chapter 10 motivation

7/28/2019 Chapter 10 MOTIVATION

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Chapter 9, Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, and Nancy Langton,Fundamentals of Management, Fifth Canadian Edition 9-2Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Canada

LEARNING OUTLINEFollow this Learning Outline as you read and study this chapter What Is Motivation?

Define motivation

Explain motivation as a need-satisfying process

Early Theories of Motivation

Describe the five levels in Maslows hierarchy and how Maslows

hierarchy can be used in motivational efforts

Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation

Describe Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory

Explain Herzbergs views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction


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LEARNING OUTLINE (contd)Follow this Learning Outline as you read and study this chapter Current Issues in Motivation

Discuss the need for flexibility with a diverse workforce

Discuss the challenges managers face in motivating individuals

from diverse cultures, minimum wage employees, and

professional and technical employees

Describe the role of money, employee recognition, pay-for-

performance, and stock option programs Describe how flexible work, job sharing, and telecommuting

are part of work-life programs

Suggestions For Motivating Employees


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What Is Motivation? Motivation

The processes that account for an individualswillingness to exert high levels of effort to reachorganizational goals, conditioned by the effortsability to satisfy some individual need

Effort: a measure of intensity or drive

Direction: toward organizational goals

Need: personalized reason to exert effort

Motivation works best when individual needs arecompatible with organizational goals


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Motivation Defined as the psychological forces within a person

that determine:1) direction of behaviour in an organization;

2) the effort or how hard people work;

3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.

Intrinsic Motivation:behaviour performed for its own sake.

Motivation comes from performing the work. Extrinsic Motivation:behaviour performed to acquire

rewards.

Motivation source is the consequence of an action.


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Outcomes and Inputs Regardless of the source of motivation, people seek

outcomes.

Outcome:anything a person gets from a job. Examples include pay, autonomy, accomplishment.

Organizations hire workers to obtain inputs:

Input:anything a person contributes to their job.

Examples include skills, knowledge, work behaviour.

Managers thus use outcomes to motivate workers to provideinputs.


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The Motivation Equation


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Drives

SearchBehaviour

Tension Reduction

of Tension

Satisfied

Need

The Motivation Process (Exhibit 10-1)

Unsatisfied

Need


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Chapter 9, Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, and Nancy Langton,Fundamentals of Management, Fifth Canadian Edition9-10

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education Canada

Early Theories of Motivation

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X

Employees have little ambition, dislike work, avoidresponsibility, and require close supervision

Theory Y Employees can exercise self-direction, desire

responsibility, and like to workMotivation is maximized by participative

decision making, interesting jobs, and goodgroup relations


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Theory X

Employees

Dislike Work

Avoid Responsibility

Little Ambition

Theory Y

EmployeesEnjoy Work

Accept Responsibility

Self-Directed


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Theory X

1.People are lazy.

2.People lack ambition anddislike responsibility.

3.People are self-centered/selfish.

4.People resist change.

5.People are gullible and not

very bright.

Theory Y

1.People are energetic.

2.People are ambitious andseek responsibility.

3.People can be selfless.

4.People want to contribute tobusiness growth and change.

5.People are intelligent

Figure 11.1: A comparison of McGregors theory X and theory Y

Assumptions about Human Nature

Prepared by Dr. Nguyen Huu Than


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Important Theories of MotivationNeeds Theories

of Motivation

MaslowsHierarchy ofneeds

Herzbergs 2Factor Theory

Hackman andOldhams JobCharacteristics

Model

ProcessTheories ofMotivation

VroomsExpectancyTheory

Goal SettingTheory

Adams EquityTheory

ReinforcementTheory


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Needs TheoryPeople are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs.

A need is a requirement for survival and well being.

To motivate a person:

1) Managers must determine what needs worker wants satisfied.

2) Ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well.

Several needs theories exist. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs.

Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Theory


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Copyright 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Early Theories Of Motivation Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)

There is a hierarchy of five human needs; as each need becomes

satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Physiological: food, drink, shelter, sex

Safety: physical safety

Social: affiliation with others, affection, friendship

Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, and achievement);External (status, recognition, and attention)

Self-actualization: personal growth and fulfillment


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Chapter 9, Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, and Nancy Langton,Fundamentals of Management, Fifth Canadian Edition9-16


Early Theories of Motivation Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Needs were categorized as five levels

Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before theycan satisfy higher order needs

Satisfied needs will no longer motivate

Motivating a person depends on knowing at what levelthat person is on the hierarchy

Hierarchy of needs Lower-order (external): physiological, safety Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization


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Exhibit 10.2 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self-

Actualization

Realize ones

full potential

Use abilities

to the fullest

Esteem Feel goodabout oneself Promotions& recognition

BelongingnessSocial

interaction, love

Interpersonal

relations, parties

Safety Security, stability Job security,health insurance

PhysiologicalFood, water,

shelter

Basic pay level

to buy items

Need Level Desc r ipt ion Examples

Low er level needs mu st b e sat is f ied before higher needs are addressed.

(Adapted)


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Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene TheoryMaslow saw motivation as operating across a single continuum from physiological

needs to self-actualization needs. The Herzberg theory proposes that there are in

reality two significantly different classes of factors and thus two different

continuums. One class, referred to as hygienefactors, operates across a

continuum ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.


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Early Theories of Motivation (contd) Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by

different factors Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors thatcreate job dissatisfaction

Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that createjob satisfaction

Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does notresult in increased performance

The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, butrather no satisfaction


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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory


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Exhibit 10.3 Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

AchievementRecognitionWork ItselfResponsibilityAdvancementGrowth

Motivators Hygiene Factors

SupervisionCompany PolicyRelationship withSupervisorWorking ConditionsSalaryRelationship with PeersPersonal Life

Relationship withSubordinatesStatusSecurity

Extremely Satisfied Extremely DissatisfiedNeutral


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Hygiene Factors (Needs)

Pay

Status Security

Working conditions

Fringe benefits

Policies andadministration practices

Interpersonal relations

Environment

Motivation Factors (Needs)

The Job

Meaningful and challenging

work Recognition for accomplishment

Feeling of achievement

Increased responsibility

Opportunities for growth andadvancement

The Job itself

Figure 10. 4: Motivation and Hygiene Factors (p. 147)

Dissatisfaction No Job SatisfactionNo Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction


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Maslows Hierarchy

Herzbergs Hygiene Factors

Self-Actualization NeedsRealizing ones potential

growth using creative talents

Esteem NeedsAchievement recognition and status

Social NeedsLove, belonging, affiliation, acceptance

Safety Needs

Protection against danger,freedom from fear, security

Physiological Needs

Survival needs, air, water, clothing, shelter, and sex

Interpersonal Relations

Company Policies and

Administative Practices Working Conditions

Supervision

Status

Job Security

Pay

Benefits

Herzbergs Motivators

Achievement

Work itself

Recognition

Responsibility

Opportunity for Growth and

Advancement

Figure 11.3: Maslow and Herzberg Related (p. 149)


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Contemporary Theories Of Motivation

McClellands Theory of Needs

There are three acquired needs that motivate work

performance

Need for achievement (nAch)

Need for power (nPow)

Need for affiliation (nAff)


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The Three-

Needs Theory

Affiliation

(nAff)

Achievement

(aAch)Power

(nPow)


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Contemporary Theories Of Motivation Three-needs theory (McClelland)

The needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are major

motives in work

Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to

a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way thatthey would not have behaved otherwise.

Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal

relationships.


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Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

A comprehensive theory of motivation that an

individual tends to act in a certain way, in the

expectation that the act will be followed by given

outcome, and according to the attractiveness of

that outcome to the individual.

The extent to which individuals are motivated toperform to get a reward of value to them is based on

their belief that their performance will result in the

reward they want.


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Expectancy Theory (contd) Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with

employee wants.

Addresses why employees view certain outcomes

(rewards) as attractive or unattractive.

Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors,

rewards, and organizational goals.

Is concerned with individual perceptions and the provision

of feedback.


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Expectancy Theory

3. Attractiveness relationship

1. Effort-performance relationship

2. Performance-rewards relationship

Individual

Effort

Individual

Performance

Individual

Goals

Organizational

Rewards

1 2

3

Figure 10.10: Simplitied Expectation Theory (289)


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Expectancy Theories of Motivation (pp. 153-154)

Victor Vroom developed an approach to motivation known as expectancy

theory that attempts to explainbehavior in terms of an individuals goals

and choices and the expectations of achieving these goals. It assumes

that people can determine which outcomes they prefer and make realistic

estimates of the chances of obtaining them. The key concepts of theexpectancy theory are that motivation depends on:

Expectancy - an individual's perception of the chances or probability that a particular outcome willoccur as a result of certain behavior.

Valence - the value an individual places on a specific outcome.Expectancy theory can be stated mathematically as follows:

Motivation = ExpectancyXValence.


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Both factors must be present before a high level of motivation can occur. In other

words, a high expectancy or a high valence alone will not ensure motivation. For

example, if an employee had a low expectancy (perceived little chance) of

receiving a pay increase but placed a high value on money, the employee would

not be highly motivated to work hard to obtain the increase.


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14

E P Expectancy

What is the probabilitythat I can perform at therequired level if I try?

P 0 Expectancy

What is the probabilitythat my good performancewill lead to desiredoutcomes?

Valence

What value do Iplace on thepotential outcomes

Effort Performance

Outcomes

(e.g., bonus, praise, feelingsof accomplishments)

Figure 11.5: Basic Components of Expectancy Theory

Source: Kathryn M. Bartol and David C. Martin,Management(New York:

McGraw-Hill, Inc.,1994) p. 386.


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Contemporary Theories of Motivation(contd)

Expectancy Theory

Individuals act based on the expectation that a givenoutcome will follow and whether that outcome isattractive

Key to the theory is understanding and managingemployee goals and the linkages among and betweeneffort, performance, and rewards

Effort: employee abilities and training/development

Performance: valid appraisal systems

Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs


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Exhibit 9.8 Simplified Expectancy Model

C

B

Individual

Effort

Individual

Performance

Organizational

Rewards

Individual

Goals

A

A

B C

= Effort-performance linkage

= Performance-reward linkage

= Attractiveness of reward


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Expectancy Relationships

(Linkages) Effortperformance

The perceived probability that exerting a given amount of

effort will lead to performance

Performancereward

The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to

the attainment of a desired outcome

Attractiveness

The importance placed on the potential outcome or reward

that can be achieved on the job.


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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (contd)

Expectancy Relationships

Expectancy (effort-performance linkage) The perceived probability that an individuals effort will result

in a certain level of performance

Instrumentality The perception that a particular level of performance will

result in attaining a desired outcome (reward)

Valence The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward

(outcome) to the individual


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Exhibit 9.9 Steps to Increasing Motivation

Improving Expectancy

Improve the ability of the

individual to perform

Make sure employees have skills

for the task.

Provide training.

Assign reasonable tasks and goals.

Improving Instrumentality

Increase the individuals belief that

performance will lead to reward

Observe and recognize performance.

Deliver rewards as promised.

Indicate to employees how previous

good performance led to greater

rewards.

Improving Valence

Make sure that the reward is

meaningful to the individual

Ask employees what rewards they

value.

Give rewards that are valued.


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Contemporary Theories Of Motivation(contd)

Equity theory (Adams)

Employees perceive what they get from a job situation

(outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and

then compare theirinput-outcome ratio with the input-

outcome ratios of relevant others.


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Equity Theory

Proposes that employees perceive what they get from a job

situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs) and

then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-

outcomes ratios of relevant others

If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity (fairness)

exists

If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists and the person

feels under- or over-rewarded

When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do something to

rebalance the ratios (seek justice)


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Equity Theory (contd)

Employee responses to perceived inequities:

Distort own or others ratios

Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes

Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or outcomes(seek greater rewards)

Choose a different comparison (referent) other (person,

systems, or self)

Quit their job

Employees are concerned with both the absolute andrelative nature of organizational rewards


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Equity TheoryPerceived Ratio

Comparison*

Employees

AssessmentOutcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Inequity (Under-Rewarded)

Equity

Inequity (Over-Rewarded)

*Where A is the emp loyee, and B is a relevant other or referent.


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Contemporary Theories Of Motivation:Equity Theory (contd)

Referent

In equity theory, the other persons, the systems, or the

personal experiences against which individuals compare

themselves to assess equity.

The choice of a particular set of referents is related to the

information available about referents as well as to the

perceived relevance.


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Chapter 9, Stephen P. Robbins, Mary Coulter, and Nancy Langton,Fundamentals of Management, Fifth Canadian Edition 9-45


Exhibit 9.7 Equity Theory

Person 1

Inequity, under-rewarded

Equity

Inequity, over-rewarded

Ratio of Output to Input Person 1 s Perception

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2


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Equity Theory When employees perceive an inequity they may:

Distort either their own or others inputs or outcomes.

Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or

outcomes.

Behave so as to change their own inputs or outcomes.

Choose a different comparison referent.

Quit their job.


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Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Reinforcement Theory

Behaviour is influence by consequences

Reinforcers are consequences that, when given

immediately following a behaviour, increases the

probability that the behaviour will be repeated


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Reinforcement theory looks at the relationship between

behaviour and its consequences.

Positive Reinforcement:people get desired outcomes when

they perform needed work behaviours. Positive reinforcers:pay raises, promotions.

Negative Reinforcement:manager eliminates undesired

outcomes once the desired behaviour occurs.

Worker performs to avoid an undesired outcome (Work harder oryou are fired).

In both types of reinforcement, managers must be carefulto link the right behaviours by workers to what the organization needs.


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Extinction:used when workers are performing behaviour

detrimental to the firm. Manager does not reward the behaviour and over time, the worker will stop

performing it. Punishment:used when the manager does not control the

reward the worker receives (perhaps it is outside the job). Manager administers an undesired consequence to worker (verbal

reprimands to pay cuts).

Punishment can lead to unexpected side-effects such as resentment, andshould be used sparingly.


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Contemporary Theories of Motivation(contd) Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

A framework for designing motivating jobs

Five primary job characteristics:

Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?

Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?

Task significance: how important is the job? Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder have?

Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?


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Job Design And Motivation

Job characteristics model (JCM)

Hackman and Oldhams job description model:

The five core job dimensions are skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Internal rewards are obtained when:

An employee learns (knowledge of results) through (feedback) that he

or she personally (experienced responsibility through autonomy of

work) has performed well on a task that he or she cares about

(experienced meaningfulness through skill variety, task identity,

and/or task significance).


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Core Job Dimensions Skill variety

The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the

worker can use a number of different skills and talents Task identity

The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and

identifiable piece of work

Task significance The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other

people


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Core Job Dimensions (contd)Autonomy

The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and

discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and indetermining the procedures to be used in carrying it out

Feedback

The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the

job results in the individuals obtaining direct and clear information

about the effectiveness of his or her performance


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Exhibit 9.6 Guidelines for Job Redesign

Source:J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work

(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.

Combine tasks

Form natural work units

Establish client relationships

Load v ertically

Open f eedback channels

Skill variety

Task identity

Task signif icance

Autonomy

Feedback

Suggested Action Core Job Dimension


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Current Issues in Motivation

Motivating a Diverse Workforce

Motivating a diverse workforce through

flexibility:

Men desire more autonomy than do women

Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work

schedules, and good interpersonal relations

Interesting work ranks high in importance to almost all

employees


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Motivating a Diverse Workforce

Flexibility

Not everyone sees their job the same way- whatmotivates me may not motivate you

Recognize differences

People are Different

Accommodate

Cultural Differences


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Current Issues in Motivation (contd) Motivating Minimum-Wage Employees

Employee recognition programs

Provision of sincere praise

Empowerment


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Motivating Professionals and Technical Workers

Characteristics of professionals:

Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise

Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer

Have the need to regularly update their knowledge

Dont define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm

Motivated by job challenges and organizational support oftheir work


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Motivating Professional andTechnical Employees

New assignments

Challenges Autonomy

Training and educational opportunities

Recognition Simplify non-work life


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Current Issues in Motivation (contd) Designing Effective Rewards Programs

The role of money Money is normally not an employees top priority

Employee recognition programs Giving personal attention and expressing interest, approval,

and appreciation for a job well done

Pay-for-performance

Variable compensation plans that reward employees on thebasis of their performance:

Piece rates, wage incentives, profit-sharing, and lump-sumbonuses


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Compensation Alternatives Broad-banding

Pre-set pay level, based on the degree to which competencies exist

and allow an employee to contribute to the organization.

Competency-based compensation A program that pays and rewards employees on the basis of skills,

knowledge, or behaviors they possess

Stock options

A program that allows employees to purchase company stock at a

fixed price and profit when company performance increases its

stock value.


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Competency-Based Compensation

Skills

Knowledge

Abilities

Behaviour

i.e.: leadership, decision making, problem

solving, etc.


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Pay-for-Performance

Piece rate

Gainsharing

Wage-incentive

Profit-sharing Bonuses


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Current Issues in Motivation (contd)

Improving Work-Life Balance Compressed workweek

Longer daily hours, but fewer days

Flexible work hours (flextime) Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch

and break times around certain core hours during which allemployees must be present

Job Sharing

Two or more people split a full-time job

Telecommuting

Employees work from home using computer links


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Entrepreneurs and Motivation Motivation for entrepreneurs is critical

Gradual process

Job redesign

Delegation

Employee empowerment is key motivational tool


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Employee Empowerment:

How Entrepreneurs Motivate Employees

Giving employees power by:

Allowing them to complete the whole job.

Having employees work together across departments andfunctions in the organization.

Using participative decision making in which employees

provide input into decisions.

Delegating decisions and duties, turning over theresponsibility for carrying them out to employees.

Redesigning their jobs so they have discretion over the way

they do their work.


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Additional Suggestions for

Motivating Employees

_ Recognize individuals differences

_ Match people to jobs

_ Use goals and make it attainable

_ Use recognition


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Further Suggestions for

Motivating Employees

_ Individualize rewards

_ Link rewards to performance

_ Check the system for equity

_ Dont ignore money

chapter 10 motivation

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