CHAPTER 15

GLADSTONE SOLOMON, TOBAGO

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIESFOR SUSTAINABLE BEEKEEPING

IN THE CARIBBEANThis Chapter aims to identify the challenges andopportunities facing beekeeping in the Caribbeanwithin the context of the social, economic andenvironmental dimensions of sustainability.1 TheCaribbean is the chain of islands stretching fromThe Bahamas in the North, to Trinidad in theSouth, plus the islands of Bermuda and the SouthAmerican countries of Guyana and Suriname.

Data will be presented on 12 of the24 Caribbean countries: Anguilla, Bermuda,British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada,Jamaica, St Kitts & Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent& The Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad &Tobago. It was sourced from presentations at theFirst and Second Caribbean BeekeepingCongresses that were held in Tobago inNovember 1998 (Collins & Solomon, 1999)and in Nevis in August 2000 (Anon, in press],and from primary sources in the region.

Social, economic and environmentalconditions in the Caribbean2

The global economy is experiencing changes that arecharacterised by the breaking up of traditionaltrading patterns and relationships, the emergence ofa new world economic order and an increasinginterdependence of nations. In the light of this theoptions for emerging and island economies in theCaribbean have led to many complex challenges.During the 1980s and well into the 1990s generalliving standards for most countries in the Caribbeandeclined as economic growth rates and real wagesdecreased sharply. High levels of unemployment andunderemployment, a widening of the gap betweenrich and poor, and the erosion of the middle classhave been recorded throughout the region.

Governments were increasingly challenged todevote more resources to debt servicing andissues of trade and international competitivenessat the expense of traditional development needsof its citizens and environmental considerations.

The inevitable results were a rise in levels ofpoverty, an increasing reliance on NGOs toprovide much-needed social services, andfurther deterioration of the natural environment.

The Caribbean is comprised of a numberof small states in terms of physical size,population and GDR While 'small is beautiful',small also has its challenges in terms ofcommunity perceptions of levelsof sufficiency, vulnerability and independence.Reliance on imports is often an economicimperative for Caribbean states. Furthermore,given its close location to the USA, theCaribbean is attracted and vulnerable to thesocio-economic values of that dominant worldpower. Cuba, of course, stands out as a notedexception to this general pattern.

Generally, the natural resources of the Caribbeanhave been poorly managed. While the largercountries of the region have been the mostprogressive in terms of the existence ofenvironmental institutions, legislation and itsimplementation, environment health throughoutthe Region has been threatened as a consequenceof the impact of population growth, new importedtechnologies and inadequate or non-existentenvironmental management systems. There isa lack of political will, finance and researchand a low priority regarding environmentalmatters in the Region.

Since the mid to late 1990s, trends in theCaribbean have pointed to high growth rates,new opportunities for public participation andsome improvement in the quality of life. Whileconditions have improved, the Region is not yetout of the woods. High and growing inequalities,both in the distribution of wealth and in accessto opportunities are evident.

If the Caribbean is to survive increasedglobalisation and to maintain stability and

1.1 am grateful to B/D for enabling me to contribute to this volume with funding from CTA, The Netherlands.

2.The information is based on UNDP (1996).

A Bees for Development publication 103

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE BEEKEEPING IN THE CARIBBEAN

sustained economic growth, a process oftransformation must be pursued that givesrecognition to the region's competitiveadvantages, while addressing its economic,social and environmental concerns. Beekeepingdevelopment is one way of pursuing this processof transformation with potentially beneficialeconomic, social and environmental effects.

Overview of beekeeping in the Caribbean

The differences in land mass and humanpopulation sizes and densities have implicationsfor an understanding of beekeeping diversityacross the Caribbean, especially when weconsider agro-ecological differences between thecountries and islands. The potential area that canbe devoted to habitat for bees varies enormously,as does the extent of the beekeeping industry ineach place, alongside pressure on land use andnatural resources. This variation is apparent infigures presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Size, human population and population

density of selected Caribbean countries and islands

Country/ Size (km2)Island

Anguilla

Bermuda

British VirginIslands

Cuba 110

Dominica

Grenada

91

54

153

860

751

345

Jamaica 10,999

Nevis

St Kitts

St Lucia

St Vincent &The Grenadines

Suhname 163

Trinidad 4

Tobago

TOTAL

93

176

616

388

,270

,828

300

Population Population(OOOs) density/km'

10

60

18

11,000

74

99

2,516

10

36

145

111

440

1,220

51

15,790

110

1,111

11899

99

287

229

108

205

235

286

3

253

170

The figures for bee colony numbers in Table 2refer to colonies in hives. There are feral colonieson many of the islands and honey hunting ispractised throughout the region, particularly inthe eastern Caribbean.

Large variation in the number of beekeepers andnumber of colonies per beekeeper means that there

are very different challenges facing the beekeepingsector in different parts of the Caribbean. A centralchallenge is how to remain commercially viable andexpand in thelace of globalisation and a massiveimport trade in honey (except for Cuba). In otherplaces, the challenge is how to encourage morepeople to keep bees and develop an industry thatmay contribute to self-sufficiency, decreasedvulnerability and independence.

To explore this further, we provide details on whendifferent honeybee species appeared in theCaribbean, together with information on honeybeediseases and mites and the development of legislationthat seeks to protect the beekeeping industry. This islinked to information on the marketing of hiveproducts in association with the import and exporttrade, beekeepers' organisations and levels of statesupport for the industry.

The introduction of new bee species andraces to the Caribbean

European honeybees, Apis mellifera wereintroduced to the region via Bermuda in 1616,/'e before they were introduced to the Americas.There is an apparent relationship between thereported dates of the presence of the Europeanbees in the region and pattern of Europeansettlement, particularly so with the easternCaribbean. In that regard, the presence of feralcolonies on the British Virgin Islands and Anguillasuggest that there were hived colonies on theseislands long before their documented presencein 1979 and 1993 respectively (Table 3).

Africanised honeybees arrived much later. Theywere found on Suriname and Trinidad in 1975and 1979 respectively, and were reported to have'Africanised' the stock of European bees alreadyexisting at the time of their arrival.

Stingless bees are found in Cuba, Dominica,Jamaica, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.Although in some places people collect honeyfrom these bees, they are not commerciallyexploited. Since 1992 the Tobago ApiculturalSociety and the Island's Agriculture Departmenthave been collaborating with Utrecht University inThe Netherlands, in research on stingless bees in "Tobago. Utrecht University maintains a laboratoryin Tobago and frequently sends students andresearch personnel to undertake assignments.

CHAPTER 15

Table 2. Beekeeping data

Numberof beekeepers

Anguilla

Bermuda

British Virgin Islands

Cuba

Dominica

Grenada

Jamaica

Nevis

St Kitts

St Lucia

St Vincent &

The Grenadines

Suriname

Trinidad

Tobago

TOTAL

6

31

4

3,000

40

35

1,720

17

2

40

48

30

338

31

5,342

Numberof colonies

25

400

20

150,000

1,000

700

40,000

100

154

2,235

411

1,150

6,097

571

202,863

Number ofcolonies per

beekeeper

4

13

5

50

25

20

23

6

77

59

9

34

11

18

Annual honey Annual honeyproduction production per

(tonnes) colony (kg)

N/A

N/A

N/A

5,033.0

N/A

13.6

*900.0

2.8

3.6

93.6

16.4

34.6

126.4

11.2

-

-

-

33.6

-

19.5

22.5

27.5

23.1

41.8

40.0

30.1

20.7

-

Source: all data from Collins & Solomon (1999) except for St Lucia (IICA, 1992).

* Collins & Solomon (1999) state 9,000 tonnes, but this is believed to be a misprint for 900 tonnes, as shown above.

Honeybee diseases and mites

Just as bees have been introduced orappeared in different parts of the Caribbean,

so honeybee diseases and mites haveappeared. Obviously, the health of bees in theCaribbean is an area of great concern becausediseases have the potential to threaten the

economic and environmental viability of thesector, with knock-on effects for croppollination and the natural environment.

Table 4 (overleaf) suggests that Anguilla,British Virgin Islands and St Kitts are freeof brood diseases and Acarapis and Varroa

mites. At best, it may be said that therehave been no reported case of diseasesor mites in these countries/islands.

Varroa mites are reported present innine islands. Given the rapid spread of exoticdiseases and pests throughout the beekeeping

world, and the general need of effectivebeekeeping legislation and its enforcementin the Caribbean, the Region will be hardpressed to contain the spread of these pests

and diseases.

Table 3. Type of honeybees Apis mellifera and year of

reported presence of European and Africanised honeybees

in selected Caribbean countries/islands

Country/ Apis melliferaIsland African origin

Anguilla

Bermuda

British Virgin Islands

Cuba

Dominica

Grenada

Jamaica

Nevis

St Kitts

St Lucia

St Vincent

&The Grenadines

Suriname 1975

Trinidad 1979

Tobago

Apis mellifera StinglessEuropean origin bee species

1993

1616

1979

Before 1866 /

N/A /

Late 17th century

*1896 /

1716

1688

N/A /

N/A

Early 1900s /

1901 /

1918 /

* Movable-frame hives

A Bees for Development publication 105

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNIT IES FOR SUSTAINABLE BEEKEEPING IN THE CARIBBEAN

Beekeeping legislation

The need for all Caribbean countriesto enact and enforce at least theminimum amount of legislation tomaintain standards and to prevent theintroduction and spread of honeybeepests and diseases has been identifiedas critical to the sustainability of theregional beekeeping sector.

In fact, four of the countries beingreviewed have specific beekeepinglegislation, these are: Cuba (DecreeNo 176: Beekeeping & Honey FloraProtection), Jamaica (Bee ControlAct of 1918), St Vincent &The Grenadines (Beekeeping& Bee Products Ordinance, 1966),and Trinidad & Tobago (Beekeeping &Bee Products Act, 1935).In addition, in Dominica, Grenada and St Lucialegislation on the importation and quarantineof bees is provided through their PlantProtection Acts.

The Trinidad & Tobago Beekeeping andBee Products Act was updated in 1980 andrepresents the most comprehensive beekeepinglegislation in the Caribbean. A major deficiencyin the legislation is that it does not address theissue of the eradication or control of bee disease.The Bee Control Act (1918), Rules (1920),Regulations (1920, 1921, 1934 and 1959),and Order (1940), comprise the beekeepinglegislation in Jamaica. This legislation is thesecond most comprehensive in the Caribbeanand was revised in 1968 to contain measuresto treat colonies infected, or suspected ofbeing infected, with bee disease. St Vincent& The Grenadines legislation is closely patternedon that of Trinidad & Tobago but goes furtheron the issue of offences committed against theordinance. Imprisonment with hard labourfor a period not exceeding a month can beimposed on summary conviction.

Recognising changing concerns affectingbeekeeping and beekeepers (globalisation, newdiseases) and the need for regional legislationto control the beekeeping industry, a proposedmodel act drafted in 1992 by the (now defunct)Caribbean Apicultural Development Association

Table 4. Honeybee diseases and mites in selected Caribbean countries

Country/Island AFB EFB Sac Chalkbrood brood

Anguilla - ,,- -

Bermuda / / -

British Virgin Islands -

Cuba / / - /

Dominica -

Grenada -

Jamaica -

Nevis -

St Kitts -

St Lucia -

St Vincent /& The Grenadines

Suriname -

Trinidad - / / -

Tobago

Nosema Varroa Acarapis

-

/

-

1996 /19981994 /19992000

-

1999/

200219952000

Source: Collins & Solomon (1999); Matheson (1996), Khodabaks (2002)

has been included in the Proceedings of theFirst Caribbean Beekeeping Congress (Collins& Solomon, 1999) as a means of ensuring itswidespread circulation within the Region. Thismay offer a step towards more comprehensivelegislation in future.

The marketing of bee products

Honey is the principal marketed hive product.Beeswax is marketed in its crude form or ascandles though in considerably smaller volumes.A few countries report that small amounts ofpollen are also sold.

Cuba stands out in the region as the onlycountry that harvests and markets substantialquantities of all the major hive products. It is anexception because it is self-sufficient in terms ofhoney, honeybees and bee supplies. Cuba alsomarkets a natural products line based on honeymixed with other products such as royal jelly,propolis extract and pollen. Retail prices for localhoney in Cuba are considerably lower thanelsewhere in the Caribbean, possibly becauseof Cuba's political and economic system.Elsewhere in the region prices per kilogramrange from US$5.64 (1999) in Suriname toUS$16.30 (1999) in Anguilla. The averageprice per kilogram for honey in the countries/islands being reviewed is US$7.74 (1999).Honey prices in eight countries/islands arewithin US$1,50 of this average (Table 5).

106 Strengthening livelihoods: exploring the role of beekeeping in development

CHAPTER 15

Data on imported honey, where available,indicates that it is sold at up to 50% less thanthe price of local honey. Throughout the Region,there is a preference for local honey, but thispreference has to compete with the muchcheaper market prices for imported honey, whichis available across the Caribbean (but not inCuba or Trinidad and Tobago). With the exceptionof Cuba, the region imports most of thenon-wood supplies and equipment used in thesector. The import of bees and queens (queensonly for Jamaica) is permitted into all othercountries, although in some countries legislationrequires authorisation for such imports,

Only three Caribbean countries/islands export beeproducts: Cuba, Jamaica and Nevis. Cuba exportsmore than 90% of its honey and is the principalexporter (honey, propolis, other hive products) inthe region. From 1993-1997, Cuba reportedexports of 4,500 tonnes of honey each year.10% of Jamaica's current annual honey productionis exported. Nevis has in the recent past exportedbees and queens to neighbouring islands.

Beekeepers' associations

Caribbean beekeepers are organised into varioustypes of beekeepers' associations that representtheir collective interests (see Table 6). Recently,moves have been made to institutionalise theRegion's beekeeping community within anappropriate structure as a means to addresscommon concerns.

The Jamaica Beekeepers' Association,established in 1902 and now defunct, was theearliest formed beekeeping body reported in theCaribbean. The Trinidad & Tobago Beekeepers'Association (1922) and the BermudaBeekeepers' Association (1949) are the longestestablished and functioning beekeepingorganisations in these Caribbean Islands. Inmany other places, associations have formedrelatively recently (1980s and 1990s), reflectingthe growing links between beekeepers in eachisland/country and across the Caribbean.

These beekeepers' associations play a varietyof roles, which include project support, .'helpingbeekeepers to acquire information, to actcollectively, to learn further skills, to marketor acquire products, and to link to governmentbodies and institutions.

Table 5. Honey prices and other hive products

marketed for selected countries/islands

Country/ Retail prices forIsland local honey (US$/kg)

Beeswax Pollen

Anguilla

Bermuda

British Virgin Islands

Cuba*

Dominica

Grenada

Jamaica

Nevis

St Kitts

St Lucia& The Grenadines

St Vincent

Suriname**

Trinidad

Tobago

* Propolis and royal jelly also marketed

** Propolis is also marketed

Table 6. Beekeepers' associations in selected Caribbean

countries/islands

Country/

Island

Anguilla

Bermuda

Cuba

Dominica

Grenada

Jamaica

Nevis

St Lucia

Suriname

Trinidad

Tobago

Name

Anguilla Beekeepers'

Association

Bermuda' Beekeepers'

Association

Several groups

and co-operatives

Dominica Beekeepers'

Cooperative

Grenada Association

of Beekeepers

All Island Bee

Farmers' Association

Nevis Beekeepers'

Co-operative Society

Mille Fleur Honey

Producers' Co-operative

Parwa Beekeepers'

Association

Trinidad & Tobago

Beekeepers' Association

Tobago Apicultura! Society

Year formed

1994

1949

1964 onwards

1998

1998

1989

1987

1986

1985

1922

1992

A Bees for Development publication 107

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CHAPTER 15

of globalisation is such that there are strongdemands from commercial entities for theremoval of all restrictions on the import ofhoney. Given that honey imported into theRegion is sold at lower prices than locallyproduced honey, the impact of increased importscould trigger a reduction in demand for localhoney and consequently lead to reductionsin price and production levels.

Second, the modern business environmentrequires innovation and entrepreneurial spirit,particularly concerning marketing. Thesecharacteristics are perhaps not so critical withinthe regional sector where the market perceptionof the primary hive products is one of 'all naturaland wholesome', with curative and rejuvenativeattributes. With an increasing number of 'healthand natural' products on the market and moreaggressive marketing by the manufacturers ofthose products, there are now more options forthe consumers.

Third, keeping abreast of the changes in thebeekeeping sector. New exotic pests (small hivebeetle Aethina tumida], parasitic mite infestation(Varroa sp and Acarapis], primary andsecondary diseases and viruses (foulbrooddisease and viruses associated with Varroa spmite infestation), and Africanised honeybees areall relatively new to the Region,

The phenomenal spread of Varroa sp andassociated secondary diseases and viruses inthe Caribbean since 1994 has had a significantnegative impact on the sector. While the spreadof Africanised honeybees has been much morecontained, the impact has been no lesstraumatic in areas where those bees can now

be found. There has been no reported caseof the small hive beetle in the Caribbean butgiven that the beetle is in Florida, it may beonly a matter of time before its presence in theRegion is reported.

Fourth, the use of chemicals and pesticides insidethe hive as part of a treatment regime for disease,viruses and pests brings into focus the realpossibility of damaging the delicate equilibrium inthe colony, as well as the contamination of hiveproducts. This may eventually affect consumerconfidence and perception of the 'wholesomeness'of hive products.

Fifth, traditional ways of beekeeping versusmodern hive management. While the Langstrothhive is the predominant hive type in theCaribbean, Haiti (information on Haiti doesnot appear in the tables above) is a notedexception. Most colonies in Haiti are keptin traditional log hives. Haiti perhaps bestillustrates the predicament of traditional versusmodern beekeeping. The traditional way ofkeeping bees is threatened by the presenceof Varroa sp. Even elsewhere where Langstrothhives are used there are instances whereframes, wax foundation and excluders are nottreated as standard inputs. There is the needto find the right balance, one that optimisesthe benefits of both worlds (traditional andmodern), while simultaneously givingrecognition to the realities of the prevailingsocial and economic conditions in the Region.

Sixth, closely related to the issue of local versusmodern beekeeping is the question of technologyappropriate for the Region. The debate onwhether the top-bar hive is more appropriatethan rectangular frame hives, and consequentlywhether honey should be removed from thecomb by pressing as opposed to centrifugal forceis very relevant to beekeeping in the Region.There is also debate on whether the top-bar hiveis more suited for Africanised honeybees than forEuropean bees, and on whether one system ismore appropriate for the small-scale beekeeperand another system for commercial beekeepers.The author, together with a group of beekeepersin Tobago, and Bees for Development, plan toresearch this issue in 2002.

The last in this list of challenges is the reductionof foraging areas through commercial and

A Bees for Development publication 109

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNIT IES FOR SUSTAINABLE BEEKEEPING IN THE CARIBBEAN

residential development, and more stringentrequirements for apiary locations necessitatedby the arrival, or in anticipation of the arrival,of Africanised honeybees.

Opportunities for sustainable beekeeping

The major opportunities for sustainablebeekeeping in the Region are as follows:

First, the move towards the institutionalisationof the Region's beekeeping community under anappropriate structure as a strategy to addresscommon concerns, could be one of the mostsignificant developments within the sector.This move was initiated with the staging of theFirst Caribbean Beekeeping Congress. Anothermajor step along that path was taken at theSecond Caribbean Congress, with the adoptionof the Resolution to formalise aninstitutionalisation process at the ThirdCongress to be held in Jamaica in 2002.

Second, given the high level of inputs importedinto the Region, a significant part of which canbe manufactured locally or regionally, there areopportunities to develop a beekeepingequipment and supplies manufacturing sectorto service the needs of the local and regionalmarket. While there is some local/regionalmanufacture of sector inputs, there needs to bea deliberate and concerted effort to support thelocal/regional sector.

Third, expanding the production capacity in theRegion to meet strong and unsatisfied demandsfor honey and other primary products withinthe Region and to supply overseas nichemarkets. In most islands/countries, theproduction of honey needs to be increased ifmarket demand is to be satisfied. The strategyshould be one of attracting more persons tobecome engaged in commercial beekeeping,as well as encouraging existing beekeepersto expand their production capacity.

Fourth, the implementation of effective diseaseand pest control management programmes:re-infestation from external sources is less likelythan is the situation in non-island states.

Lastly, the opportunity to attract more people intobeekeeping who have been discouraged fromdoing so because of high start-up costs. Thesepeople are likely to come from lower income

groups in rural communities and may alreadybe well disposed to agricultural activities.

Conclusion.

We have identified major challenges andopportunities for beekeeping in the Caribbean.This leaves us with the question of whether it isa sustainable activity? One may conclude thatfrom a social and environmental perspective thesustainability of the sector is beyond dispute.Where perhaps the issue of sustainability affordsthe most debate is in the sphere of economics.There is arguably a significant outflow of financialresources from the region to purchase beekeepinginputs. However, it could be argued that suchoutflows contribute a net benefit to thecommunity through the generation of domesticincomes, and incomes and/or savings from othertangible and intangible sources which are notalways readily quantifiable.

The challenges are many but surmountable whilethe opportunities are very encouraging. What isnoteworthy is that there is a pro-active approachby the main stakeholders, the beekeepingcommunity, in dealing with the challengesand opportunities confronting the sector,

References

ANON Proceedings of the Second CaribbeanBeekeeping Congress, Nevis, 2000. In press.

CARICOM (Caribbean Community Secretariat)www. cahcom.org/expframes3. htm

COLLINS,R SOLOMON,G (eds) (1999)Proceedings of the First Caribbean BeekeepingCongress, Tobago 1998. Tobago ApiculturalSociety, Trinidad & Tobago.

IICA (eds) (1992) Proceedings of the FirstRegional Training Workshop for Beekeepers,St Lucia, 1992.

KHODABAKS,M S (2002) Personal communication.

MATHESON.A (1996) World bee health update.Bee World 77(1): 45-51.

UNDP (1996) Governance and the socialconditions in the Anglophone Caribbean.Governance and democratic development in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean.UNDR Washington DC, USA.

no Strengthening livelihoods: exploring the role of beekeeping in development