chapter 1: studying politics -...

Winter 2011 - Prof. Szala - POLS 1150 Course Notes

Chapter 1: Studying PoliticsPolitical Studies: Formal study of politics with and among nationsConflict Resolution: Process in domestic or international affairs where antagonism is sought to be reconciled through the use of mediation and negotiationConflict: Differences in preferred outcomes among social groupsSocialization: Process whereby individuals act in a social manner; creation of social and political authority and rules to regulate behaviour so as to permit operation of social unitsDecision-Making: Mechanism or pattern of relations involving different levels of government where determinations and judgments regarding the governance of political systems are made; Also known as the “black box”Public Goods: Resources that are present in a political system where use by one individual should not affect use by others; including social welfare, money, protect from attack, etc.Liberal Democracy:A political system based on freedom based on freedom & individual liberty, and on the principle that governance requires the assent of all citizens through participation through the electoral process, articulation of views, and direct or indirect representation in governing institutions- *more political freedomAuthoritarianism:Political system requiring absolute obedience to a constituted authority- *less political freedom17th century: Philosopher Thomas Hobbes argued that without society and political authority, people would be in “a state of nature”– “everyone for themselves” frame of mind- life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish & shortCritical thought is a response to arguments, positions, evidence, experience & observations with considered opinions about a proper course of actionPolitics: Is a response to the natural tendency among human beings to come together & create larger, organized groups, seeking a way to allocate the benefits & responsibilities that accompany the social unitPolicies, laws, regulations & rules guide/shape societyOnly humans possess ‘logos’- language & reason (Greek)Social Sciences: The scientific study of human society & social relationshipsPolitical science reflects the emphasis on social science methodologies that were popularized in the post- WW2 eraAnalytical Approach: Perspective that views politics as an empirical discipline (one that can be observed) rather than a science; politics cannot be broken down into parts, but must be seen comprehensively- *Most common & oldest approachEmpirical: Analysis based not on concepts and theory, but on what can be observed or experimented on- *The analytical approach sees politics as an empirical disciplineTraditional Approach: Method in politics drawing heavily on fields of law, philosophy and history that relies on subjective evaluation of the observer- *AKA the analytical approach …?Any observer of political activity will have his/her own views & biasBehaviouralism: Perspective that concentrates on the “tangible” aspects of political life, rather than values; the plan was to establish a discipline that was scientific & objectiveThe “Space Race”: After the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik 1, governments & universities put more money and time into science than things such as political studiesPolitical Science Research: Includes testing, making a hypothesis, conceptual development, comparison and falsification

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Post-Behaviourism:Approach that attempted to reconcile the problems encountered by behaviouralism by allowing for values &ideology in its analysisStructural-Functionalism: Approach that focuses on the role of political structures and their functions in society, such as legislature, bureaucracy, judiciary Systems Theory:Approach that views politics as a system of interaction binding political structures such as government to individual action; argues that politics is a dynamic process of information flows & responses that encompasses political institutions, groups, and individuals- try to understand decisions & reactions of people Political Economy:Approach that views political & economic spheres as harmonious and mutually dependent perceptions of the world; relationship between people, government, and the economy- main concern was power & wealthComparative Approach: Method of political analysis that compares different systems of political authority based on system type, time period, or form of leadershipLevels of Analysis: Approach to political studies that suggests that accurate analysis must be inclusive of international, domestic, and individual areas of interactionBehaviouralism was said to be too focused on science; politics is also about views, opinions & actionsMajor Questions to Ask:

1. What is the political issue at hand?2. Who is involved?3. How did the events unfold?4. Why did the events take place?5. How was society affected?

Three Main Approaches to these questions:1. How politics is integral to modern life/directly affect our lives, neighbourhoods,

relationships2. Comparative approach3. Levels of analysis

Today’s youth are not less involved politically- That’s a mythGlobalization: The intensification of economic, social, cultural and political relations across borders- Includes internet & communicationEthnic & Religious Conflict: War or opposition among different racial, linguistic or religious groupsProtectionism: Tendency of countries to safeguard their own economic sectors or industries using tariffs, quotas or other forms of trade/investment legislationConnection and division influence political changeDomestic Politics: Concerns itself with national governments and individual countries- ex. Our class is mostly on the Domestic Politics of Canada; where you live highly influences what you learnInternational Politics: Political relations that exist at an international levelCitizenship: Status granted to citizens that comes with responsibilities and duties, as well as rights; people are entwined with their birth nation or nation of adoptionApprox. 250,000 people become Canadian citizens each year (throughimmigration)Benefits of Canadian Citizenship:

• Legal rights• Equality rights



• Mobility rights• Aboriginal’s rights• Freedom of thought• Freedom of speech• The right to peaceful assembly

Responsibilities of Canadian Citizenship:• Obey the law• Respect rights & freedoms of others• Preserve Canada’s heritage & environment

Multiculturalism: Where several racial, cultural & ethnic identities co-exist peacefully in one nation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------FROM LECTURE:

• Cynicism is common, but healthy skepticism leads to better informed citizens• Politics is a progressive discipline• Greek politikos: politics, pertaining to civic affairs; The root is polis or city-state• David Easton: “Process by which values are authoritatively allocated in society.”• Harold Lasswell: “Who gets what, when, and how.”• Vladimir Lenin: “Who does what to whom.”• Mao Tse Tung: “Bloodless war.”• Bismarck: “The doctrine of the possible”• Aristotle: “We are political animals”• The ideas of values, power, relationships, and action.• Politics is part of the social sciences• Politics helps us organize ourselves• Politics allows for distribution of benefits and wealth, and public goods•



Chapter 2: Political ConceptsConcept: General idea emerging from an instance or eventOrder: Condition in which both units & interaction within a political system are marked by regularity & stability with the imposition of accepted & enforced rules, practices & structures

• One of the basic preconditions for civilization is order• It’s difficult to establish order without sacrificing other desired conditions• Political order is the collection of rules, laws, norms, customs & conventions that delimit

& hold together a societySystem:A group of individual entities or actors that interact with each other to form an integrated whole

• Systems are connected & organized, representing collective wholes• Change in one part usually means change in all• A political system is a series of many political structures that work together to drive the

politics of social interactionOrganizations: Structured relations existing within a political community that are established to distribute both the responsibilities & the privileges that arise from formal association with others

• May range from political parties, to interest groups, to private groups that allocate resources

• Can be local/national/international• Can be public/private• Can be based on politics, economy, religion, ethnicity, knowledge, culture

Institutions:Groupings that have developed & are to attend to particular needs for society• International level: United Nations• National level: Courts• Strong institutions are durable, transparent, autonomous & accountable• Weak institutions often contribute to political instability, corruption & underdevelopment

State: A recognized political unit, considered to be sovereign, with a defined territory & people & a central government responsible for administration

• A state is distinguished from the gov’t of a country by its more permanent nature• State & institutions generally remain constant

Nation: A group of persons who share an identity that is based on, but not limited to, shared ethnic, religious, cultural or linguistic qualities

• People of a nation are part of largely unacquainted groups, they just share characteristics that bring them together

• People who share a sense of identityNov. 2007: House of Commons recognized Quebec as its own nation within CanadaSovereignty: Recognition by other political authorities that a government is legitimate and rightful for a political economy

• An attribute that is solely held by states• Allows a state to be in absolute control of its territory

Power: Ability to achieve goals in a political system& to have others do as you wish them to• Dynamic power—Active, ex. The waging of war• Static power—Passive, ex. Power seen as a measure of status in society• Hard power—The ability to provide incentives & punishments in order to get what you

want



• Soft power—Ideology, culture, media, ideas• Relational power—Getting someone to do something they wouldn’t normally do• Structural power—The ability to change social/political/legal environments for others

Influence: The ability to change behaviour in others without exerting direct power over themAuthority: The power or right to force obedienceJoseph Stalin—Controlled the Soviet Union from 1924-53 by using propaganda to build up his cult of personality

• Traditional Authority—when power is passed down through generations• Rational-Legal Authority—derived from the acceptance/respect of laws/norms/rules• Charismatic Authority—The person rules because of specific qualities they have

Leadership: Group of individuals that lead societyCharisma examples: Bill Clinton, Adolf HitlerLegitimacy: What is lawful, appropriate, proper, and conforms to the standards of a political systemLaws: Rules imposed on society by the governing authority

• Enforced by threat of punishment by organized authorities• Also provide incentives to do good or to rebel

Legislation: Laws enacted by governing authorityPolicy: Laws or principles of performance adopted by a governmentPolicy in general, is a coordinated plan of action designed to achieve a predetermined set of goals Equality: Parity in a political systemPolitical Equality: The right to participate in politicsSocial Equality: Equal status – ex. Suffragette movementEconomic Equality: Distribution of benefitsSocial Order: Recognized structure of power, responsibility & libertyAbsence of chaosRecognized structure of power/liberty/responsibilitySecurity: Freedom from danger or injuryWe take for grantedInternational security; terroristsProgress: Advancement in society towards a better & improved state of affairs; an integral part of liberal political theoryJustice: State of affairs involving the maintenance of what is morally right & fairA just system- the pursuit of equitable aspirationsMost commonly associated with legal affairsSocial Justice: An equitable distribution of goods & values in societyThe principles we structure our society uponEconomic Justice:The redistribution of economic resources from certain groups in society to othersIn a country/region/globallyLiberty: Freedom from despotic controlFreedom: Ability to act without constraintAreas of action that aren’t prohibited in lawRights/freedoms act



Negative Liberty: Areas of activity in which governments do not interfere, where an individual is free to chooseExample: A person’s own choice of how they live their lifeRights: Socially acceptable, morally correct, just & fair privileges granted to members of a political communityUnited Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights- ex. To be free from slaveryPositive Liberty: Freedom to achieve one’s full potentialLicence: Unlimited freedom to do as one pleasesDuties: Responsibilities to protect rightsCommunity: Social, political, cultural &economicties that bind individuals to one another



Chapter 3: Political Thought, Philosophy & IdeologyIdeology: Set or system of ideas that form the basis of a political or economic system & provide guidance & direction for political leadershipImages Attitudes Values Beliefs IdeologyPhilosophy: Study of questions about existence & knowledge, ethics, justice & morality based on logical reasoning rather than observationComes from Greek word meaning “love of knowledge”Plato: Ideas about the role of gov’t & good society, a just society & a search for true knowledge & goodPolitical Philosophy: An endeavor to understand the meaning of political life across the spectrum of human experienceAnalyzing what happens in politics & what can be improvedUtopian: Idealized place or system; an ideally perfect society; impractical perfectionSocial Constructivism: A sociological & political meta-theory that explains the interactions between individual agents, their social groupings, & their environmentMarx: Says that society can be improved by analyzing the social/economic/political conditions that have prevailed human society throughout historyPolitical Realism:An approach to politics that emphasizes power & interests over ideas or social constructionsNiccolo Machiavelli’s theory, which stated that there should be a definite separation from morality in politicsValues: Principles, standards; what an individual or community esteems as meaningfulSelf-Determination: Ability to act in free choice without external compulsionGeneral Will: The will of the community as a wholeTo reflect the people’s wills, true interests, & what is good for themParticular Will: The will of the individual; as expressed by RousseauNot in harmony with general will; domination of self-desires & passionDemocracy: Political system based on the principle that governance requires the assent of all citizens through participation in the electoral process, articulation of views, and direct or indirect representation of governing institutionsEach individual exercises the right to self-determinationInvisible Hand: Adam Smith’s notion that economic forces left on their own would lead to maximize efficiency & economic growth over time as they engage in competition against each other; benefits to society as a whole exist without political interferenceToleration: The acceptance or protection of individuals, groups, & types of behaviours that may be disapproved of by the majority of societyBourgeois: According to socialists such as Marx, the property-owning class that exploits the working (proletariat) classMaterialist: Understanding the economical & physical basis for society (in Marxism)Dialectics:Where ideas & thoughts throughout history come up against each other, and, from the class of ideas/economic processes, a new reality is born (in Marxism)Sustainable Development: Model of economic growth that seeks to use renewable resources so as not to destroy the environment in which we have to liveRecycling, re-using, cutting down, new inventionsPropaganda: Spreading of information, true or otherwise, for the purpose of aiding a cause or to make an audience react in a certain way



Caliphate: Government inspired by Islam that rules over its subjects using Islamic lawSharia Law: Sacred law of IslamJihad: (two meanings)1) A moral struggle/ a struggle for righteousness2) A form of holy warISM’SCapitalism: Economic system where production & distribution of goods relies on private capital & investmentSystem that rewards competitiveness & efficiency Communism: A political theory based on writings of Marx & Engels, that adopts class conflict to form a system where all property is publicly owned & each citizen works to his or her own best ability & is compensated equitablyUtilitarianism: A branch of political thought that states that the worth of a particular action is determined by its contribution to overall utility, meaning the balance of happiness & unhappiness in societyLiberalism: Calls for equal rights & freedoms for all human individuals

• Progress• Rights/freedoms – LIBERTY • Self-determination

Nationalism:• Seeks the separation of nations from eachother• Seeks to protect political institutions & mechanisms that ensure that nations are

prosperous• Most common: Demands by certain groups for independence & sovereignty; ex. Quebec

Socialism:• Bourgeious vs. Proletariot• Marx• Humans are simply a part of society• Everyone deserves equal treatment no matter what• Attacks capitalism due to horrific factory and work life and living conditions due to it

Conservatism: Cautious, resistant to change in favour of established methods & lifestyles• Society is absolutely crucial to human development—MAIN difference to liberalism • Society is hierarchal in nature• Some preform more important functions in society than others• Traditions & customs• Social classes

Feminism: EQUAL RIGHTS FOR WOMEN• Jobs• Voting• Suffragette movement



Environmentalism: THE GREEN MOVEMENT\• Sustainable development• Arose in 1980s• Destruction of the biosphere is imminent unless we create change

Islamic Fundamentalism: Religious movements advocating a return to the “fundamentals” of Islamic religious textFascism:

• Nations should be organized with one leader who has absolute authority & makes all decisions

• This leader represents the will of the people --Structure of the state is hierarchal



Chapter 4: The Role of GovernmentROLE OF GOVERNMENT: 1) To provide necessary security for its citizens2) Concerns of welfare of citizens: Social conditions, opportunities & benefitsSovereignty: Recognition by other political authorities that a government is legitimate & rightful for a political communityLaissez-Faire: “To let be”—Economic theory that suggests that a reduction in political control would benefit the economic systemA “free market” systemCitizens could strive for their own pursuitsWould allow competition, persistence & self-interestCapitalistic**Libertarianism: Ideology based on freedom of speech, action & thought; the role of government should be limitedLiberal Democracy:1) Equality of political rights: Every member of society may participate in political events2) Political Participation: Distributes responsibilities among the ruling + others such as Interest groups3) Majority Rule: Recognizes that all votes are held equally, & the majority of votes governs4)Political Freedom: Citizens don’t have to participate but can if they choose to; CHOICE.Constitution: Sets out basic law for the country, outlines rights, & outlines the mechanisms of gov’tCanadian Constitution: ^ Does this, is composed of Constitution Acts of 1867 & 1982 + unwritten amendments & constitution elementsMonarchy: Form of government with monarch as head of stateTheocracy: Political system ruled by religious leadersAristocracy: Political system ruled by a hierarchical eliteDespot: Political leader who rules with absolute power & authorityJunta: Military government, usually a dictatorshipAuthoritarianism:Political system requiring absolute obedience to a constituted authorityCommon in many countriesDriven by powerful, wealthy elitesTotalitarianism: Authoritarian political system that not only controls most social interaction, but is also marked by a desire by the government to force its objectives & values on citizens in an unlimited mannerAuthoritarian + an emphasis on ideologyControl most social interaction, & desire to force gov’t objectives & values upon all citizens, unlimitedly INTENSE.Transitional Government:Political system in which the move from authoritarianism to liberal democracy results in elements of both, with a gradual change towards democracyGOVERNMENT IN CANADA

• Canada’s a CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY : British monarch grants ultimate authority to head of state

• Also a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY• Prime Minister heads Canadian gov’t



• Governor General represents the monarch within Canada• Each province has a Lieutenant Governor, but not Territories• Territories each have a Commissioner (represents the federal gov’t instead of the

monarch)• Canada’s also a PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY- the legislature (federal parliament)

has elected members (House of Commons)• Senate is not elected; Governor General, with advice from Prime Minister, appoints

members• Capitalist economy with large gov’t involvement



Chapter 5: Branches of GovernmentGovernment:The institutions and people responsible for carrying out the affairs and administration of a political systemThe Crown: Queen, Governor General, Lieutenant GovernorsMember of Parliament:Representative of voters in a parliamentary systemCabinet:Members of the executive level of government responsible for decision-making & administration of the bureaucracyCronyism:In politics, the practice of choosing or preferring friends or associatesNepotism: The practice of choosing or preferring relativesOpposition: One or more parties that are not part of government but keep the ruling power of the elected party on their toesThey vocally, constantly keep the ruling party in check even though they have no real powerElectorate: People in a political system with the right to vote in elections; enfranchised citizensBureaucrats: Those responsible for carrying out public policy; public employeesGov’ts make laws, oppositions criticize & look for improvements, judges interpret & advise, & bureaucrats implementExecutive: Usually the top level of government, or the leader; maintains leadership of the entire political system, and often reflects the leadership & preoccupation of the dominant political partyLegislative: Referring to a body of a political system with the responsibility to make laws, known as the legislatureJudiciary: Courts level of governanceReview, interpret, arbitrate (settle/determine)Congress: Legislative chamber of government in the United StatesSeparation of Powers: Division of powers among several institutions in government, (ex. Legislature/executive) to avoid concentration of authorityFusion of Powers: Political system where legislature & executive powers are combined, though specific powers may be granted to each levelPolitical Culture: Set of attitudes, beliefs & values that undermine any political systemQuestion Period: Time allotted in the House of Commons for members of the house to ask questions to the Prime Minister or Cabinet MinistersShouting match, 45 minutesMinisterial Responsibility:Principle in parliamentary systems that requires members of the political executive, both individually & as a group, to remain accountable to the legislatureWestminster System: British model of parliamentary representative governmentCaucus: Group of elected representatives, usually based on party membership, but which also may be grouped by race, gender, geographic representation, etc.Legitimation:Providing legitimacy or legal force/status to political decisions; in accordance with established or accepted standards & patternsBicameral: Legislative or parliamentary body with 2 assemblies ex. Canada’s Senate & House of CommonsUnicameral: Legislative or parliamentary body with 1 assemblyRepresentative Democracy: Political system in which voters elect others to act on their behalfCommon Law: Legal system where decisions are made on the basis of precedent, case law, or previous decisionsCivil Law: Legal system where legislative bodies enact laws through statutes, ordinances, & regulations



Veto: The blocking of/ refusal to endorse a decisionChecks & Balances: System of inspection & evaluation of different levels & branches of governments by othersFederalism: Form of governance that divides powers between the central government & regional governments; often, particular roles & capacities are given to regional governmentsConfederalism:Political system of divided powers where added power is given to the non-central governments, & limited authority & power is conferred to the central governmentPatriation/Repatriation: Process of transferring power from one government to anotherLEGISLATURE

• USA legislature is Congress- Splits power between legislative (congress) & executive (President)

• Canada legislature is Parliament- Mixed system legislature• British legislature is the Westminster model- Sovereignty/supremacy (legislative branch

is most powerful)• Set out laws• Control/scrutinize/audit the executive & the bureaucracies• Control gov’t budgets

− Charter of Rights & Freedoms- 1982, Repatriation − Canada practices common laws



Chapter 6: Political SystemsDecentralization: Process where power & authority is taken from the central government & conferred to non-central (ex. State, regional, provincial) governmentsThis divides power & responsibility among the land so that power isn’t just in a small group of handsDelegated Authority: Situation where some powers may be given to sub-national authorities by the national government in a unitary systemFederalism:Guaranteeing certain rights & responsibilities to certain areas of gov’tConfederalism: Giving most of the power to additional gov’ts and giving a limited amount to the centralCanada doesn’t really count because the majority of power is still in Ottawa**Unitary Systems: Political systems that concentrate political powers and authority within one central government, which is singularly responsible for the activities of the political unit, both domestic & foreignCriticisms:1) Less democratic because they don’t fulfill the wishes of other sections2) One central gov’t couldn’t possibly be in touch with alllll the citizens of the state3) The gov’t itself doesn’t reflect cultural diversitySolution: DEVOLUTION. Devolution: Political systems where some authority is given to regional governments, but the power to oversee, dismiss, or entrench these authorities is still held by the central governmentReserved Matters: Powers not given to the Northern Ireland Assembly, that may be transferred to the region at a later dateExcepted Matters: Powers not given to the Northern Ireland Assembly, that will remain permanently under the control of the central Government in WestminsterLander: “States” in GermanConcurrent Powers: When control is shared between provincial & federal levels of governmentsPeace, Order, & Good Government (POGG): Clause in the Canadian constitution that specifies that powers given to the provinces are reserved for the federal governmentReservation: When provincial legislation is put up for consideration by the federal cabinetDisallowance: When provincial legislation is rejected or vetoed by the federal cabinetDeclaratory Power: Federal government power to take control of any local project if it decides that this would be for the greater National goodCentralized Federalism: Process where federal gov’t increases its power relative to the provincesCooperative Federalism:Cooperation & coordination of policy between federal & provincial levelsExecutive Federalism: A generally conflictive relationship between the provinces & the federal gov’t when provinces attempt (often successfully) to achieve greater autonomy from the federal gov’t, which resists such attemptsConditional Grants: Funds given to provincial authorities but with controls & conditions on how the money can be spentEqualization Payments: Compensation given to more needy regions in a political system in order to create a general state of parityTransfer Payments: Funds given by the federal gov’t to provincial gov’ts on a conditional or unconditional basisUnconditional Grants: Payments from the federal gov’t that may be spent by the provinces in any way they see fit



FEDERALResponsible for:-Trade & commerce-Indian reserves-Fishing & coastal-Taxation-Unemployment-Military-Census & statisticsPROVINCIALResponsible for:-Hospitals-Asylums-Charities-Education-Prisons-Property/civil rights

SHARED-Agriculture-Immigration-Old age pensions



Chapter 7: Political Participation; Elections & PartiesSocialization: Process where individuals act in a social manner; the creation of social & political authority and rules to regulate behaviour so as to permit operation of social unitsParticipation in a social unit is a product of how we are socializedDirect Democracy: Political system in which citizens are directly involved in the decision-making process Indirect/Representative Democracy:Political system of representation in which citizens elect delegates to act on their behalfElection: A form of choosing governors where individual citizens cast their vote for candidates running for officeSuffrage: Granting of the right to voteIndependents: Candidates for office belonging to no political partyConstituencies: Territorial or geographical localities (ridings) represented by a political chosen through the electoral processEnumeration: The process of determining the number of individuals eligible to vote in a constituencyRotten Boroughs: In Britain, areas with very small populations & electorates that were given equal standing with normal-sized constituenciesPocket Boroughs: In Britain, areas where very small electorates were controlled by (or in the pocket of) the major local landownerGerrymandering: Controversial method of grouping together, or dividing, groups of voters in order to maximize or reduce their power—Ex. Ethnic minorities – Highly controversial Voter Apathy: Condition in which individuals do not vote, or do not follow the election process, because they believe elections do not affect or influence them, or that they themselves will have little influence over outcomes anywayBallot: Card used to cast a voteSuffragette: Female advocate of women’s right to voteVoter Turnout: Number of voters who show up to the polls on Election DayIn some countries if over ½ show up it’s considered a GOOD turnoutEducation & awareness can change thisAll people +18 in Canada can vote, including the mentally ill & prisoners. But many don’t.Compulsory Voting: System in which citizens have a legal obligation to vote in elections—ex. Brazil, Australia, TurkeyElection Platforms: Positions of political parties or individuals regarding issues and political intentionsSimple Plurality (First-past-the-post): Electoral system where the winner receives the most (but not necessarily a majority) of votesMinority Government: Government by party that received the most votes, but not exactly the majority of votes, in an election—Simply the result of how many parties are involved.Run-Off System (Two-Round System): A form of electoral system in which a first round of voting takes place & the two (or three) candidates receiving the most votes pass to a second round of voting to determine an outright winnerProportional Representation:Electoral system in which seats are designated according to the party’s popular vote; used in countries as a whole in order to institute proportions between votes allotted for all the parties



Party List: Voting system in which voters in multi-member constituencies choose from a list of candidates; parties are rewarded with a percentage of the seats available in each constituencySingle Transferable Vote (SFV): Voting system in which voters cast their ballot in multi-member constituencies, expressing their 1st& 2nd choice for candidates; the people who get sufficient votes from the 1st round are elected; however 2nd choices may be transferred & counted if all seats are not filled in 1st voteAdditional Member: Mix of simple plurality & proportional representation voting; voters elect a representative & also cast a vote for a political partyPolitical Party: Organization that seeks to gain & maintain political powerIdeology: Set or system of ideas that form the basis of a political or economic system & provide guidance & direction for political leadershipOne-Party System: Political system in which only 1 political party is allowed to form the government, or compete in electionsCompetitive Party System: Electoral system found in liberal democracies in which political parties are permitted to compete with one another for support from the electorateTwo-Party System:Competitive party system marked by 2 political partiesMulti-Party System: Competitive party system with more than 2 partiesCadre Party: Party created & directed by a small elite group; tends to control much power within legislaturesMass Party: Party organized in society at large, rather than within a government, that has public influence through the power of memberships, rather than in the hands of a small minority elite groupUmbrella Parties: Political parties that cover a wide range of ideologies & beliefs in society, with the idea of incorporating as many different groups in society as possibleMilitia Party: Party system with a centralized leadership system; often having martial leadership; frequently found in one-party systemsRecruitment Function: Role played by political parties to help bring new voters into the political processAttack Ads: Negative/aggressive television & media advertising by one political party or organization against anotherDirect Democracy: Political system in which citizens are directly involved in the decision-making processReferendum (Plebiscite): When citizens vote to express their opinions on a particular policy, the results of which will determine whether or not that policy is adopted by the government



Chapter 8: Political Socialization & CultureSymbols of Canada: Flag, beaver, maple leaf, national anthemPolitical Socialization: The process in which individuals are assimilated into political cultureEx. Singing the anthem … waving the flag … learning the history … votingPolitical Culture: Set of attitudes, beliefs, & values that underpin any political systemOpinion Poll: Investigation of public opinion conducted by interviewing a sample of citizensFourth Estate: Media (with the other 3 estates being clergy, nobles & commoners)Most persuasiveShows things we wouldn’t normally see, such as Iraq soldiers & inside ParliamentHelps advocateFollows conflictEditorial Line: Particular perspective on world events offered by news outletsNon-Governmental Organization (NGO): Non-profit group organized on a local, national or international levelThe Anti-Globalization Movement: Protests against things such as the World Bank, multi-national corporations, the Group of 8, & The World Trade MovementInterest Groups (Pressure Groups): Groups in a political system that seek to either alter or maintain the approach of government without taking a formal role in elections or seeking an official capacity in governmentEXAMPLES-Greenpeace-National Rifles Association-Commonwealth Fund (improving medi-care in the USA)Political Action Committees: Conglomerates of several interest groups to more effectively influence the decision-making processAssociational Interest Group: Interest group closely related to particular political objectives; Ex. Greenpeace (the environment)Non-Associational Interest Group: Interest group not closely related to, or not connected with, particular political objectivesAnomic Interest Group:Impromptu interest group that does not have a standard organized composition; formed to deal with short-term issuesLobbying:Method by which business/interest groups apply direct pressure to the executive, legislative, and bureaucratic branches of governmentPluralism:Society in which several groups (minority and majority) maintain their interests, and a number of concerns & traditions persistPolicy Community:Collection of actors who have a direct or indirect interest in an issueGov’t must be careful because the involvement of private actors can sway an issue. Ex. Bring more money to private than public sectorsCorporatism: Approach to governance that entails close cooperation and coordination among government, business & labour in the expectation that such activity will bring more stability to politics



CHAPTER 9: POLITICS IN DEVELOPED STATES− Developed World / Industrialized World / First World / North: Industrialized nations,

including Western Europe, North America, Japan, Australia, & New Zealand, that are part of a structurally integrated system of global capitalism

− Developing World: Less developed countries that are not part of a structurally integrated system of global capitalism

− Postwar Era: Period after World War II; anytime since 1945

− Political Economy: The phrase used before the term “Economics”… An approach that views political & economic spheres as harmonious & mutually dependent perceptions of the world; relationships between people, government, & the economy

− Welfare State: Political system that creates the means for individual protection and quality of life, such as health care, employment insurance, pensions, social programs for the elderly, children, and the unemployed

− Gross Domestic Product (GDP):Total value of goods & services produced in a country in one year

− DC: Developed Country

− Post-Industrial: Developed economies that maintain a high-technology or high-value economy

− Colonialism: Exploitation of weaker countries by stronger ones for political, strategic, or resource interests

− Post-Colonialism:Following a period of colonial rule

− Autarky: Condition of complete self-sufficiency and isolation from the rest of the system*Big during the inter-war period

− Inter-war Period:In the years 1919-1939, between World Wars I and II

− Bretton Woods Agreement:Postwar system of fixed exchange rates & heavy controls on private banks & other financial institutions so that their roles in international finance would be limited

− Repatriation: To restore or bring back to a native land

− Parliament:Legislature in Westminster form of government

− Member of Parliament: Representative of voters in a parliamentary system



− North-Atlantic Triangle:Geographic region of Canada, the US & the European Union; most significant & strategic modes of interaction for each other; historically, refers to the relationships between Canada, the US, & Great Britain

− Middle Power: Country that does not have great power or superpower status but has significant influence in international relationsIE. Canada!

− Separation of Powers: Division of powers among several institutions in Gov’t (ex. legislature, executive) to avoid concentration of power

− Republic:Political unit which supreme power is held by the people or elected representatives of the peopleUS & France

− Checks & Balances:System of inspection & evaluation of different levels & branches of gov’t by others

− Indirect Democracy:Political system of representation in which citizens elect a delegate to act on their behalf

− Electoral College:In the US, officials chosen from each state based on population who then directly elect the president & vice president

− Judicial Review:Power of the courts to interpret the constitution, varying from the ability to resolve disputes between levels of government in federal systems to the ability to annul legislative & executive actions outright

− Regimes:Rules & decision-making procedures

− Transatlantic Bargain:Postwar arrangement whereby former great powers of Europe conceded to American leadership in exchange for US support of economic & military stability of Europe

− Hegemon:One country with inordinate capability to uphold & protect the system (US)

− Recession:Decline in economic productivity or affluence; specifically, a decline in GDP for two or more consecutive quarters

− Neoconservative:Advocate or in favour of return to conservative values or policies

JAPAN• Bad location (one of the most robust & volatile in the world)• Constitutional monarchy with an Emperor



• Industrialized, developed• Large economic/international strength• HUGE population• TINY geographic area• Not many resources- relies on imports for most needs• No military at all

− Diet:Japanese Parliament

− Corporatism:Approach to governance that entails close co-operation & coordination among government, business, & labour in the expectation that such activity will bring more stability to the political economy

− Yoshida Doctrine:Postwar Japanese political & economic policy to establish a more non-interventionist role in international affairs , support the US as hegemon in the global system, deepen links with the Americans, & focus on the domestic economy of Japan as a means of reassembling power & influence; named after Japan’s postwar prime minister, Shigeru Yoshida

− Protectionism:Tendency of countries to safeguard their own economic sectors or industries using tariffs, quotas, or other forms of trade & investment legislation

− Keiretsu: A business group or set of companies found in Japan that work together in decision-making & production to provide increased benefits for all

− North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA):An agreement whereas Canada, the US & Mexico have opened their trade markets to each other

− Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC):Group for promoting open trade & economic cooperation among Asia-Pacific economies

− Functionalism:Collective approach by countries to provide full range of social & welfare services through functionally specific international organizations

European Union• Regional integration of 27 European states• Immigration makes it diverse• HUGE geographic area• LARGE population• Strong militaries• Many resources

− Institutionalism:Belief in utility of institutions to provide collective goods



− Treaty of Paris:European treaty of April 1951 that created the European Coal & Steel Community

− European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC):First institutional version of European integration (1951) involving Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, West Germany & Italy

− Common Market:An economic arrangement among states intended to eliminate barriers that inhibit the movement of factors of production—labour, capital, &technology—among it’s members

− Supranational: International organization or union where decision-making is shared by all members

− European Economic Community (EEC): Second institutional version of European integration (1958) involving Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, West Germany & Italy

− European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM):Community created to govern atomic energy in Europe, entered into force in 1958

− Treaties of Rome:European Treaty of 1958 that created the European Economic Community& the European Atomic Energy Community

− Common Agricultural Policy (CAP):European Union program that provides economic benefits to agriculture in all countries in order to permit stable pricing & profits for agricultural producers

− European Parliament: Parliamentary assembly for the European Union

− Council of the European Union: Main decision-making institution of the EU, made up of Ministers from the EU’s national government

− European Commission:Responsible for implementing activities mandated by the European Parliament & Council

− Court of Justice: European Union court

− Single European Act: European removal of ‘non-tariff barriers’ to the free movement of goods, services, capital, & labour

CANADA• Liberal democracy• North Atlantic Triangle• NAFTA



• NATO• ^ World leader on the importance of International organizations• Middle Power• Great geographically- borders 3 oceans & has lots of space/land for agriculture• Un-crowded population• Decent military• Many resources

USA• 3rd largest area• 4th largest population• Huge military• Hegemon (superpower)• Indirect democracy• Freedom, good quality of life, high human development• Capitalist economy• Great access to foreign affairs• Good geographic location (borders 2 oceans), huge area of land• Many resources• Undisputed leader in the International system• Many wars though…. bad



CHAPTER 10: POLITICS IN DEVELOPING STATES− Less Developed Countries (LDCs): Countries that may be characterized by the

following: Low levels of per-capita income, high inflation & debt, large trade deficits, low levels of socioeconomic development, a lack of industrialization, or underdeveloped financial or legal systemsTwo main: Mexico & China(PG. 257- 268)

− Third World / South: (Largely Cold War) Categorized of less developed nations that are not part of a structurally integrated system of global capitalism

− Emerging Markets: Poorer economies with potential for future growthCHINA *

− Human Development:Combined measurements of income, life expectancy & literacyThese factors increase an individual’s freedom to control their own lifeTOP COUNTRIES: Norway, Australia, Canada, IcelandBOTTOM COUNTRIES: Rwanda, Liberia, Guinea, Ethiopia

− Human Rights: Rights granted to people on the basis of being human, not to be denied by government; includes rights to life, liberty, information & religion, as well as economic, social, political, constitutional & legal rights

− Legitimacy: Factors needed to make a country recognizable as being a good place to live in the eyes of the peopleFACTORS: Democracy, a stable& reliable legal system, security, high human development, restraints on non-legitimate uses of violence, human rights being followed, public education, health care, gender equalities, etc.

− Human Rights Abuses: Maltreatment of human rights

− Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs): Countries benefitting from external trade relationships, growing export markets, & burgeoning industrial developmentMany in Asia

− Sustainable Development: Model of economic growth that seeks to use renewable resources so as not to destroy the environment in which human beings have to live

− Kuznets Effect: Economic formula that demonstrates that as a country develops economically, income distribution will become more unequal before it becomes more equal; named after Simon Kuznets, the Russian-American who formulated this concept This means that in the short-medium term, developing countries will develop a widening gap in the rich & poor^ One of the main problems for Mexico nowadays

− Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Governing political party in China, founded in 1921 as part of a revolutionary movement



− Great Leap Forward: Chinese program of economic policies designed to revolutionize rural production by replacing private ownership of land with communes, in which all agricultural production was to be sold to the state

− Open Door Policy: Approach taken by Chinese gov’t starting in the late 1970s to introduce the Chinese economy (and by extension of the political system) to the Western World

− Special Economic Zones: Regions in China with different economic regulatory controls & more independence; meant to spur economic growth

− PartidoRevolucionarioInstitucional (PRI): Institutional Revolutionary Party of Mexico

− Patronage: Awarding of key government positions to favoured & loyal supporters

− Sexenio: Six-year term for the Mexican presidency

− Political Cohabitation:Political cooperation among parties without forming a coalition

− Political Gridlock: Lack of political progress because of entrenched differing of opinions

− PEMEX:Petroleos de Mexicanos—Mexico’s national oil company

− Portfolio Investment: Acquisition of shares (stocks) in a corporate actor for the purpose of profit; does not imply ownership

− Foreign Direct Investment:Investment in real foreign assets, such as domestic structures, equipment, & organizations



CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL POLITICS & FOREIGN POLICY− International Politics/Relations: The study of foreign policy & relations among states &

other actors at the international levelActors compete in a structured environment for a limited # of resourcesThere are many types of actors (military, economic, cultural, organized, unorganized, etc.)There’s a clear separation between those with power & those without

− Nation-State:Autonomous political unit of people who share a predominant common culture, language, ethnicity or historyEx. An Aboriginal community

− Global Village:The term used to describe the “shrinking” of the world, largely due to modern communications, into a more interconnected place where all people have a closer relationship& more frequent contactEvents happening on one side of the world have instant repercussions on the otherHowever, we need to remember how greatly we’re divided from the rest of the world

− G8:Group of 8;formally G7; major economic actors: US, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Canada, Italy, Japan, Russia

− NATO:North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationUnites North America & Western Europe (against Communism, protected from the Soviet Union until the late 1980s)Founded in 1949In 1993, NATO invited Eastern European states to join them in the Partnership for Peace (PFP)^ Increased political/military strength in Europe, & disabled threats for warNow has 28 membersThe world’s largest & most important security organization (began a mission in Afghanistan in 2003)

− Sovereignty: No other international actor, not even the United Nations, can override the rights of self-determination & authority within the territory of each individual state

− Foreign Policy:Foreign diplomatic relations & policies of a country beyond its bordersThe manner in which individual states present themselves at the International level

− Patriotism: “I am Canadian!”

− Nationalism: Culture, race, religion, language, forms of gov’t, etc.

− Authoritarian:A form of political rule based on absolute obedience to a constituted authorityThreats & fear



− Totalitarianism:Authoritarian political system that not only controls most social interaction, but is also marked by a desire by the gov’t to force its objectives & values on citizens in an unlimited manner

− International System:A system of 2 or more actors that interact regularly using established processes in given issue areas in the global arena

− European Union: The economic & political union of 27 European states

− Francophonie:International linguistic organization based on shared French language & humanist values

− African Union:International organization founded to promote cooperation among the independent nations of Africa

− Relative Power:Method of distinguishing the comparable strength of a political unit by contrasting it with anotherEx. Military power of the US vs. Canada’s resources—US would win this comparison because this power is more easily extended Internationally

− Sub-systemic:International groupings or relations among states that do not include all actorsEx. NAFTA (Only includes North American actors)

− Units of Analysis:Entities being studied in politics; the “what” or “whom” as the basis of analysis

− International Governmental Organizations (IGOs):Institutions formed by 3 or more countries that have grouped together for a common purpose, including economic, social, cultural, or politicalEx. The United Nations (A bunch of states gathered together to work towards a common goal that could not be achieved individually—ie. International insecurity, world hunger, world debt.)

− International Organizations:An international grouping, governmental or non-governmental, with activities in several states Ex. Red Cross, Doctors without Borders, Amnesty International, United Nations(Non-governmental are NGOs)

− Gross National Product:Total value of goods & services produced in a country in 1 year, + total of net income earned abroadShows importance in foreign economies

− Globalization:The intensification of economic, political, social & cultural relations across borders After WW2



Major shifts in economies & trade/monetary relationsIndustrializationMany countries decided to drop tariffs/taxes on trades; originally developed the GATT, which was then enveloped by the WTOA long process- economic globalization, political globalization, etc.

− General Agreement on Tariffs & Trade (GATT):Originally intended only as a temporary arrangement when the International Trade Organization failed; became the world’s permanent trade regime & was later subsumed under the WTO

− World Trade Organization (WTO):Created in 1995 as a forum for promoting free trade between nations in goods & services

− Fixed Exchange Rate System: System in which states agree upon set values for their currencies in terms of other national currenciesSometimes unrealistic, such as after WW2

− Floating Exchange Rate System: System in which the market decides the relative values of national moniesCurrencies are exchanged on a basis of supply & demand conditions

− International Monetary Fund (IMF):Postwar institution designed to help stabilize currency exchange rates by loaning countries money to meet International currency demands , thereby keeping the supply & demand stable

− Multilateralism:Integration or coordination of policies or decision-making by 3 or more nation-states Necessary to regulate states of affairs

− Political Globalization:Political processes that span across National borders, & frequently circumvent them entirely

− Cold War (1):A period of rhetorical hostility not marked by violence; most often referenced to the period of 1945-91 that existed between the alliance systems centered on the US & Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)Both countries had different opinions about how the world should workSoviet Union wanted socialism; centralized economies, to re-distribute wealth in an orderly mannerUS wanted economic opportunity, political freedom, & international liberalismBoth had mass amounts of nuclear weapons, which kept fear, but neither ever attacked

− Boycott:Refusal to deal with another political community often involving political, economy, or cultural relationsIE. During the Cold War, the US boycotted all international relations with any allies of the USSR



− Détente (2):Warming of relations

− Rapprochement(3):Reconciliation

− Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development (OECD):International organization coordinating governments’ approach to economic, social & governance challenges of a globalized economyOriginal, fairly simple model of wealth in the International systemHighly industrialized—States & their allies against the rest of the worldRelationship is far more complicated today, however

− Balance of Power:Situation in International politics where states strive to achieve an equilibrium of power in the world in order to prevent any other country or coalition of countries from dominating the system

− Realpolitik:Pragmatic approach to world politics; countries should practice balance-of-power politics

− Realist Approach: Views say that states are driven by a desire for economic/military powerWe should follow policies that maximize power & avoid policies that overstep powersConflict is always bad

− Structural Anarchy:In International relations, the assumption that no higher authority exists over the nation-stateThere is no world government that can tell individual states what to do; therefore, they’re ultimately responsible to make their own decisions & solve their own problems

− Structural Realism / Neorealism: A “new” realism approach that views international relations from a systematic approach where states are constrained by the international structureEach state tries to do the same thing – gain power – but the system limits their individual choices

− Zero-sum Game:Political or economic situation where whatever is gained by one side is lost by the other, so the net change is always zeroLiked by realists, but is misdirected & self-defeating

− Liberalism:View of politics that favours liberty, free trade, & moderate social & political changePrides itself on cooperation, not competition

− Positive Sum:Relationship between 2 or more entities where results as a sum, are better as a result of that relationship—liberal approach



− Liberal Institutionalism:International relations theory that suggests that international institutions make cooperation more likely & advantageous

− Regimes:Rules & decision-making procedures

− Communism:Political theory, based on writings of Marx & Engels, that espouses class conflict to form a system where all property is publicly owned & each citizen works to his or her own best ability & is therefore compensated equally

− Imperialism: Extending one country’s authority over another through conquest or political and/or economic controlMost severe stage of Capitalism

− Capitalism:Economic system where production & distribution of goods relies on private capital & investmentBourgeoisie: Rich controllersProletariat: Working poor

− Superstructure:Political, legal, cultural, & religious justifications, structures, & practicesIe. The superstructure of a state is all these things combined

− Dialectical Materialism:Marxist notion that material forces affect politics through social & economic change

− Perception:Awareness or understanding through use of the human sensesWorld politics are often based on perception rather than reality

− Behaviouralism:Perspective that concentrates on the “tangible” aspects of political life, rather than values; the goal was to establish a discipline that was scientific & objectiveUses quantitative methods to explain why something has happened & under what circumstances they could happen againTest whether similar or divergent patterns occur between political systems over time

Diplomacy: International negotiation & discussions that take place on an official—and sometimes unofficial—level between & among statesDepends on the severity—Could be relating to war, economics, culture)Few to many different actors can be involved

Power Equation:

Pp = (C + E + M) * (S * W)Pp = Perceived PowerC = Critical Mass: Size, location, population, natural resourcesE = Economic CapabilityM = Military Capability



S = Strategic PurposeW = Will to Pursue National Strategy



CHAPTER 12: INTERNATIONAL SECURITY− Security: Freedom from danger or injury

Most states try to protect & help their citizensPrimary concernThis is why wars & conflicts get so much media attentionFelt when there’s low threat probability

− Insecurity: Threat of danger or injuryIn many states it’s a way of lifeReal vs. imagined threatsMost peacekeeping & helpful things that states do are kept from the mediaDrama & uncertainty sells because we as individuals are constantly concerned for our safety

− Geopolitics: Relationship of political relationships to the geographical location of a stateHelps with alliances, trade, resources, strength, population, etc. which all contribute to securityEX. Canada: Beside the most powerful, close to the mother country, close enough for free trade, can afford high population, etc.; resources & location=one of the highest standards of living

− International Anarchy: Condition where there is no “world government”; the sovereign nation-state is the highest authority in the international system…Each state is its own major authority & power, & their security is based on how they deal with that responsibility & how they relate with other statesEach state is insecure in its own ways

Human Security: Entails the protection of a quality of life/well-being; protects from threats of human rights violations, resource/environmental scarcities, mass migration: ex. A person living in impoverished Africa would have human security issues but not necessarily International security issues such as terrorism or war

− Security Dilemma:Conception in world politics that states are both protected by the existence of states, and threatened by themEx. States rely on things such as alliances & trade agreements with other states, but they’re also the reason states need to share their valued economies, resources, etc. with each otherThey can make a state look good or bad in comparison to certain aspects

− Conflict: A state of actual or perceived incompatible interestsCould be over problems with territory, resources, religion, culture, ethnicity, alliances, or economicsUsed as a means of achieving goals & solving problems in society—Very effectiveCan mean threats, debates, disagreements or differences of opinion



− War: Use of armed forces in conflict with enemySerious consequence of conflictJust wars: Must have rules & must be waged accordingly to themAll states are at risk of war, no matter how stableMost wars take place in the developing world

− Terrorism: Strategy of violence designed to bring about political change by instilling fear in the public at large9/11 US terrorism attacks were the largest in history; almost 3000 killedLed to war in Afghanistan & renewed conflicts in IraqTerrorism is politically motivated & seeks change

− Genocide: Deliberate & systematic killing of a group based on their ethnicity, nationality, culture or race

− Humanitarian Interventionism: Assuming the responsibility of saving people from being killed, even in foreign countries

− Negotiation: Bargaining process among parties to seek a commonly agreed-upon resolution of a disputeA management tool, less likely to cause adverse effects for either side; Offers the help of peaceful resolution

− Arbitration: An authoritative resolution to a dispute made by an impartial person, agreed upon by all partiesA management tool, less likely to cause hostile effects for either side; Offers peaceful resolution

− Mediation: Voluntary process using an impartial party to bring about a resolution to a disputeA management tool, less likely to cause adverse effects for either sideOffers the help of peaceful resolution

− Peacekeeping: Military & civilian personnel in a conflict area used to stop or contain hostilities or supervise the carrying out of a peace agreementMostly a tool used after the conflict has already escalated to warInvolves the use of lightly armed soldiers put in the areas of active fightingTo provide a forceful peace until a long-term resolution can be agreed uponOne of the most positive contributions to international stability in the last century

− The UN: United Nations, formed in 1945An organization that is a political forum, helps mediate conflicts, encourage economic sustainability & development, and provides security

Canada in Afghanistan• Began a month after 9/11



• Part of their alliance to the US• Al-Qaeda had its headquarters in Afghanistan• Taliban controlled the land• In response to 911, US & its allies invaded• Until 2005, Canada was mostly in Kabul (the Capital city) where things were more calm

& Canada’s involvement included aid, assistance, political relations, training & military operations

• After 2005, they moved into Kandahar, which was much more violent & many more casualties & deaths began to occur

• The Kandahar mission involved more conventional battle operations with the Taliban• Canada did not look like a peacekeeping country at this point• As part of NATO, however, Canada is required to assist when an ally is attacked • Roadside/suicide bombs getting lots of attention in the media• The result of the war will say a lot about if rich nations truly can help to change under-

developed nations for the better



CHAPTER 13: INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY− Interdependence:“Mutual dependence”; a method of measuring dependent relationships

among countries, based on the level of sensitivity]y& vulnerability one country has with respect to anotherCan be economic, political, security-based, environmental, over resources, etc.

The second half of the 20th century saw unprecedented levels of economic cooperation between the great powers—International organizations played a large part: GATT, WTO, NATO, etc.

− Trade Protection:Tendency of countries to safeguard their own economic sectors or industries, using tariffs, quotas, or other forms of trade & investment legislation Happens when economies are exposed to open International economic competition

− Tariff:A duty placed on a particular categorization of imported or exported goods or servicesReduce the price advantage of foreign goods

− Subsidies: Payments made by government to businesses to compensate them for inefficiencies & lack of competitivenessCan supplement a country’s income

− Non-Tariff Boundaries (NTBs):Imposing national content requirements on certain products or applying quotas to their importSuch as import licensing

− Corn Laws: Set of laws regulating the trade in grains in Great Britain; the abolition of these laws in 1846 opened up British agricultural trade

− Reciprocity: Complimentary or mutual behaviour among 2 or more actors; view that liberalization of trade would be beneficial for all parties concerned if cooperative policies were pursued

− Non-Discrimination:Principle that no member of an organization be excluded from the benefits that one member state extends to another

− Free Trade:International trade among political systems unimpeded by restrictions or tariffs on imports or exports

The Main Promises of the GATT: Reciprocity, Non-discrimination, Multilateralism, & Free trade.

− UNCTAD: The United Nations Conference on Trade & DevelopmentAttempts to link issues of trade & economic development, speaking to developing states’ concerns about agriculture & commodities



− Uruguay Round:Longest round of GATT negotiations, eventually leading to establishment of the WTO

− Dispute Resolution:Process by which trading disputes between member states can be resolved by an impartial tribunal, thus preventing such disputes from becoming too political or controversial

− Regionalism: Process of economic or political integration in a defined territorial area

− International Financial & Monetary System: The set of rules, institutions & agreements governing the flow of money in the International system; the relative values of currencies in the settling of accountsProvides currency & credit to the economy like a root provides nutrients for a plantInternationally agreed-upon rules that dictate the relative values of national currencies, since there’s several different currencies worldwide

The G20 is led by 5 important LDC’s: China, India, Brazil, Mexico & South Africa

− Bretton Woods Agreement:Postwar (1944) system of fixed exchange rates & heavy controls on private banks & other financial institutions so that their role in International finance would be limitedThey wanted to avoid competitiveness in trade/financial institutions because they had just seen problems like such lead to warThe World Bank was created, & this left little room for private institutions to play a role in International financeIn 1971, the US abandoned this system & from 73’ on, the World’s major currencies have been floating

− Marshall Plan:US gov’t loan program to help the devastated countries of Western Europe after WWII

− Bilateral Aid:Military or development assistance given by one country to another

− Non-system: The system of International money & finance that replaced the Bretton Woods System so called because it lacked explicit rules

− Deregulation: Removal of gov’t controls in an economic sector

− Debt Crisis: A situation in which a country is unable to meet its International debt obligations; sometimes used to refer to the Latin American Debt Crisis of 1980sBanks stopped working with these countries, thus their debt became even worse—solution in 1989

− Liquidity:Rate of which assets may be converted to cash



− Economic Regionalism: The tendency of countries in the same geographic region to intensify economic relations; both NAFTA & the European Union are examples

− Seven Sisters:The major oil companies in the mid-twentieth century; Esso, Shell, British Petroleum, Mobil, Chevron, Gulf, & Texaco

− OPEC: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting CountriesSaudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait & Venezuela (world’s most important oil producing countries)Stating in 1973 they manipulated the prices of oil by HUGE amounts & made enormous amounts of money for their own states this wayPrices went from 2$/barrel to 11$, to 41$, to 10$, to 150$! (Inflation)Global recession slashed the demand for energy in 2008 & prices went down again

− Multinational Corporations:Corporate bodies that operate in more than 1 countryEx. Nike, Coca Cola, Wal-Mart.


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