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e(alts the 0ing% the dancer mo/es in a rain'o& shimmer of color as if emerging on a stage to the

sound of music) The contrast also highlights the different patronage of the eras; &hereas the

,rench 3aroue period &as dominated 'y +oyal patronage% +ococo &as the culture of the &ider

aristocracy and high society)

!atteau &as largely responsi'le for creating a specific type of +ococo painting% called a

fete )alantepainting) These paintings depicted the outdoor entertainment and amusements ofupper class society) Return from +'thera, completed 'et&een 11 and 119 as the artists

acceptance piece into the +oyal Academy) !atteau &as ,lemish% and his &or0% influenced 'y

+u'ens style% contri'uted to the popularity of an emphasis on color in painting)

t the turn of the centur', the French Ro'al cadem' 4as diided rather sharpl' bet4een

t4o doctrines. 5ne doctrine upheld the ideas of 1a Brun (the ma6or proponent of French

Baro7ue under 1ouis 839&, 4ho follo4ed icholas Poussin in teachin) that form 4as the

most important element of in paintin), 4hereas ;colors in paintin) are as allurements for

persuadin) the e'es, additions for effect and not reall' essential. The other doctrine 4ithRubens as its model, proclaimed the natural supremac' of color and the colorist st'le as

the artist2s proper )uide. *ependin) on 4hich side the' too

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independently of religion% myth% or tradition) The ne& method &as 'ased on using reason to

reflect on the results of physical e(periments and in/ol/ed in critical analysis of te(ts) #t &as

grounded in empirical e/idence) Enlightenment thought promoted the scientific uestioning of

all assertions and reected unfounded 'eliefs a'out the nature of human0ind and of the &orld)

The enlightened mind &as s0eptical of doctrines and theories% such as superstitions and old

&i/es tales that no /erifia'le e/idence could pro/e) Thus% the Enlightenment encouraged and

stimulated the ha'it and application 0no&n as the scientific method)

Ampiricism

England and ,rance &ere the t&o principal centers of the Enlightenment and they influenced

the thin0ing of intellectuals throughout Europe and in the American colonies) T&o of the maor

thin0ers of Enlightenment thought &ere #saac e&ton =1@2-12> and Bohn Loc0e =1@?2-

1.>) e&ton insisted on empirical proof as e/idence and not relying on things that could not

'e seen and o'ser/ed% such as the supernatural% or of things of faith) This emphasis on 'oth

tangi'le data and concrete e(perience 'ecame a cornerstone of Enlightenment thought) This

thin0ing ga/e rationality to a physical &orld) uch concepts &ere applied to the sociopolitical&orld 'y promoting a rationally organi7ed society) Bohn Loc0es &or0s too0 on the status of

Enlightenment 6ospel and furthered the application of Enlightenment ideas) Loc0e said that

the mind is a 'lan0 ta'let and &hat is 0no&n is imprinted on the mind% from &hat the senses

percei/ed of the material &orld) #deas are not innate of 6od gi/en; it is only from e(perience

that &e 0no&) This has 'een called the *octrine of Ampiricism. There are la&s of aturethat

grant man the natural rights of life% li'erty% and property% as &ell as freedom of conscience)

6o/ernment is 'y contract% and its purpose is to protect these rights% if and &hen the

go/ernment a'uses these rights% the citi7enry has the further natural rights of re/olution)

Loc0es ideas empo&ered people to ta0e control of their o&n destinies)

There &as a shared con/iction that the ills of humanity could 'e remedied 'y applying reason

and common sense to human pro'lems) They critici7ed the po&ers of the church and state as

irrational limits placed on political and intellectual freedom) As 0no&ledge increased humanity

could ad/ance 'y degrees to a happier state than it had e/er 0no&n) This con/iction matured

into the *octrine of Pro)ress and its corollary doctrine the perfecti'ility of man0ind) This

thin0ing continues to ha/e impact today)

Animated 'y this 'elief in human perfecti'ility% they too0 on the tas0 of gathering 0no&ledge

and ma0ing it accessi'le to all) This idea of the accumulation and documentation of 0no&ledge&as ne& to &estern society% &hich had relied hea/ily on tradition and con/ention)

#t is no coincidence that the maor re/olutions of recent centuries% ,rench% American% and

#ndustrial in England% occurred in this period) The gro&th of cities and the &or0ing class &as a

maor happening% as &as the demand for cheap la'or and ra& materials &hich dro/e

colonialism) #n the nited tates the Doctrine of Manifest Destiny de/eloped as an ideological

ustification for continued territorial e(pansion)

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Artists entered into these dialogues a'out the state and the direction of society and played an

important role in encouraging pu'lic considerations of these momentous e/ents) #n the arts this

ne& &ay of thin0ing can 'e seen in the general la'el odern, used to descri'e art from the late

18th century on) uch a /ague generic term% co/ering centuries of art% renders any concrete

definition of modern art5 /irtually impossi'le) ne defining characteristic% ho&e/er% is an

a&areness of history) *eople 0no& that heir culture perpetuates or reects pre/iouslyesta'lished ideas or con/entions) The concept of odernit' - the state 'eing modern -

in/ol/es 'eing up to date% implying distinction 'et&een the present and the past) Many recent

art historians no& assert that this historical consciousness &as present in much earlier societies)

This accounts for the current use of the term Early Modern5 to descri'e the +enaissance and

e/en medie/al cultures)

Science and Technolo)'

9oltaire (!-%#""& &as the most representati/e figure of the Enlightenment spirit) 4e

introduced e&ton and Loc0e to the ,rench intelligentsia) 4e hated and attac0ed through his&ritings% the ar'itrary despotic rule of 0ings% the selfish pri/ileges of no'ility and the church%

religious intolerance% and the inustice of the ld rder)5 4is personal and pu'lic in/ol/ement

in the struggle against esta'lished political and religious authority% con/erted a &hole generation

to the con/iction that fundamental change &as needed) This pa/ed the &ay for the ,rench

+e/olution &hich $oltaire ne/er intended nor pro'a'ly &ould ha/e appro/ed)

There &ere many scientific ad/ances in the field of 3iology) +omte de Buffon ("="#"&,

undertoo0 a 0ind of encyclopedia of natural sciences% his% atural Histor', a monumental &or0

of /olumes) &edish 'otanist Carolus Linnaeus =1.-18> esta'lished a system of plant

classification) tudy of the human 'ody 'ecame more purposed) As description 'ecame moree(act and complete% the anatomical artists s0ills 'ecame a specialty and the dra&ings an

instrument for the education and practice of physicians and surgeons) Thus dra&ings ser/ed not

only the artists 'ut entirely different disciplines as &ell)

The de/elopment of steam po&er as an adunct to and replacement for human la'or 'egan a

ne& era in &orld history% 'eginning &ith the #ndustrial +e/olution in England) The in/ention of

the steam engine and it use in industrial production and later transportation mar0ed the

'eginning of the #ndustrial +e/olution in the 1.s) 3y 18F. England &as a manufacturing

economy) ,or the first time in history societies &ere capa'le of producing a seemingly endlesssupply of goods and ser/ices) All of Europe &as destined to 'e transformed &ithin a century 'y

the harnessed po&er of steam% coal% oil% iron% steel% and electricity) These scientific and

technological ad/ances also affected the arts% particularly leading to the de/elopment of

photography and changes in architecture)

Technological ad/ances depended on the ne& enthusiasm for mechanical e(planations for the

&onders of the uni/erse) This fascination is the su'ect of Philosopher Giin) a 1ecture at

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the 5rrer' (in 4hich a lamp is put in place of the sun&,'y the English painter% ?oseph

/ri)ht of *erb' (">%#"-"&. !right speciali7ed in the drama of candlelit and moonlit

scenes) 4e lo/ed su'ects such as this &hich could 'e illuminated 'y a single light &ithin the

picture) #n the painting% a scholar uses a special technological model% called an orrery% to

demonstrate the theory that the uni/erse operates li0e a gigantic cloc0&or0 mechanism) The

light is in the position of the sun) A&ed children cro&d close to the tiny metal or's that

represent the planets &ithin arching 'ands that sym'oli7e their or'its) E/eryone in !rightspainting is caught up in the &onders of scientific 0no&ledge; an ordinary lecture ta0es on the

ualities of a grand history painting)5 !right echoed the circular uality of the orrery &ith the

similar placement of the figures) !rights intense realism appealed to the great industrialists of

his day) To them% !rights ele/ation of the theories and in/entions of the #ndustrial +e/olution

to the plane of history painting &as e(citing and appropriately in tune &ith the future)

Eighteenth century engineering foreshado&ed the future in the use of industrial materials) #ron

&as first used in 'ridge design for the cast iron 'ridge 'uilt o/er the e/ern +i/er near the

family cast iron 'usiness of one of the designers% braham *arb' 333 ("$=#"-&. *re/iously'ridges had 'een constructed of &ood and spanned relati/ely short distances% limiting their use

for high /olume industrial traffic) The Dar'y family spearheaded the e/olution of the iron

industry in England) The fa'rication of cast iron rails and 'ridge elements inspired Dar'y to

&or0 &ith architect Thomas Pritchard ("0>#"""&. The cast iron armature that supports the

road'ed springs from stone pier to stone pier and spans 1.. feet) The brid)e2s e@posed cast

iron parts prefi)ured the s

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The Taste for the ;atural in France

+ousseaus /ie&s led him to e(alt the peasants simple life% &ith its honest and unsullied

emotions% as ideal and to name it as a model of imitation) The oys and sorro&s of uncorrupted

natural5 people descri'ed e/ery&here in no/els soon dro&ned Europe in floods of tears) #t

'ecame fashiona'le to &eep% fall to ones 0nees and to languish in hopeless lo/e)

The sentimental narrati/e in art 'ecame the specialty of ,rench artist ?ean#Baptiste GrueCe

("0$#=$&, &hos most popular &or0% The 9illa)e Bride, sums up the genre) The setting is

an unadorned room in a rustic d&elling) #n a notarys presence% the elderly father has passed his

daughters do&ry to her youthful hus'and to 'e and 'lesses the pair% &ho gently ta0es each

others arms) The old mother tearfully gi/es her daughters arm a fare&ell caress% &hile the

youngest sister melts into tears on the shoulder of the 'ride) An en/ious older sister 'roods

'ehind her fathers chair) +osy faced% healthy children play around the scene) The pictures

story is clear - the happy clima( of a rural romance) The moral of the picture is also clear -

happiness is the re&ard of natural5 /irtue)

This &or0 &as produced in a time &hen the audience for art &as e(panding) The strict social

class hierarchy that pro/ided for +ococo art and patronage ga/e &ay to a 'ourgeois economic

and social system) At the alon E(hi'ition of 1@1 The $illage 3ride recei/ed enormous

attention; the press account declared that it &as difficult to get near it 'ecause of the throngs of

admirers)

?ean#Baptiste#Simeon +hardin (!--#""-&&as another painter of the natural5 style) 4is

audience &as gratified to find moral /alues in uiet scenes of domestic life) The artist seemed

to praise the simple goodness of ordinary people% especially mother and children% &ho in spiritli/ed far from the corrupt society) This thin0ing of the /irtue of the poor or country fol0 is still

&ith us today) The su'dued charm of the scene is reinforced 'y the simplicity of the

composition) Chardin &as the poet of the commonplace and the master of its nuances) A gentle

sentiment pre/ails in all his pictures% an emotion not contri/ed and artificial 'ut 'orn of a

painters honesty% insight% and sympathy) #t is ironic that this picture &as o&ned 'y Ging Louis

"$% the royal personification of the +ococo in his life and tastes)

Self Portrait'y Alisabeth 1ouise 9i)ee#1ebrun ("$$#%0& is another /ariation of thenaturalistic5 impulse in 18th century ,rench portraiture) The artist loo0s directly at her

/ie&ers) Although the mood is lighthearted and her clothing displays the cur/ing line 'elo/ed

'y +ococo artists and their patrons% the painting does not spea0 of +ococo fri/olity) $igee-

Le'run li/ed a life of e(traordinary personal and economic independent% &or0ing for no'ility

throughout Europe) he &as famous for the force and grace of her portraits) he &as

successful during the age of the late monarchy in ,rance and &as one of the fe& &omen

admitted to the Academy) After the +e/olution% her mem'ership &as rescinded 'ecause &omen

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&ere no longer &elcome) $igee-Le'runs continued success &as indicati/e of her talent and her

a'ility to forge connections &ith those in po&er in the post re/olutionary period)

The Taste for the ;atural in An)land

The Grand anner

A contrasting 'lend of naturalistic representation and +ococo is found in the &or0 of Thomas

Gainsborou)h ("0"#"&. 4is painting% rs. Richard Brinsle' Sheridan, sho&s a lo/ely&oman% dressed informally and seated in a rustic landscape) !ith soft hued light and feathery

'rush&or0 6ains'orough intended to match the natural% unspoiled 'eauty of the landscape &ith

that of the su'ect) 4er English5 comple(ion and s&eetness contrast &ith the sophistication of

+ococo portraits)

uch a portrait is representati/e of &hat 'ecame 0no&n as Grand annerportraiture) The

Grand anner 4as characteriCed b' the lar)e scale of the fi)ures relatie to the canas,

the controlled poses, the landscape settin), and the lo4 horiCon line. This combination of

artistic Rococo sophistication 4ith rustic naturalism is an e@ample of the h'bridit' ofst'les and reeals the dan)ers of the art historical penchant for cate)oriCin) artists and

their 4or

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capturing e/ery detail% &ith no editing)5 Actually he presented each site &ithin the

+enaissance perspecti/al rules and e(ercised great selecti/ity in a'out &hich details to include

and &hich to omit to ma0e a coherent and engagingly attracti/e picture)

The Reial of 3nterest in +lassicism

ne of the defining characteristics of the late 18th century &as a rene&ed interest in classicalantiuity% &hich the 6rand Tour &as instrumental in fueling) This interest &as manifested in

eoclassicism, a mo/ement that incorporated the su'ects and style of ancient art) Although

eoclassicism encompassed painting% sculpture% and architecture it is often regarded as the most

prominent manifestation of this interest) 4o&e/er% interest in things 6ree0 and +oman also

influenced the pu'lic culture of fashion and home decor) The EnlightenmentIs emphasis on

rationality also fueled this classical focus) Classical cultures represented the height of ci/ili7ed

society; 6reece and +ome ser/ed as models for enlightened political organi7ations) Their

traditions of li'erty% ci/ic /irtue% morality% and sacrifice &ere ideal models during an age of

uphea/al) #t is not surprising that eoclassicism &as particularly appealing during the ,rench

and American +e/olutions) E(ca/ations of 4erculaneum ='egun 1?8> and *ompeii =18>further &hetted the appetite for classicism)

#n the late 18th century% the ancient &orld increasingly 'ecame the focus of scholars) A /isit to

+ome stimulated Ad4ard Gibbonto 'egin his monumental Rise and Fall of the Roman

Ampire, &hich appeared 'et&een 1@ and 188) Earlier in 1FF% ?ohann ?oachim

/inc

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founding mem'er of the 3ritish +oyal Academy of Arts and enoyed an en/ia'le reputation)

+ornelia Presentin) Her +hildren as Her Treasures or;other of the Gracchi is a 0ind

of set piece of early eoclassicism) #ts su'ect is an informati/e e@emplum irtutis =e(ample

or model of /irtue> dra&n from 6ree0 and +oman history and literature) The contemporary

setting and actors are no& clothed in +oman gar' &ith +oman attitudes in a +oman interior)

The theme of the paintin) is the irtue of +ornelia, mother of the future political leaders

Tiberius and Gais Gracchus, 4ho in the second centur' B+ attempted to reform theRoman Republic. +ornelia2s character is reealed in this scene 4here a lad' isitor had

sho4n off her fine 6e4elr' and then hau)htil' re7uested that +ornelia sho4 hers. 3nstead

of rushin) to sho4 her 6e4els, +ornelia brin)s her sons for4ard, presentin) them as her

6e4els. The only +ococo elements still lingering are charm and grace% in the arrangement of the

figures in the soft lighting

?ac7ues 1ouis *aid ("%#0$& &as the 'ig 'oy of eoclassicism) 4e &as the neoclassical

painter-ideologist of the ,rench +e/olution and the apoleonic Empire) The re/olt against the

,rench monarchy in 189 &as prompted in part 'y the Enlightenment idea of a participatoryand 0no&ledgea'le citi7enry) The immediate causes &ere ,rances economic crisis and a clash

'et&een the Third Estate ='ourgeoisie% peasantry% and ur'an and rural &or0ers> and the ,irst and

econd Estates =the clergy and no'ility% respecti/ely>) They fought o/er representation in the

legislati/e 'ody% the Estates-6eneral% &hich had 'een con/ened to discuss ta(ation as a possi'le

solution to the economic pro'lem) The ensuing +e/olution re/ealed the insta'ility of the

monarchy and ,rench societys traditional structure) The results &ere a succession of repu'lics

and empires as ,rance struggled to adust to these changes)

Da/id &as a distant relati/e of 3oucher and painted in his style until a period of study in +ome

&on the young artist o/er to the classical art tradition) *aid faored the academic trainin)and the use of the ancient and Renaissance masters as models. He rebelled a)ainst the

Rococo as an ;artificial taste and e@alted classical art as the imitation of nature in her

most beautiful and perfect form.

Da/id concurred &ith Enlightenment thought that su'ect matter should ha/e a moral and

should 'e presented so that the mar0s of heroism and ci/ic /irtue offered in the eyes of the

people J&illK electrify its soul% and plant the seeds of glory and de/otion to the fatherland)5 A

milestone painting in Da/ids career% 5ath of the Horatii, depicts a story from

*re-+epu'lican +ome% the heroic phase of +oman history) The topic &as not an arcane one in

Da/ids audience) The story of conflict 'et&een lo/e and patriotism% first recounted 'y the+oman historian Li/y% had 'een retold in a play 'y *ierre Corneille performed in *aris se/eral

years earlier% made it familiar to the /ie&ing pu'lic) According to the story% the leaders of the

&arring cities of +ome and Al'a decided to resol/e their conflicts in a series of encounters

&aged 'y three representati/es from each side) The +oman champions% the three 4oratius

'rothers% &ere sent to face the three sons of the Curatius family from Al'a) A sister of the

4oratii% Camilla% &as the 'ride to 'e of one of the Curatius sons% and the &ife of the youngest

4oratius &as the sister of the Curatii)

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At the fall of ,rench +e/olutionist +o'espierre and his party in 19% Da/id 'arely escaped

&ith his life) 4e &as tried and imprisoned% and after his release in 19F he &or0ed to resurrect

his career) !hen apoleon =1@9-1821> - &ho had e(ploited the disarray to ascend to po&er -

approached Da/id and offered him the position of ,irst *ainter of the Empire% Da/id sei7ed the

opportunity) ne of the maor paintings Da/id produced for apoleon &as

The +oronation of apoleon isa large scale &or0 that documents the pomp and pageantry of

apoleons coronation in Decem'er 18.) #t is huge at 2. ( ?2 and re/eals the interests of'oth the artist and patron) apoleon &as a&are of the propaganda po&er of art and Da/ids

a'ility to produce it) To a large e(tent% Da/id adhered to historical fact regarding the

coronation) Da/id &as at the e/ent and painted himself in the &or0 as one of the many

spectators) The ceremony &as held at otre Dame Cathedral &hich Da/id faithfully

reproduced) Da/id recorded those in attendance% apoleon% his &ife Bosephine =&ho is 'eing

cro&ned% *ope *ius $## =seated 'ehind apoleon>% Boseph and Louise 3onaparte% apoleons

ministers% retinues of the emperor and empress% and a representati/e group of clergy) The

apparent fidelity to historical accuracy is not uite true) *reliminary studies and dra&ings

re/eal that Da/id made changes at apoleons reuest) apoleon insisted the painter depict thepope &ith his hand in 'lessing) ,urther apoleon had his mother appear prominently in the

center 'ac0ground e/en though she refused to attend)

Despite the many figures and pageantry% Da/id retained the structured composition central to

the neoclassical style) The action here &as presented as if on a theater stage) The figures are

also di/ided to re/eal polarities) The clergy is on the right and apoleon imperial court on the

left) The relationship 'et&een church and state &as one of the most contentious issues of the

period) apoleons decision to cro&n himself% rather than the *ope% re/ealed apoleons

concern a'out the po&er relationship 'et&een church and state) apoleons insistence on

emphasi7ing his authority is e/idenced 'y his selection of the moment depicted) 4a/ingalready cro&ned himself% he places a cro&n on his &ifes head) Though the painting represents

an important /isual document as the tradition of history painting% it also represents a more

comple( /isual statement a'out changing politics in apoleonic ,rance)

!hen apoleon ascended to po&er he em'raced all lin0s &ith the classical past as sources of

sym'olic authority for his short li/ed imperial state) Connections &ith the +oman Empire

ser/ed apoleon &ell and &ere in/o0ed in architecture and sculpture as &ell as painting)

apoleon &as not the first to rely on classical models Early in the 18th century architects 'eganto turn a&ay from the theatricality and ostentation of 3aroue and +ococo design and em'raced

a more steam lined classicism) The eoclassical portico of the *arisian church of ainte-

6ene/ie/e% no& the *antheon% &as designed 'y ?ac7ues#Germain Soufflot (">#"=&. The

+oman ruins at 3aal'e0 in yria% especially a titanic colonnade% pro/ided much of the

inspiration for the portico) The columns% reproduced &ith studied archaeological e(actitude% are

the first re/elation of +oman grandeur in ,rance) The &alls are se/erely 'lan0% e(cept for the

repeated garland motif near the top) The colonnaded dome% a neoclassical /ersion of aint

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*eters% the Church of the #n/alides% and aint *aulIs% rises a'o/e a 6ree0 cross plan) 3oth the

dome and /aults rest on the interior grid of splendid free standing Corinthian columns% as if the

portico &as continued inside) Although the total effect is +oman the structural principles are

6othic) Soufflot 4as one of the first th centur' architects to su))est that Gothic

en)ineerin) 4as hi)hl' functional structurall' and could be applied to modern buildin)s.

3n his 4or% the structure again

re/erted 'ac0 to a church after his defeat and long 'efore its completion in 182) Designed 'y

Pierre 9i)non ("!>#0& this grandiose temple includes a high podium and 'road flight of

stairs leading to a deep porch on the front) These features and Corinthian columns recall

+oman #mperial Temples and create a sym'olic lin0 'et&een the apoleonic and +oman

Empires) The 'uildings classical shell surrounds an interior co/ered 'y a seuence of threedomes% a feature of 3y7antine and +omanesue churches) $ignon clothed this church in the

costume of pagan +ome)

nder apoleon classical models &ere pre/alent as sculpture as &ell) The emperors fa/orite

sculpture &as ntonio +anoa ("$"#00& &ho reluctantly left a successful career in #taly to

settle in *aris and ser/e the emperor) nce in ,rance% Cano/a 'ecame apoleons admirer and

made numerous portraits of apoleon and his family in the neoclassical style) *erhaps the 'est

0no&n of these is the mar'le portrait of apoleons sister% Pauline Bor)hese as 9enus.

#nitially% Cano/a had suggested depicting 3orghese as Diana% goddess of the hunt) he

ho&e/er% insisted on 'eing sho&n as $enus% the goddess of lo/e) Thus she appears% reclining ona di/an and gracefully holding a golden apple% a sym'ol of the goddess triumphant in the

udgment of *aris) Although the sensuous pose and drapery recall 6ree0 sculpture% the &or0 is

not ideali7ed as might 'e e(pected) The sharply detailed rendering of the couch and drapery

suggest a commitment to naturalism as &ell)

The pu'lic perception of *auline 3orghese influenced the sculptures design and presentation)

apoleon had arranged the marriage of his sister to an heir of the no'le +oman 3orghese

family) nce *auline &as in +ome her 'eha/ior &as less than dignified% and the pu'lic

gossiped e(tensi/ely a'out her affairs) 4er insistence on portrayal as the goddess of lo/ereflected her self perception) Due to his &ifes uestiona'le reputation% *rince Camillo

3orghese% the &or0s official patron% 0ept the sculpture seuestered allo&ing fe& to see the

&or0 e(cept 'y torch light) till the sculpture increased the notoriety of 'oth artist and su'ect%

although the sculptures enduring fame &as esta'lished only after Cano/as death in 1822)

eoclassicism in An)land

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The popularity of 6ree0 and +oman sculpture &as due not only to their association &ith

morality% rationality% and integrity 'ut also to their connection to political systems ranging from

Athenian democracy to +oman #mperial rule) Thus in *arliamentary England and #mperial and

+e/olutionary ,rance% eoclassicism &as highly regarded) #n England% eoclassicisms appeal

may ha/e 'een due to its clarity and simplicity) This &as a star0 contrast to 3aroue art% &hich

&as associated &ith the sho&y rule of a'solute monarchy; something loo0ed do&n on in

England) #n English architecture as simple and commonsensical style &as deri/ed from*alladio &or0 and that of #nigo Bones)

Richard Bo'le, earl of Burlin)ton (!-$#"$>&, strongly restated Bones *alladian doctrine in

a ne& style +his4ic< House, &hich he 'uilt on Londons outs0irts &ith the help of

/illiam Dent (!!#"%&. The &ay had 'een pa/ed for this shift in style 'y% among other

things% the pu'lication of Colin Camp'ells 9itruius Britannicus ("$&, three /olumes of

engra/ings of ancient 'uildings in 3ritain% prefaced 'y a denunciation of #talian 3aroue and

high praise for *alladio and Bones)

+his4ic< House is a free /ariation of the theme of *alladios $illa +otonda) The e(terior

design pro/ided a clear alternati/e to the colorful splendors of $ersailles) #n its simple

symmetry% unadorned planes% right angles% and stiffly &rought proportions) Chis&ic0% despite

its classical and rational loo0% &as also modified 'y its setting &ithin informal gardens

dominate the scene% as did many *alladian $illa in England) Bust as irregularity &as culti/ated

in the landscaping surrounding these /illas% so &ere the interiors that &ere ornamented in a style

more closely related to the +ococo) The interior design creates a Late 3aroue contrast to the

stern symmetry of the e(terior and plan) *alladian Classicism pre/ailed in English architecture

until a'out 1@.% &hen it 'egan to e/ol/e into eoclassicism)

eoclassical 3nteriors

Eighteenth century neoclassical interiors also &ere indirectly inspired 'y ne& disco/eries of

6ree0 and +oman grandeur) The first great archaeological e/ent of modern times% the

disco/ery and initial e(ca/ations of the ancient +oman cities of 4erculaneum and *ompeii in

the 1?.s and .s% startled and thrilled all of Europe) The &all paintings and other facts of

*ompeii inspired the slim% straight lined% elegant *ompeian5 style that almost entirely replaced

the cur/ilinear +ococo after mid century)

The Atruscan Room at 5sterle' Par< House in Middlese( &as 'egun in 1@1% &as designed'y Robert dam ("0#"-0&. Compared to the +ococo alons &e ha/e pre/iously seen% this

room sho&s ho& completely symmetry and rectilinearity returned) This return &as achie/ed

&ith great delicacy and &ith none of the massi/e splendor of the Louis "#$ style) The architect

too0 the decorati/e motifs from +oman art and arranged them sparsely &ithin 'road neutral

spaces and slender margins) These designs are reminiscent of the Third and Early ,ourth tyles

of &all painting from *ompeii)

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eoclassicism in the Enited States

apoleon in/o0ed eoclassicism to ser/e his imperial agenda) #n the ne& American +epu'lic%

Thomas ?efferson ("%>#0!& spearheaded a mo/ement to adopt eoclassicism =a style he

sa& as representati/e of )) democratic ualities> as the national architecture)

Befferson &as a man of many interests and &as 'y nature attracted to classical architecture) 4e

&or0ed out designs for his o&n home% onticello, &hich he 'egan in 1.) Befferson admired*alladio immensely and read carefully the #talian architects Four Boo

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their o&n artistic identities) E/en &ith this foundation% Da/ids pupils% 6ros% 6irodet% and

#ngres% laid the foundations of +omanticism 'y e(ploring the e(otic and erotic and often turned

to fictional narrati/es for su'ects as +omantic artists did)

ntoine#?ean Gros (""#>$& &as a&are of the 'enefits for artists fa/ored 'y those in

po&er) ,ollo&ing Da/ids lead% 6ros produced se/eral paintings that contri'uted to the

gro&ing mythological status of apoleon) #n apoleon at the Pest House at ?affa, &hichapoleon ordered 6ros to paint% 6ros referred to an out'rea0 of the 'u'onic plague that erupted

during the ear Eastern campaigns of 199) This fearsome disease struc0 Muslim and ,rench

forces ali0e) #n March 199 apoleon himself /isited the pest house at Baffa to uell the

gro&ing panic and hysteria) 6ros depicted apoleons officers co/ering their noses against the

stench of the place% &hile apoleon amid the dead and dying is fearless and in control)

apoleon is portrayed as a Christ li0e figure) 4e is comforting and reaching out to heal the

sores of the plague /ictim in a miraculous &ay) The figures are in a&e of apoleons presence

and authority) The e(altation of the ,rench leader &as necessary to counter act the negati/e

pu'licity at the time) T&o months after his /isit to the pest house% apoleon ordered all plagueridden ,rench soldiers poisoned so as to relie/e him of ha/ing to return them to Cairo or of

a'andoning them to the Tur0s) ome of the soldiers sur/i/ed and from them the damaging

stories a'out apoleon 'egan to circulate) 6ros painting &as an attempt at damage control)

The dramatic lighting% pillared arcade =Moorish in style>% and the contrast of the figures of the

Muslim doctors on the right and apoleons group on the center left% are all characteristic of

eoclassical composition) This polari7ing scheme that 6ros used &as also used earlier in ath

of the 4oratii) 6ros fascination &ith the e(oticism of the ear East as e/idenced 'y his

attention to the uniue architecture% attire% terrain% represented a departure from eoclassicism)

This &ith the artists emphasis on death% suffering% and an emotional rendering of the scene%presaged prominent aspects of +omanticism)

nne#1ouis Girodet#Trioson ("!"#0%& also produced &or0s that conured images of e(otic

locals and cultures) Mo/ing further into the realm of +omanticism% his painting%

The Burial of tala&as 'ased on a popular no/el% The Genius of +hristianit','y ,rench

&riter Francois Rene de +hateaubriand. The section of the no/el dealing &ith Atala &as

pu'lished as an e(cerpt a year 'efore the pu'lication of the entire 'oo0 in 18.2) 3oth the

e(cerpt and the no/el &ere enormously successful; as a result% Atala almost 'ecame a cult

figure) The interest in The Genius of +hristianit' &as due in large part to the e(oticism anderoticism integral to the narrati/e) et in Louisiana% the story focuses on t&o ati/e American

youths% Atala and Chactas) The t&o from different tri'es% fall in lo/e and run a&ay together

through the &ilderness) The 'oo0 &as highly charged &ith erotic passion% and Atala% s&orn to

lifelong /irginity% finally commits suicide rather than 'rea0 her oath) 6irodets painting depicts

this tragedy% as Atala is 'uried in the shado& of the cross 'y her grief stric0en lo/er% Chactas)

Assisting in the 'urial is a cloa0ed priest% &hose presence is appropriate gi/en Chateau'riands

emphasis on the re/i/al of Christianity and the Christiani7ation of the ne& &orld in his no/el)

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6irodets representation of the American #ndian lo/ers in the Louisiana &ilderness appealed to

the pu'lics fascination &ith &hat it percei/ed as the passion and primiti/ism of ati/e

American tri'al life) 4is &or0s appeal is to the emotions rather than a philosophical idea% or

some grand order of nature and form)

?ean#u)uste#*omini7ue 3n)res ("=#!"& &as a student of Da/id for a short period of

time in the late 19.s% lea/ing Da/id 'ecause of matters of style) #ngres thought that &as&or0ing in a truer and purer 6ree0 style than that of Da/id) 4e adopted flat and linear forms

appro(imating those found on 6ree0 /ase painting) #n many of #ngress &or0s% the figure is

placed in the foreground% much li0e lo& relief sculpture)

#ngress huge composition% potheosis of Homer &as e(hi'ited at the alon of 182) #t

presented a huge single statement the doctrines of ideal form and of eoclassical taste% and

generations of academic painters remained loyal to that style) Enthroned 'efore an ionic

temple% the epic poet 4omer is cro&ned 'y ,ame or $ictory) At his feet are t&o statuesue

&omen% &ho personify the 3lliad and the5d'sse', the offspring of his imagination)ymmetrically grouped a'out him is a company of% &ho #ngres descri'ed as so/ereign

geniuses)5 They are those &ho e(pressed humanities highest ideals in philosoph', poetr',

music, and art. To 4omers left are Anacreon &ith his lyre% *hidias &ith his sculptors

hammer% and *lato% ocrates% and other ancient &orthies) To his far right are 4orace% $irgil% and

Dante% and +aphael% the painter #ngres most admired) Among the for&ard group on the

paintings left side are *oussin =pointing> and ha0espeare =half concealed>) At the right are

,rench &riters Bean 3aptiste +acine% Moliere% $oltaire% and ,rancois de alignac de la Mothe

,enelon) #ngres had planned a larger group% 'ut it &as ne/er completed) ,or years he agoni7ed

o/er &hom he chose for his select company of heroes in /arious humanistic disciplines)

As #ngres de/eloped as an artist he turned more and more to +aphael as the essence of

classicism) #ngres disdained% in proportion the ne& modern5 styles of =the romantic and the

realistic> as destructi/e to true art)

Despite #ngres commitment to ideal form and composition% he also produced &or0s of a

+omantic 'ent) Grand 5dalis7ue is a traditional reclining nude figure that goes 'ac0 to

6iorgione and Titian) The head appears as a type that +aphael &ould depict) The figures pose

and elongated proportions as &ell as% generally cool color scheme re/eals de't to Mannerist

such as *armigianino) 4o&e/er% 'y con/erting the figure to an odalisue =a mem'er of aTur0ish harem>% #ngres made a strong concession to the contemporary +omantic taste for the

e(otic)

This strange mi(ture of classical form and +omantic themes dre& acid criticism &hen it &as

displayed in 181) Critics sa& #ngres as a 0ind of re'el i terms of form and content% and they

did not cease their attac0s until the mid 182.s &hen another enemy of official style% Eugene

Delacroi(% appeared) Delacroi( &as so remo/ed from eoclassicism that the critics soon

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ele/ated their former &hipping 'oy% #ngres% to the leader of the academic forces against the

'ar'arism5 of 6ericault% Delacroi( and their mo/ement) 6radually #ngres &armed to the role

his critics had cast him% and he came to see himself as the conser/ator of good and true art% a

protector of its principles against its &ould 'e destroyers)

TheRise of Romanticismeoclassicism rationally reinforced Enlightenment thought as promoted 'y $oltaire)

+ousseaus ideas contri'uted to the rise of Romanticism. +ousseaus e(clamation% Man is

'orn free% 'ut is e/ery&here in chains5 summari7es a fundamental premise of +omanticism)

+omanticism emerged from a desire for freedom% political% 'ut also of thought% feeling% of

action% of &orship% of speech% of taste% along &ith others) +omantics asserted that freedom is

the right and property of one and all% though for each indi/idual the 0ind or degree of freedom

might /ary)

Romantics belieed that the path to freedom 4as throu)h the ima)ination rather than

reason and functioned throu)h feelin) rather than reason and functioned throu)h feelin)rather than thin

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terror. 3ur0e o'ser/ed that the most intense human emotions are e/o0ed &ith pain or fear and

that &hen these emotions are distanced% they can 'e thrilling) Thus raging ri/ers and great

storms can 'e su'lime to their /ie&ers) Accompanying this taste for the su'lime &as the taste

for the fantastic% the occult% and the maca're - for the ad/entures of the soul /oyaging into the

dangerous reaches of the consciousness)

Henr' Fuseli ("%#0$& addressed the concept of nightmare in his painting The i)htmare.,useli speciali7ed in night moods of horror and in dar0 fantasies of the demonic% the maca're%

and often the sadistic) This is one of four /ersions of this theme) The 'eautiful young &oman

lies asleep% draped across the 'ed &ith her limp arm dangling o/er the side) A demon% 'elie/ed

in medie/al times to prey% often se(ually% on sleeping &omen% suats ominously on her 'ody) #n

the 'ac0ground% a ghostly horse &ith flaming eyes 'ursts on to the scene from 'ehind the

curtain) Despite the temptation to see the paintings title as a pun 'ecause of the horse% the &ord

ni)htmare comes from the &ords ni)htand mara. Mara &as a spirit in orthern mythology

that &as thought to torment and suffocate sleepers) As distur'ing and per/erse as ,uselis art

may 'e% he &as among the first to attempt to depict the dar0 terrain of the human su'consciousthat 'ecame fertile ground for the +omantic artists to har/est)

#n their images of the su'lime and the terri'le% artists often com'ined something of 3aroue

dynamism &ith naturalistic details in their uest for grippingly mo/ing /isions) These

preferences 'ecame the mainstay of +omantic art and contrasted &ith the intellectual% rational

neoclassical themes and presentations e/en though they &ere at times com'ined)

/illiam Bla

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6oya did not dismiss eoclassicism &ithout considera'le reflection) This reflection emerged in

such &or0s as The Sleep of Reason Produces onsters, an etching and auatint from a series

titled 1os +aprichos (The +aprices&. #n this print% 6oya depicted himself asleep% slumped on

a ta'le or &riting stand; &hile threatening creates con/erge on him) *oised to attac0 are o&ls

=sym'ols of folly> and 'ats =sym'ols of ignorance>) The /ie&er might read this as a portrayal of

&hat emerges &hen reason is suppressed% ad/ocating Enlightenment ideals) #t can also 'e

interpreted as 6oyas commitment to the creati/e process and the +omantic spirit - unleashingof imagination% emotions% and e/en nightmares)

The emotional art 6oya produced in his long career displays his attraction to +omanticism and

the turmoil in pain and e/en 6oyas o&n life) 6oyas s0ills &ere recogni7ed early on and in

18@ he &as appointed Painter to the Din)and later First +ourt Painterin 199) After this

final appointment 6oya painted The Famil' of +harles 39. Ging Charles #$ and his Hueen

Maria Luisa are surrounded 'y their children) 6oya used $ela7ue7Is Las Meninas5 as his

inspiration for this image) ome scholars see this painting as a naturalistic depiction of panish

royalty and the conseuences of years of intermarriage) thers see it a confirming the panishmonarchys continued presence and strength)

As dissatisfaction &ith the rule of Charles #$ and Maria Luisa gre&% the panish people through

their support 'ehind ,erdinand $## their son in hopes he &ould initiate reform) To o/erthro&

his father and mother he enlisted the aid of apoleon) apoleon had designs on the panish

throne so he sent ,rench troops) ot surprisingly% after the Ging and Hueen &ere o/erthro&n

he &ent 'ac0 on his agreement and instead installed his 'rother Boseph 3onaparte on the throne)

,inally recogni7ing the ,rench as in/aders the panish people sought a &ay to e(pel the foreign

troops) n May 2% 18.8% in frustration% the panish attac0ed The apoleonic soldiers in achaotic /iolent clash) #n retaliation and a sho& of force% the ne(t day the ,rench e(ecuted

numerous panish citi7ens) This e/ent is the su'ect of 6oyas most famous painting

Third of a', =.

#n emotional fashion% 6oya depicted anonymous &all of murderous ,rench soldiers e(ecuting

terrified peasants) The horrified e(pressions and anguish on the faces of the peasants contrasts

&ith the emotionless oldiers) ,urther the peasant a'out to 'e shot thro&s out his arms in the

image of the innocent Besus crucified) 3lood co/ers the ground)

This painting &as done in 181 for ,erdinand $##% &ho had 'een restored to the throne after the

,rench) Despite the early optimism for the opportunity for democratic reforms under ,erdinand

$##% he increasingly emulated his father% and restored an authoritarian monarchy)

/er time 6oya 'ecame increasingly disillusioned and pessimistic; his declining health

contri'uting to this state of mind) 6oya painted a series of frescos on his farm house &alls later

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in his life) They are called the Blac< Paintin)s. They &ere done only for him and pro/ide

great insight into his mind at that time) The /ision is terrifying and distur'ing)

Saturn *eourin) 5ne of His +hildren depicts the ra& carnage and /iolence of aturn% &ild

eyed and monstrous% as he consumes one of his children) 6oyas &or0% rooted 'oth in a

personal and a national history% presents dar0 emotional images% demons that haunted 6oya)

Gericault

#n ,rance% Theodore 6ericault and Eugene Delacroi( &ere the artists most closely identified&ith the +omantic Mo/ement) Theodore Gericault ("-#0%& studied &ith a former pupil

of Da/id) 4e retained an interest in the heroic and the epic and &as &ell trained in classical

dra&ing) 4e chafed at the rigidity of the neoclassical style% e/entually producing &or0s that

capti/ate the /ie&er &ith their drama% /isual comple(ity and emotional force)

6ericaults most am'itious proect &as a large scale painting titled Raft of the edusa. This

&as a depiction of a contemporary historical e/ent% rather than one the distant past) 6ericault

a'andoned the idealism of eoclassicism and instead in/o0ed the theatricality of +omanticism)

The su'ect is a ship&rec0 that too0 place in 181@ off the coast of Africa) The ,rench frigateedusa ran aground on a reef due to the incompetence of the captain% a political appointee) As

a last ditch effort to sur/i/e% 1F. of those remaining 'uilt a ma0eshift raft from the

disintegrating ship) The raft drifted for 12 days% and the num'er of sur/i/ors d&indled to 1F)

,inally the raft &as spotted% and the emaciated sur/i/ors &ere rescued) The e/ent &as political

dynamite once it 'ecame political 0no&ledge)

6ericault departed from the straight for&ard organi7ation of neoclassical compositions and

instead presented a um'led mass of &rithing 'odies) They are piled on one another and

depicted in e/ery attitude of suffering and despair and are arranged in an " shaped composition)

The corner of the raft utting to&ard the /ie&ers compels their participation in the scene)

Despite the theatricality and dramatic action of the +omantic spirit% 6ericault &ent to great

lengths to insure accuracy) 4e &ent to hospitals and morgues to e(amine corpses% inter/ie&ed

the sur/i/ors% and had a model of the raft constructed in his studio) The artist &as also a

mem'er of an a'olitionist group that sought &ays to end the sla/e trade in the colonies)

6ericault made a statement 'y placing Bean Charles% a 'lac0 soldier and one of the fe&

sur/i/ors at the top of the heap of 'odies signaling the ship)

The +omantics 'elie/ed that the face accurately re/ealed the character of a person% especially inmadness and death) 4e made many studies of insane people) 6ericaults portrait%

3nsane /omen, is particularly po&erful) The more the +omantics 'ecame in/ol/ed &ith

nature% sane% or mad% the more they hoped to reach the truth)

*elacroi@

The history of 19th century painting% in its first @. years often has 'een interpreted as a contest

'et&een t&o maor artists - #ngres the draftsman and Au)ene *elacroi@ ("-#!>& the

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appeared only as infinitely /aried scales of different tones% shadings% and reflections)

Delacroi(s o'ser/ations &ere significant% and he ad/ised artists not to fuse their 'rush stro0es%

as the 'rush stro0es &ould appear to fuse naturally from a distance)

Bar'e

Delacroi(s fascination &ith ra& 'eauty and 'estial /iolence is echoed in ?a)uar *eourin) a

Hare'y ntoine#1ouis Bar'e ("-$#"$&. 3aryes &or0 dra&s the /ie&er irresisti'ility 'yits fidelity to 'rute nature% the depiction of the cat% though /ery emotional% displays the

0no&ledge of careful o'ser/ation from nature) This &or0 demonstrates the +omantic o'session

&ith strong emotion and untamed nature) ineteenth century sensi'ility generally pre/ented

humans from sho&ing animal ferocity themsel/es 'ut &ere &illing to accept it in depictions of

&ild 'easts)

1andscapeLandscape painting came into its o&n in the 19th century as a fully independent and respected

genre) 3riefly eclipsed at the 'eginning of the century 'y the taste for ideal form% &hich

fa/ored figural historical compositions% landscape painting flourished as leading painters made

it their profession) +ather than simply descri'e nature% poets and artists often used it for

allegory) #n this manner% artists commented on spiritual% moral% and philosophical issues)

German'

#n the early nineteenth century% most northern European =especially 6erman> landscape painting

to some degree e(pressed the +omantic% pantheistic /ie& of nature as a 'eing5 that included

the totality of e(istence in organic unity and harmony) #n nature - the li/ing garment of 6od5

as 6oethe called it - artists found an ideal su'ect to e(press the +omantic theme of the soulunified &ith the natural &orld) As all nature &as mysteriously permeated 'y 'eing% landscape

artists had the tas0 of interpreting the signs% sym'ols and em'lems of uni/ersal spirit disguised

&ithin /isi'le material things) Artists no longer merely 'eheld landscape% 'ut rather

participated in its spirit) o longer &ere they painters of mere things 'ut instead &ere

translators of natures transcendent meanings% arri/ed at through the feelings the landscapes

inspired)

+asper *aid Friedrich (""%#%=& &as among the first northern European artists to depict

the +omantic transcendental landscape) ,or ,riedrich% landscapes &ere temples: his paintings

&ere altarpieces) The re/erential mood of his &or0s demands from the /ie&er the silence

appropriate to sacred places filled &ith di/ine presence) bbe' in the 5a< Forest is one such

&or0) nder a &inter s0y% through the 'arren oa0 trees of a sno& co/ered cemetery% a funeral

procession 'ears a coffin into the ruins of a 6othic church that ,riedrich 'ased on the remains

of Eldana A''ey in 6reifs&ald) The em'lems of death are e/ery&here) The painting is a

meditation on human mortality) ,riedrich remar0ed !hy% it has often occurred to me to as0

myself% do # so freuently choose death% transience% and the gra/e as su'ects for my paintings

ne must su'mit ones self many times to death in order someday to attain life e/erlasting)5

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,riedrichs &or0 'alances inner and outer e(perience) The artist%5 he &rote should not only

paint &hat he sees 'efore him% 'ut also &hat he sees &ithin him)5

1andscape Paintin) in An)land

ne of the most momentous de/elopments in !estern history - the #ndustrial +e/olution -

impacted the e/olution of +omantic landscape painting in England) The changes &rought

impacted the agrarian economy 'y dri/ing prices for products so lo&% increasing num'ers ofdisplaced farmers could no longer afford to farm) This caused significant unrest)

?ohn +onstable (""!#>"&&as the 'est 0no&n of the English landscape painters)

The Ha'4ain depicts a placid picturesue scene in the countryside) The artist presents oneness

&ith nature that the +omantic poets sought) The figures are not o'ser/ers 'ut participants in the

landscapes 'eings) Consta'le made countless studies from nature for each of his can/ases%

allo&ing him to produce the con/incing sense of reality 'y his contemporaries) Consta'les use

of tiny da's of local color% stippled &ith &hite% created a spar0ling shimmer of light across the

can/as)

The 4ay&ain is significant for &hat it does not sho& the ci/il unrest of the agrarian &or0ing

class) This painting has a sense of nostalgia for the disappearing rural pastorialism) The people

that populate Consta'les landscapes 'lend into the scenes and are at one &ith nature) +arely

does the /ie&er see &or0ers engaged in tedious la'or) The nostalgia% presented in naturalistic

terms% renders Consta'les &or0s +omantic in tone) Consta'le stated that painting is another

&ord for feeling)5

?oseph allord /illiam Turner (""$#$& &as Consta'les contemporary and produced

&or0 that also responded to encroaching industrialism) Turners painting contrasts &ithConsta'le &ith his tur'ulent s&irls and intense pigment) 4is passion and energy% that &as the

foundation of his art% clearly illustrate Edmund 3ur0es concept of the su'lime as a&e mi(ed

&ith terror)

Among Turners nota'le &or0s is The Slae Ship. The su'ect is an incident that occurred in

18? and &as reported in an e(tensi/ely read 'oo0 titled The Histor' of the bolition of the

Slae Trade'y Thomas Clar0son) 3ecause the 'oo0 &as reprinted in 18?9% it prompted

Turners choice of su'ect for this 18. painting) The incident in/ol/ed the captain off a sla/e

ship &ho% on reali7ing that his insurance company &ould only reim'urse him for sla/es lost atsea and not those &ho died en route% ordered the sic0 and dying to 'e thro&n o/er'oard)

Turners fren7ied emotional depiction of the act matches its 'ar'aric nature) The relati/e scale

of the minuscule human forms compared to the /ast tur'ulent sea and churning s0y reinforces

the sense of su'lime; the immense po&er of nature o/er humans) The particulars of the e/ent

are almost lost in the 'oiling colors% 'ut the cruelty is still e/ident) $isi'le are the iron shac0les

around the &rists and an0les of dro&ning sla/es% denying them any chance of sa/ing

themsel/es)

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The Slae Ship is clearly a seascape rather than a landscape) Turners interest in the sla/e trade

indicates his fascination &ith the effects of the #ndustrial +e/olution) #n his other paintings%

many of them landscapes% Turner re/ealed a more intense attitude to&ard industriali7ation)

Turners style is often referred to as /isionary% &as deeply rooted in the emoti/e po&er of pure

color) The ha7iness of forms and the indirectness of his compositions im'ued color andenergetic 'rush stro0es &ith greater impact) Turners special inno/ation &as to release color

from any defining outlines so as to e(press 'oth of the forces of nature and the painters

emotional response to them) Color and feeling are one) Turner2s methods had an

incalculable effect on the deelopment of modern art. His discoer' of the aesthetic and

emotie po4er of pure color and his pushin) of the mediums fluidit' to a point 4here the

paint itself is almost the sub6ect 4ere important steps to4ard 0=th centur' abstract art,

4hich dispensed 4ith shape and form alto)ether.

1andscape Paintin) in the Enited States#n America landscape painting de/eloped the statue of history painting) America did not ha/e

its ancient ruins and past history of human 0ind that Europe had) #nstead its ancient history &as

the land; the trees% ri/ers% and mountains% &ere its temples) The first great group of painters of

the land has 'een called The Hudson Rier School'ecause the artists painted the unculti/ated

regions of the 4udson +i/er $alley) Many artists painted scenes from all around the country so

the la'el is too restricti/e) The painters of the great mountains of the &est &ere called the

+oc0y Mountain chool% for e(ample) 1i

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The 4udson +i/er chool painters that &or0ed at mid century &or0ed in the time of the e/ents

leading up to and including the Ci/il !ar &hich decimated the country) $&, e(hi'its this /ariety

of styles) ash &as an esta'lished architect% 0no&n for neoclassical 'uildings in London% &hen

he &as as0ed to design a royal picture palace in the seaside resort of 3righton for the future

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Ging 6eorge #$) The structures fantastic e(terior is a conglomeration of #slamic domes%

minarets% and screens that had 'een called #ndian 6othic%5 and sources ranging from 6reece to

Egypt to China) nderlying the e(otic facade is a cast iron s0eleton% an early use of this

material in a noncommercial 'uilding) ash also put the cast iron to use 'y creating life si7e

palm tree columns to support the +oyal pa/ilions 0itchen ceiling) This 'uilding ser/ed as a

prototype for resort style 'uildings still fond in Europe and America)

The Paris 5pera House designed 'y +harles Garnier (0$#-&,adapted 3aroue

opulence to con/ey the riches acuired during this age of e(pansion) The 3aroue grandeur of

the layout and the ornamentation are characteristic of an architectural style called Beau@#rts,

&hich flourished in the late 19th and early 2.th centuries in ,rance) 3ased on ideas taught at

the dominant Ecole des 3eau(-Arts =chool ,ine Arts> in *aris% the 3eau(-Arts tyle

incorporated classical principles and included e(tensi/e e(terior ornamentation) 6arniers

pera proclaims through its maesty and la/ishness% its function as a gathering place for

glittering audiences in an age of conspicuous &ealth) The style &as so attracti/e to the

moneyed classes &ho supported the arts that the theaters and opera houses continued to reflectthe *aris peras designs until !orld !ar # transformed society)

The epoch ma0ing de/elopments in architecture &ere more rational% pragmatic% and functional

than the historic designs) As the turn of the century neared architects gradually a'andoned

sentimental and +omantic designs from the historical past) They turned to honest e(pressions

of a 'uildings purpose) ince the 18th century% 'ridges had 'een 'uilt of cast iron) ther utility

architecture% factories% &arehouses% mills% etc had long 'een 'uilt simply &ithout ornament)

#ron and other materials allo&ed construction of structures that &ere larger% stronger% and more

fire resistant than 'efore) The tensile strength of iron =and steel% a/aila'le after 18@.>% permitted

architects to create ne& designs in/ol/ing /ast enclosed spaces% as in the great train sheds ofrailroad stations and in e(position halls)

The Bibliothe7ue Sainte Geneiee (%>#$=&,'uilt 'y Henri 1abrouste (=#"$&,

sho&s an interesting modification of the +enaissance to accommodate the s0eletal cast iron

elements) The ro& of arched &indo&s in the facade recalls +enaissance 'uildings% and the

di/ision of its stories distinguishes its interior le/els - the lo&er for stac0 rooms% the upper for

reading rooms) The latter consists essentially of t&o 'arrel /aulted halls% roofed in terracotta

and separated 'y a ro& of slender cast-iron columns on concrete pedestals) The columns &hich

are Corinthian% support iron roof arches and are pierced &ith intricate /ine-scroll ornament outof the +enaissances architectural /oca'ulary) ne could hardly find a 'etter e(ample of this

'lending of past styles &ith ne& materials aesthetically transforming the forms of traditional

architecture) or is there a 'etter e(ample of the reluctance of 19th century architects to

surrender traditional forms for totally ne& possi'ilities) Architects continued to clothe their

concrete and steel structures in the +omantic drapery of a historical style)

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of the camera lucida (li)hted room& replaced the enclosed cham'er of the camera o'scura)

#nstead a small prism lens% hung on a stand% &as aimed do&n&ard at an o'ect on a piece of

paper) This process ho&e/er &as long and arduous) There &as a yearning for a &ay to more

directly capture a su'ects image) T&o /ery different scientific in/entions that accomplished

this &ere announced almost simultaneously% in ,rance and England in 18?9)

The first &as the da)uerreot'peprocess% named for one of its t&o in/entors1ouis#?ac7ues#ande *a)uerre ("-"#$&) The second calot'peprocess &ill 'e discussed later) Daguerre

had trained as an architect 'efore 'ecoming a theatrical set painter and designer) This

'ac0ground ena'led him to open a popular entertainment called *iorama. Audiences &atched

li/ing paintings5 created 'y changing light effects on a sand&ich5 composed of a painted

'ac0drop and se/eral layers of translucent front curtains) Daguerre used a camera o'scura for

the diorama) Daguerre &as later introduced to ?oseph iepce, &ho in 182@% had successfully

made a permanent picture of a cityscape using the camera o'scura e(posed a metal plate &ith a

light sensiti/e coating on it) Although the process of e(posure too0 eight hours% Daguerre &as

e(cited o/er the possi'ilities) The t&o men partnered to further de/elop the process) iepcedied in 18??% 'ut Daguerre continued) 4e disco/ered latent de/elopment - that is 'ringing out

the image through treatment in chemical solutions - &hich considera'ly shortened the length of

time needed for e(posure) Daguerre also disco/ered a 'etter &ay to ;fi@the image 'y

chemically stopping the action of the light on the photographic plate% &hich other&ise &ould

continue to dar0en until the &hole image could no longer 'e discerned)

The ,rench go/ernment presented the ne& daguerreotype process at the Academy of cience in

*aris on Ban % 18?9% &ith the understanding that its details &ould 'e a/aila'le free of charge to

all &ho as0ed% although Daguerre recei/ed a large annuity in appreciation) oon people

e/ery&here &ere ta0ing pictures using a Daguerre camera) The process &as immediatelychristened photo)raph' from the 6ree0 photos (li)ht& and )raphos (4ritin)&.

Still 1ife in Studio &as one of the first successful plates Daguerre produced after perfecting his

process) E/ery detail could 'e captured) The composition &as clearly inspired 'y 1th century

Dutch /anitas still lifes)

#n the nited tates ?osiah ?ohnson Ha4es (=#-=& andlbert Sands South4orth

(#-%&, used the ne& process to open a portrait studio in 3oston) itters needed head

'races to hold themsel/es still enough for the time reuired to ta0e the pictures) 4a&es andouth&orth also too0 their cameras outside the studio to record places and e/ents) ne result

&as Aarl' 5peration under Ather, assachusetts General Hospital. The ele/ated /ie&point

displayed here flattens the spatial perspecti/e and emphasi7es relationships of the figures in

&ays the #mpressionists% especially Degas found intriguing)

The daguerreotype reigned supreme until the 18F.s) The calot'pe &as the second in/ention

announced shortly after Daguerres in/ention) /illiam Fo@ Talbot (==#""& he in/ented

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the process similar to the photograms done on *hoto #) #t used light sensiti/e chemically coated

paper) 4e placed the o'ects on the paper and e(posed it to light) The o'ects 'loc0ed out the

light li/ing &hite silhouettes of the images) #n further e(periments% he placed the paper inside

simple cameras and% &ith a second sheet% created positi/e images) 4e further impro/ed the

process &ith more light sensiti/e chemicals and a chemical de/elopment of the negati/e image)

This techniue allo&ed the de/elopment of multiple prints) The process in the end &as limited

'ecause the images incorporated the te(ture of the paper% producing slightly 'lurred images andlac0ing crisp detail) The stringent licensing fees and euipment fees hindered its &idespread

adoption) *hotographers stayed &ith the daguerreotype until photographic technology could

e(pand the calotypes capa'ilities)

The greatest of the early portrait photographers &as the ,renchman Gaspar#Feli@ Tournachon

(0=#-=& also calledadar. 4e &as so a talented a capturing the essence of his su'ects

that the most important people in ,rance came to him for their portraits) adar sought in his

&or0 that instant of understanding that puts you in touch &ith the model- helps you sum him

up% guides you to his ha'its% his ideas% and character and ena'les you to produce))) a reallycon/incing and sympathetic li0eness% an intimate portrait)

The ne& &et-plate5 technology =so named 'ecause this plate &as e(posed% de/eloped% and

fi(ed &hile &et> almost at once replaced 'oth the daguerreotype and the calotype) #t 'ecame

the uni/ersal &ay of ma0ing negati/es up to 188.) 4o&e/er &et plate photography had

dra&'ac0s) The plates had to 'e prepared and processed on the spot) To &or0 outdoors meant

ta0ing along some type of porta'le dar0 room - a &agon% tent% or 'o( &ith light tight slee/es)

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f the Ci/il !ar photographs% the most mo/ing are the images of com'at deaths) *erhaps the

most reproduced Ci/il !ar photograph is Timothy ulli/ans Harest of *eath, Gett'sbur),

Penns'lania, ?ul' !>

+onclusion

After the death of Louis "#$ in 11F% early 18th century ,rench culture &as dominated 'y the

aristocracy and 'y a style 0no&n as +ococo) The softer% daintier style% characteri7ed 'yelegance and sensuality% &as soon challenged 'y the Enlightenment and the eoclassicism)

This ne& interest in classicism &as &idespread in 'oth Europe and America and &as associated

&ith heroism% idealism% and rationality) #n contrast to eoclassicism% and its focus on region

and logic% +omanticism% &hich also emerged in conunction &ith Enlightenment thought%

focused on the imagination and feeling) The in/ention of photography at mid-century &as a

significant milestone% as it altered pu'lic perceptions of reality) The issues of reality and

realism &ere addressed specifically in the mo/ement that follo&ed +omanticism; +ealism)