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IDT 6300 Assignment 4, Final Project 1

CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY CHICAGOMasters Program

Student: Lee Mann

[email protected]

Box 1486 RFD (1486 Schaeffer Road)

Long Grove, IL 60047

Day Telephone: 847-210-2722 (Central)

Assignment Title: IDT 6300 Assignment 4, Final Project

Date of Submission: December 11, 2016

Assignment Due Date: December 11, 2016

Course: IDT6300-Instructional Strategies for Learning Technology

Section Number: Section 49E

Semester: 2nd Half, Fall 2016

Course Instructor: Dr. Kathryn Wozniak

Certification of Authorship: I certify that I am the author of this paper and that any assistance I received in its preparation is fully acknowledged and disclosed in the paper. I also have cited any sources from which I used data, ideas, or words, either quoted directly or paraphrased. I certify that this paper was prepared by me specifically for the purpose of this assignment, as directed.

Student’s Signature: Lee A. Mann [Digital signature]


I ABSTRACT

This proposal presents a solution to a little-recognized but impactful challenge for social

relationships in general, but in particular for a special-needs group: Survivors of a recent death in

the immediate family. It proposes that a small but encouraging step in moving forward from a

loss is to enable Survivors to better engage in “ordinary conversation.” This proposal covers the

following sections:

II Situation Overview, describing the story behind the idea of providing training in

ordinary conversation.

III Learner Description, explaining the characteristics of the target population for this

program.

IV Objectives, listing and amplifying the learning objectives for this program.

V Learning Strategies, elucidating the main design idea, program flow, technologies

selected, and a concept map of the flow of the program.

VI Prototype, showing wireframes of four sample webpages, along with narrative

explanations of each.

VII Literature Review, examining resources used in attempting to understand others’

approaches to training in conversation skills.

VIII Model/Theories Used, which elaborates the literature resources and thinking that

guided the author in developing the Learning Strategy.

IX Plans for Assessment, clarifying the evaluative steps – formative and summative –

that will be used throughout program development and implementation.

X References, in APA style.


XI Appendix One, providing relevant detailed lists of factors/ideas that relate to

ordinary conversations. These may be used in development of this program.


TEXT

II SITUATION OVERVIEW

I have come to be aware of and cherish the value of simple, ordinary conversation. In fact,

promoting this has become a passion for me. The outcome of a preliminary needs analysis (based

on discussions with several ministers, social/psychological professionals, colleagues, and

acquaintances), shows that ordinary conversation, once a common occurrence, doesn’t occur as

much today. One source described a “radical decline of personal conversation in our society.”

(Spread Truth Ministries, Inc., 2013). More research needs to be done, which I will conduct as

part of this project.

There are many types of conversations, ranging from:

Focused, functional discussions (sorting through finances, networking, business

meetings, etc.), to

Simple, ordinary conversations (cordial talk at a picnic, talking about a movie, etc.), to

Perfunctory, small talk (as occurs in elevators, waiting in lines, etc.).

Great ordinary conversations can provide restorative, relaxing fun. There are behaviors and skills

that, when capably applied, can facilitate this. Having recently lost my wife, I most miss the

ordinary conversations ... sitting at the breakfast table on a Saturday and talking through the

morning and most of the afternoon, for example. That is strongly motivating me to pursue this,

because I would like for others to experience more of this. So, I am proposing a learning

intervention to improve ordinary conversations.


III LEARNER DESCRIPTION

The target population/learner will be Survivors of a recent death in the immediate family (e.g.

spouse, child, parent, sibling), who are participants in Group Counseling programs at

JourneyCare, in Barrington, IL.* Survivors’ age range typically is from 40s through 70s. All of

them have access to cell phones. It is estimated that about 80% use smart phones. Nearly all have

described themselves as computer users to some extent.

* My main contact at JourneyCare is Frank Breseman, Bereavement Counselor. He will co-facilitate the classroom portions with me, but most importantly he will be my main contact for project reviews and advice.

Regarding this target population, “relationships” are a common theme running through much that

needs to be done so Survivors can move forward effectively.

With Survivors, every current relationship may need to be reframed, if not challenged.

Some relationships might be compromised. All this can mean starting, maintaining, or

resetting relationships. Doing those things can present a complex “aggregate” of many

problems (Jonassen, 2011 Chapter 1, How Does Problem Solving Vary?).

Component problems range from inexperience (“My spouse was the talker.”), to simple

shyness, to unawareness of relationship-building techniques, to the restraints of

psychological or emotional issues. Plus, the Survivor’s situation is dynamic. All this

complexity, in itself, represents a strategic performance problem (Jonassen, 2011 Chapter

1, How Does Problem Solving Vary?).

For the Survivor dealing with inevitably changed relationships, it may be helpful to start

small, familiar, and simple ... just have some ordinary conversations. A few simple steps

combine to form a solution that, when executed, gives the Survivor some restorative fun

plus a boost in confidence. That may make the aggregate of problems they face a little

less intimidating.


Furthermore, it is observed that good conversations are critical to healthy relationships.

So, even though the focus of this project is on Survivors, the author believes there is

applicability beyond that into the general population at large.

IV OBJECTIVES

This learning experience is intended to support the participant as she/he applies and self-

evaluates the ideas and techniques taught. By pursuing clearly stated learning objectives (based

on the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy) learners will be better able to self-assess and self-correct

their efforts at improving their ordinary conversations. This self-assessment/self-correction will

be vital to ongoing application and improvement of the skills taught.

NOTE: In the listing below, at the end of each objective, I have added a reference to a specific

cell of the two-dimensional Revised Blooms Taxonomy (RBT) (ISU, 2016, pg. 3) which that

objective is intended to fulfill. The purpose of this is to guide the reader as to how this design

conforms to the RBT, thus demonstrating that this learning will go beyond mere recollection and

recitation. Behavior change is the key.

MY PURPOSE as an ID&T student: Apply the RBT to providing a full learning experience for

the target population that will help them learn how to improve their skills (and comfort level) at

simple, ordinary conversation.

OVERALL LEARNER BENEFIT: Acquire a few simple steps and ideas that, applied in

combination, give the Survivor some restorative fun plus a boost in confidence. That result,

itself, may make the aggregate of problems they face seem a little less intimidating.


LEARNING OBJECTIVES for the Pre-work section. By the end of this section, the learner

will:

1. Identify those benefits of good ordinary conversations which mean the most to

him-/herself. (RBT: Metacognitive Remember)

2. List the benefits, to a listener, of good ordinary conversation skills. (RBT: Factual

Understand)

3. Differentiate among examples of good and poor preparation for the practice of good

ordinary conversation skills (RBT: Conceptual Analyze)

4. Carry out phase one the preparation steps of good ordinary conversation skills. (RBT:

Procedural Apply)

5. Assemble two topics that can inspire ordinary conversation. (RBT: Conceptual Create)

6. Using a brief self-assessment instrument, reflect on how well his/her “prior” skills

compare to the good ordinary conversation skills explained in this module. (RBT:

Metacognitive evaluate)

The objectives start at the lowest RBT cognitive level and progress to the highest (Create,

Evaluate). Plus, the Program’s design also will carefully scaffold the learner from:

Greater awareness of the relationship building opportunities in ordinary conversation,

To a preliminary (and gentle) skills assessment,

To coached practice in class,

To guided application in the field,

To a Post-Reflection and review successes,

Which in turn will encourage them to keep applying the skills, achieving greater

mastery.


V LEARNING STRATEGIES

Analysis – There is one further step of analysis that will be done before we delve into design.

My JourneyCare contact and I will identify a small group of “exemplars.” These are people

whom we, based on the indicators of good ordinary conversations noted below, deem to be

exceptional practitioners of this skill set. I then will interview them to identify any things they do

which enhance the impact of ordinary conversations. These then will be incorporated into the

course. The purpose of this is to provide greater authenticity and appropriateness to the program.

Also, it will be helpful to be able to report ... “The panel of experts says ... .”

Design Overview – Ideally, this learning experience will involve a blended approach

incorporating both online (pre-work) and classroom learning. It is believed this will better suit

various schedules and learning styles. Plus, because of the online nature of the prework, it will be

accessible 24/7 and can be re-accessed multiple times. This will help to reinforce the information

presented. It will be designed to identify and enhance skills used to facilitate ordinary

conversations. Most of the likely participants are tech-savvy enough to access and use the online

pre-work section. A print version will be provided for those who are not tech-savvy as well as for

anyone who wants it. (Also, see “Technologies Selected,” below.)

A possible challenge with this group is that this will take extra time, but in promoting the

program we will emphasize its benefits and pleasures. We will try to schedule it for after a

regular group meeting, thus (for some) minimizing the number of visits to the facility. Having

the pre-work online makes using it flexible for the learner to schedule. Plus, they can download

and print their own handouts, if they want.


The rest of this proposal will dig into just the pre-work. For sources and references, please see

“Literature Review” as well as the “Model/Theories Selected,” both below.

Flow of program – The course will involve four steps:

The Pre-work will be an online introductory mini-course focused on preparation for the

practice of good ordinary conversation skills. It will explain:

o Benefits of good ordinary conversation skills – for the and listener

o Examples (possibly video, but at least written narratives) of good and poor

preparation for the practice of good ordinary conversation skills.

o Simple, introductory concepts and steps to engender good ordinary conversations.

o Based on that understanding, the learner will complete an online Pre-Reflection (a

self-assessment) of their skill application level in the “Lively Art of Conversation.”

- They will not enter their name into either the Pre- or Post-Reflections; and, their identity

will be protected. This is to protect their privacy. Results will be anonymous; and,

individual results will not be divulged.

- For either Assessment, they can print and keep their results if they want.

Step 1 will be an Instructor-Led Classroom experience (approx. 1 hour) that will,

regarding the “Lively Art of Conversation,” facilitate learners in further appreciation of

what was learned in the pre-work. To promote cognitive flexibility (Jonassen, 2011,

Chapter 6), the facilitators will:

o Question learners and ask for examples of what they learned in the pre-work,

o Employ “What would you do?” scenarios and (possibly) dyadic role plays,

o Help them interpret their own Pre-Reflection, and


o Help them plan for their Field Application experience.

Step 2 will be a Field Application experience in which they are guided (by a Job Aid)

through applying the ideas, skills and techniques taught so far. As part of this, they will

do a Post-Reflection covering the same questions done in the Pre-Reflection, along with

some narrative questions to uncover qualitative data regarding the experience.

Step 3 will be an in-class debrief and discussion of the learners’ experiences (approx. 1

hour). Its purpose will be to encourage their successes and to reinforce the principles,

performance criteria, skills and techniques taught. It will use the same facilitation

techniques as described for Step 1.

Technologies Selected

For the online portion, a learner will need a smartphone, tablet, laptop, or desktop ... or at

least access to these devices. For those who cannot do that, an appropriate print version

will be provided.

For the provider (myself) the online learning portion will be hosted on my company’s

website. I don’t believe, at this point, that a social functionality will be needed ... at least

for the initial version of this program. (See “Prototype,” below.)

The face-to-face gatherings, will be conducted by my Contact and myself, as facilitators.

There will be a facilitator’s guide plus we will have preparation/practice sessions

beforehand.

JourneyCare will provide meeting space along with all the furnishings and equipment

required.


Concept Map – Here is a

concept map of the flow of

proposed program. It starts

in the middle (the need,

successful ordinary

conversations) and flows

clockwise. It has an inner

loop and an outer one.

It is modeled after a causal

loop diagram, because I

see learning anything as

being a process of

constant improvement. This diagram shows the learner's pathway to application & improvement

of the Lively Art of Conversation. It illustrates the cyclical nature of initial learning, then

increasing mastery of this topic. Underlying the constant improvement aspect, the "Self-Check &

Correct" block should be seen as permeating all the learner's actions.

NOTE: In the diagram, parallelograms highlighted with a light blue background have not yet

been designed.


VI PROTOTYPE

Home Page – The purpose of this page is to entice and engage the learner with graphical appeal, an easy-to-understand layout, and simple navigation. The video will welcome them to the program, explain its benefits, and show (rather than tell) what good ordinary conversations are like.

Resources Page – This page includes video (again, emphasizing “show”) providing:

An opportunity for them to select examples of good ordinary conversations

What it’s like to consider the setting and audience, and

What it’s like to consider the topic.

Reflect & Review Page – With an illustration expressing congratulations for completing “this phase” of the coursework, this contains a link to the Pre-Reflection. When the learner completes the third phase (field application) she/he will come back to this page to take the Post-Reflection.

Handouts Page – This is a simple repository designed to be appealing, with colorful pictures or illustrations on either side. They certainly will show a conversational theme. It will include links to:

A smart-phone job aide that can help one with conversations

An infographic depicting various indicators of what happens in a good ordinary conversation. [See Appendix One.]

A step diagram with instructions on how to do the “consider” steps of preparation.

VII LITERATURE REVIEW There are two perspectives necessary here:

Literature in support of applying the RBT to this learning design. [Please see “Model/Theories selected,” below.]

Literature in support of the need premise teaching ordinary conversation skills to adults of which there is a paucity.


Although I and others have searched for many weeks, no one has found a training program specifically for teaching ordinary conversation skills to adults. It may exist. It’s just that we haven’t found it yet. Course modules have been found within the context of teaching English as a second or foreign language. They also have been found for teaching it in the K-12 context. Finally, there have been some learning interventions designed within a clinical setting for specific psychological or emotional issues. So, these three are the subject areas I have tapped.

English as a Second/Foreign Language

o The “Strategies for Teaching English Conversation” blog (Executive Business Communications, 2013) gave me insight on what might be motivating Survivors who are reluctant to engage in conversations. I will include components of this list in the program ... not only as part of needs analysis but also as a discussion subject in class. [See Appendix One.]

o The “How to Teach Conversational English” blog (Levy, 2014, point #4) reinforced the design idea of working in pairs or small groups. The article states: “Conversations generally occur in smaller groups.” This dyadic communications idea will be part of classroom work as well as individual projects.

K-12 Context

o One blog struck me as possibly relevant to a program teaching adults ordinary conversation. It’s “Teaching Your Students How to Have a Conversation,” (Mendler, 2013) because of the eight tips to the teacher on how to facilitate training in this topic. So, I’ll adapt this for use in a Leader’s Guide designed for this “Art of Conversation” program. [See Appendix One.]

Clinical Situations

o Unfortunately, my attempt to obtain a full copy of the “Helping Women ‘Break the Ice” article (Muehlenhard, et al, 1988) so far has been unsuccessful. However, I do have the abstract. In it, I noted with interest that they used a selection of technologies and grouped participants by which one was used for their learning. Per the abstract, the computer trained as well as the text trained groups improved significantly more than the control groups on a survey of heterosexual interactions as well as on dating frequency. But, those two groups did not do better on a role-play conversation. Food for thought as I intend to employ a blended learning approach in the ordinary conversation program. I don’t know why the role-plays didn’t inspire improvement, but it may be because role-plays can be stressful. This is particularly true in the “fishbowl” role play – participants are out in front of the entire class – which was very popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s. I look forward to obtaining a hard copy of the article. But, even if that is not successful, I am forewarned to be careful about the use of role plays.

o I was pleased to get the “Conversation Skill Training” article (Lewis et al, 1985, pg. 51). It has a handy list of target behaviors “emphasized as important for effective social conversations.” That certainly is a resource I will use on constructing a similar catalog of skills for use in the ordinary conversations program. Although, I also will seriously consider adding brief listening skills section. [See Appendix One.]


VIII MODEL/THEORIES selected

Currently in my studies, I am very interested in Cognitivism because it encompasses knowledge, skills and attitudes. In the learner’s situation, to move forward, a Survivor needs to develop in all three of those areas. Specifically, as one of the principle expressions of Cognitivism, Blooms Taxonomy is a tool that can help me do a more effective design. (ATD Learning System, 2016, Instructional Design Area of Expertise). As part of my studies of Instructional Design and Technology, I have been introduced to the Revised Blooms Taxonomy. In applying this, I used at least five resources:

Of practical interest to me, is Reiser and Dempsey’s (2012) explanation of the multistore theory of memory, the basis of information processing theory applied to human learning: Sensory, Working (short-term), and Long Term memory. This theory is an important component of Cognitivism. When instructional design makes use of all three of these – while being careful of Cognitive Overload (deJong, 2010, pg. 105 and throughout) – memory and application both are enhanced. So, the intent of the prework, described herein, is to encapsulate the learning in easily digestible chunks.

The ATD Learning System (2016) points out that Cognitivism makes a distinction between novices and experts. Therein may lie a challenge for this project. Potential learners may see themselves as experts, but in fact they may be at the beginning of understanding what can be one of the most complex of subjects: Human communications. However, by starting out with a limited focus and by chunking learning in smaller portions, the design below will engender thoughtful application of the techniques and processes taught. Thus, not only will they learn by doing, she/he may also discover how much is not known. That might, then, inspire him/her to learn more.

In the designed explained below, learners will have a self-assessment instrument at the beginning as well as at the end, plus there will be an opportunity for 1 – 1 coaching.

The “Revised Bloom's Taxonomy” document (IIT Madras - Teaching Learning Centre, 2000, pgs. 1-8) was particularly helpful both in providing an overview of the revisions but also a granular explanation of the cognitive dimension process. “A Model of Learning objectives,” a handout provided by The Iowa State University Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (2016), includes a “3-dimensional” graphic that greatly helped me to choose the right verbs (cognitive processes) and nouns (knowledge type). To me, this graphic is much easier to understand than the “Blooms Rose” graphic (Aainsqatsi, 2008, pg. 1).

From “Bloom et al.'s Taxonomy of The Cognitive Domain,” (Huitt, 2011, pg. 3) I found that the illustration here gave me greater clarity on the progressive nature of the Taxonomy (low to high) as well as the relationship of the top two levels in the revised version. It helped me understand that creation and evaluation are two hands washing each other. One can’t effectively have one without at least some of the other. So, in my development of this proposed program, I have strived for this kind of mixed effort.


IX PLANS FOR ASSESSMENT

The program will be carefully evaluated, with periodic reports to stakeholders on its effectiveness and impact. Here are some of the detailed assessment plans.

Data from the Pre- and Post-Reflections will be compiled and analyzed as a whole. This analysis will be used to assess any self-perceived changes in abilities. A positive change will be taken to mean that learners feel they have made progress. Presumably, this will increase their confidence and encourage them to reach out and build relationships in other ways. A neutral or negative change will be taken to mean that this program didn’t meet its objectives for the learners.

Development will be guided by an iterative A.D.D.I.E. process (ATD Learning System, 2016, Instructional Design Area of Expertise), within which there will be reviews at successive iterations. These reviews will be by JourneyCare staffers as well as some of the Exemplars noted above.

Summative evaluation also will be conducted for each session of this program.

All evaluation reports will be shared with Client and key Stakeholders. As we conduct more of these courses, cumulative statistics will be reported as well.

In addition, we also will encourage learners to refer others to us to take this program, as well schedule more in the future. At this point, we plan to keep informal statistics on how many of these referrals we get.

Based on these evaluative reports, recommendations will be made for (if indicated) development of further courses.


X REFERENCES

Aainsqatsi, K. (2008). Bloom’s Taxonomy. University of Kentucky Center for the Enhancement of Learning & Teaching (CELT). Retrieved from: http://www.uky.edu/celt/instructional-resources/scholarly-teaching/blooms

Association for Talent Development Press, 2016. The ATD Learning System., The Official Resource for CPLP* study. e-ISBN: 978-1-60728-554-0, Alexandria, VA 22313-1443. *Certified Professional in Learning and Performance.

de Jong, T., (2010). Cognitive Load Theory, Educational Research, and Instructional Design: Some Food for Thought. Instructional Science, March 2010, Volume 38, Issue 2, pp 105–134.

Executive Business Communications (2013). Strategies for teaching English conversation – EFL teaching tips from the experts at EBC. Retrieved from http://www.ebcteflcourse.com/strategies-teaching-english-conversation/ .

Huitt, W. (2011). Bloom et al.'s taxonomy of the cognitive domain. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/bloom.html [pdf]

IIT Madras - Teaching Learning Centre (2000). Revised Bloom's Taxonomy. Retrieved from https://tlc.iitm.ac.in/PDF/Blooms%20Tax.pdf

Iowa State University of Science and Technology Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, (2016). A Model of Learning Objectives. Based on A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Retrieved from http://www.celt.iastate.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/RevisedBloomsHandout-1.pdf

Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to Solve Problems: A Handbook for Designing Problem-Solving Learning Environments. [VitalSource Bookshelf Online]. Retrieved from https://reader.yuzu.com/#/books/9781136941887/

Levy, S. (2014). How to Teach Conversational English, 9 Best Practices. BusyTeacher.org, a part of Elegant E-Learning, Inc. Retrieved from: http://busyteacher.org/14409-how-to-teach-conversational-english-best-practices.html

Lewis, Frank D.; Roessler, Richard; Greenwood, Reed; Evans, Tina, 1985. Conversation Skill Training with Individuals with Severe Emotional Disabilities. Psychosocial Rehabilitation Journal, Vol 8(3), Jan, 1985 pp. 49-59. Publisher: International Association of Psychosocial Rehabilitation Services and Department of Rehabilitation Counseling, Sargent College of Allied Health Professions, Boston University.

Mendler, A. (2013). Teaching Your Students How to Have a Conversation. Edutopia website, by the George Lucas Educational Foundation. Retrieved from: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/teaching-your-students-conversation-allen-mendler

Muehlenhard, Charlene L.; Baldwin, Laurie E.; Bourg, Wendy J.; Piper, Angela M. (1988). Helping women 'break the ice': A computer program to help shy women start and maintain conversations with men. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, Vol 15(1), Win 1988 pp. 7-13. Publisher: Assn. for the Development of Computer-Based Instructional Systems.


Reiser, R. A. and Dempsey, J. V (2012). Trends and issues in Instructional Design and Technology, 3rd edition, 978-013-256358-1, Pearson Education, Inc. (Used in the 6100 course.)

Spread Truth Ministries, Inc., (2013). Retrieved from: www.Questionsinabox.com. Bloomington, IL.


XI APPENDIX ONE

Relevant detailed lists of factors/ideas that relate to ordinary conversations. These were culled from the readings; and, may be adapted for use in the program.

List of what might be motivating Survivors who are reluctant to engage in conversations (Executive Business Communications, 2013):

The student’s character. Other students* may dominate and/or intimidate.

*[or family members, friends, etc. – LAM.] Students are not used to talking freely for reasons of culture and background. Students are afraid of making mistakes and therefore losing face in front of the class. Students have been taught from an early age to always listen to the teacher rather than

interact with the teacher.

List of Target Behaviors for Improved Conversation Skill (Lewis et al, 1985, pg. 51):

Appropriate greeting—the participant's first remarks during an interaction that are relevant to the setting, place, or other person's comments;

Opening question—an initial question that establishes a conversation by getting more information from the other person;

Minimal encouragers—words or sentences demonstrating attention to what the other person is saying (e.g., "Oh?,” "Really?," "Hmm," "Is that right?,” "You are right about that," and "I think so too.").

Follow-up questions—questions about information already given by the other person or questions unrelated to the opening question which result in the other person providing additional information;

Compliments—positive statements about the other person; and Appropriate closing remarks—the final remark including a restatement or

acknowledgement of topics discussed in the conversation and/or an appropriate expression of farewell.

List of eight tips on how to facilitate training in improved conversational skills (Mendler, 2013). [NOTE: This is condensed from the article.]

“1. Model a Good ConversationMake a point of having one-to-two minute interactions, one-on-one, at least a few times each week with students who struggle conversationally.”“2. Encourage Physical CuesYou might teach a strategy like S.L.A.N.T. (Sit up straight. Listen. Answer and ask questions. Nod to show interest. Track [i.e. pay attention to--LAM] the speaker.)“3. Challenge Put-Downs or Hurtful CommentsFor example, if a student says, "I think what she did was really stupid," challenge with "How else can you say that without being hurtful?"“4. Ask Open-Ended Questions


These are questions without one correct answer, questions that stimulate discussion and can be a very powerful way to reinforce the idea that there are different views of an issue, or a set of beliefs that can be equally valid. “5. Put Thinking Ahead of KnowingDon’t accept "I don't know." “6. Have Informal ChatsBefore class begins or in the hallway, ask students about ...“7. Make Eye ContactWhen a student is speaking in class and you are listening, give him or her your eye contact.“8. Encourage Turn-TakingUse an object, such as a ‘talking stick,’ as a signal for turn-taking.”

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