chapter 1 psychology, science, and life. why are research methods important tools for life?...

Chapter 1Psychology, Science, and Life

Why are Research Methods Important Tools for Life?

• Understanding human behavior• Creating new knowledge• Preparing for a career in psychology

Why are Research Methods Important Tools for Life?

Answering important questions– What is the biological basis of consciousness?– How are memories stored and retrieved?– How did cooperative behavior evolve?– To what extent are genetic variation and personal

health linked?– What causes schizophrenia?

Scientific and Nonscientific Knowledge

Way of Knowing What it entailsTenacity Acceptance of knowledge uncritically

and unwillingness to change beliefsAuthority Acceptance of knowledge because it

comes from an authority or expertA priori method Knowledge from logic based on

premises that are subject to possible change

Scientific approach Knowledge based on empirically derived data

What Constitutes Scientific Knowledge

TenacitySimply believing something because you don't

want to give up your belief. It may be obvious to you, even if not to others.

You have probably discovered that people do not change their minds easily, concluding that they are simply being stubborn. But they are probably thinking exactly the same about you


AuthorityThis way of adopting knowledge removes the

burden from any single person to make decisions; instead, one would rely on an expert of some kind.

Authorities and experts are often right, but they can be wrong.


A Priori MethodPeople might fix their knowledge based on

consensus and reasoned argument, the a priori approach.

The problem is that reasons for believing something may change over time, so what was seen as true in the past may change.


The Scientific MethodIf we want to know universal truths, the most

valid approach can be through science, which is objective and self-correcting. Gradually, we can accumulate knowledge that is valid and discard ideas that prove to be wrong.

Unfortunately, some questions cannot be addressed scientifically.


Four Characteristics of Scientific ResearchObjective—Clearly specified and well definedData driven—Conclusions are based on the dataReplicable—Other investigators can repeat the research to see if the same results occurPublic—The research is made public, in detail, so others can scrutinize it


Concepts and Measurements are Objective

Research requires that concepts have objective definitions and measurements that are well defined and that anybody can apply.


Claims Are Data DrivenResearch claims must be based on objective

data rather than on the preferences or initial beliefs of the researcher.


Scientific Research is ReplicableResearch has to be set up so that others can

repeat a study to see if the same results occur.A process is scientific if different scientists can

repeat a study, even if the results differ. More research can identify why there are discrepancies.


Scientific Research is PublicAfter completing research, scientists make their

work public so other scientists can scrutinize it and create new research based on it.

Culture and Ways of Knowing

Culture Example of CharacteristicEastern Acceptance of contradictory statements

as each having partial truthWestern Search for a single correct answer

Creation of dichotomies (e.g., “It is either this or that; it can’t be both”)

Not all people accept the same type of logical framework that people do in Western cultures.

Why We Do Research• Curiosity and Enjoyment• Scientific Goals

Scientific Goals of ResearchDescribing behaviorExplaining BehaviorPredicting BehaviorControlling Behavior

Why We Do ResearchDescription

One evening in 1964, a woman named Kitty Genovese was attacked and murdered while walking home from work. It was claimed that 38 people saw what was happening, but nobody helped or called the police.

Two psychologists (e.g., Latané and Darley, 1970) wondered why this might happen. Their first step in understanding this phenomenon was to describe the behaviors of the bystanders.

Why We Do Research

ExplanationAs Darley and Latané noted, when there are more

people around, we are less likely to offer aid.

The researchers called this failure to act diffusion of responsibility; that is, when others are around, we can pass blame for our inaction to them, assuming less (or none) for ourselves.

Why We Do Research

PredictionWe can determine those when helping behavior

is likely to occur. – Helping occurs as people try to avoid feeling guilty

or if a person is similar to them.– Helping diminishes if people have been relieved of

guilt.

Why We Do Research

ControlBehaviors in everyday life are seldom controlled by a

single variable, but we can control behavior to a degree.

We may help others if our mood is positive because we tend to generalize our good mood to everything around us

We may help if our mood is negative, but if we think that helping somebody will improve our mood

The Interaction of Science and Culture

The Role of the Government in ScienceA lot of research is funded by the government.Some research is applied, with possible

applications.Some research is theoretical, possibly without

future applications.

The Interaction of Science and Culture

Cultural Values and ScienceResearchers are part of the culture and often

study issues that are important in life.Culture helps determine how scientists conduct

their research.

Controversy—Should women serve on juries?

• Hugo Münsterberg researched the difference between men and women in the decision-making process in groups in the early 1900s.

• He concluded that women should not serve on juries because of the way they were influenced in their decision making.


• Harold Burtt conducted a conceptual replication of Münsterberg’s study a few years later.

• Burtt concluded that women were as capable as men in making decisions.


• Neither Münsterberg nor Burtt seem to have asked the question of whether men should serve on juries.

• Their assumption throughout the research was that men were appropriate for juries.

• Why? The answer has to do with culture.

Scientific Literacy

• What is Scientific Literacy?– A specialized form of critical thinking, that

involves developing clear questions, collecting and assessing relevant information, identifying important assumptions, and generating effective solutions to problems

Scientific Literacy

• How scientifically literate are Americans?– Researchers have concluded that about 28% of

Americans are scientifically literate

Scientific Literacy

• The majority of Americans believe in various paranormal phenomena even though there is no systematic evidence for them.– ESP– Telekinesis– Ghosts– Clairvoyance– Precognition

Scientific Literacy

Most psychologists regard these phenomena as involving pseudoscience.

What is pseudoscience? An area about which believers claim scientific status but for which there is no sound scientific evidence.

Scientific Literacy

Percent of people who believe in paranormal phenonena

0102030405060708090

1973 1976 1981 1997 2005

Year

Pe

rce

nta

ge

How many people believe in pseudoscientific claims?

Scientific Literacy

Characteristics of Bogus ScienceClaims appear in the popular press rather than in scientific journalsPeople claim that the scientific establishment is trying to suppress their work.Independent researchers cannot verify claimsClaims are based on anecdotes rather than on systematic data collection.Proponents simply assert that the truth has been known for a long time (e.g., centuries) when no current research can document the claims.

Scientific Literacy

Junk ScienceWhen scientists or researchers make claims to

support their own interests, going beyond what the data support, they are using what is called junk science.

Courts in the United States may restrict scientific testimony from so-called experts if the testimony would constitute junk science.

Controversy—What Causes Autism?

Some nonscientists and physicians claim that the vaccines that contained mercury were responsible for autism.

An early report in the British Medical Journal claimed to have found a link between vaccines and onset of autism


Where did these claims come from?• The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention recommended removal of mercury from vaccines because it is poisonous– The CDC did not link the mercury with autism.– The recommendation was purely preventive.


• When the CDC made its recommendations, parents were getting involved in advocating on behalf of children diagnosed as autistic.– Parents were objecting to a psychoanalytically

based explanation for autism.– Parents favored a medical model.


• Some people drew the conclusion that mercury in vaccines was the culprit.– Mercury poisoning leads to symptoms similar to

those of autism– Some activists concluded that the CDC

recommended removing mercury from vaccines because of a mercury-autism link (which the CDC never made).


What is the current consensus about mercury as the cause of autism?

• The original research claims were based on fabricated research.

• Even after mercury was removed from vaccines, the incidence of autism increased.

• Mercury levels are no higher in children diagnosed as autistic than in typically developing children.


What is the message here?• Scientific issues reflect issues important in

society.• Research can resolve controversies.• If people are not scientifically literate, they

can fall prey to claims that are not scientifically supported.

chapter 1 psychology, science, and life. why are research methods important tools for life?...

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