entails changing the subnet mask of the local network number to produce an even number of smaller network
numbers, each with a corresponding range of IP addresses.
61.What are the advantages of Optical Fibers?
62.What are the disadvantages of Optical Fibers?
63.What are the propagation types of radio waves?
64.What do you mean by Geosynchronous Satellites?
65.What are the factors that determine the suitability of a medium?
66.What do you mean by Medium access control (MAC) sub-layer ?
67.What do you mean by ALOHA?
68.What is Pure ALOHA?
69.What is Slotted ALOHA?70.What do you mean BY persistent CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)?
71.What do you mean BY non-persistent CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)?
72.What do you mean BY p-CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)?
73.What is FDDI?
74.What are Firewalls?
75.What is Repeater?
76.What is Bridge?
77.What is Router?
78.What is Gateway?
79.What do you mean by Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)?
80.What do you mean by Data Terminating Equipment (DCE)?
81.What is Protocol Stack?
82.What is Peer?
83.What is broadcasting?
84.What are the advantages of broadcasting network?
85.What do you mean by Point to point Network?
86.What are design issues of Layers?
87.What is the protocol of the application layer?
88.What is the protocol of the transport layer?
89.What is TCP?
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. TCP is one of the
two original components of the suite, complementing the Internet Protocol (IP), and therefore the entire suite is
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commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered delivery of a stream of bytes from a program on one
computer to another program on another computer. TCP is the protocol that major Internet applications such as the
World Wide Web, email, remote administration and file transfer rely on. Other applications, which do not require
reliable data stream service, may use the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides a datagram service that
emphasizes reduced latency over reliability.
90.What is UDP?
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the Internet Protocol Suite, the set of network
protocols used for the Internet. With UDP, computer applications can send messages, in this case referred to as
datagrams, to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without requiring prior communications to set up
special transmission channels or data paths. The protocol was designed by David P. Reed in 1980 and formally
defined in RFC 768.UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit handshaking dialogues for providing
reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagrams may arrive out of
order, appear duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and correction is either not
necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network interface level.
Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets,
which may not be an option in a real-time system.[1] If error correction facilities are needed at the network interfacelevel, an application may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.
91.Define IP?
92.What is client server model?
93.What kind of information does the computer needs for TCP/IP internet?
94.What is Domain Name System (DNS)?
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers, services, or any
resource connected to theInternetor aprivate network. It associates various information withdomain namesassigned
to each of the participating entities. Most importantly, it translates domain names meaningful tohumansinto thenumerical identifiers associated with networking equipment for the purpose of locating and addressing these devices
worldwide.
95.What is TELNET?
Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-
oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet
control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
96.What do you mean by Local login and remote login?
97.What is Network virtual Terminal?98.What do you mean by Simple Mail Transfer protocol?
99.What is HTTP?
100. What is Url?
101. What is HTML?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_namehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet