Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.,

publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation

created by

Karen Schuster Florida Community College of Jacksonville

Chapter 15

Life Cycle

Nutrition

Pregnancy through

Infancy

.

Why Is Good Nutrition Essential for a Healthy Pregnancy?

How does a baby begin developing?

– Full-term pregnancy: 40 weeks, divided into three

trimesters

• First two weeks after conception: zygote

attaches to uterine wall

• Placenta and embryo (2-8 weeks) develop

–Placenta: common tissue between mother

and embryo where nutrients, oxygen, waste

products exchanged through umbilical cord

• Fetus after eighth week of pregnancy

What Nutrients and Behaviors Are Most Important for a

Healthy Pregnancy?

Before conception, fathers-to-be need to eat well

to produce healthy sperm

– Smoking, alcohol and drug abuse, obesity may

decrease sperm production and function

– Zinc, folate associated with healthy sperm

production

– Antioxidants (vitamins C and E, carotenoids) may

help protect sperm from free-radical damage.

– Should consume well-balanced diet

What Behaviors Are Most Important for a Healthy

Pregnancy?

Before conception, mothers need to adopt a

healthy lifestyle

– Attain a healthy weight

• Obese pregnant women have an increased risk for

hypertension and gestational diabetes

• Decrease weight before pregnancy but should

never try to lose weight during pregnancy

• Underweight women have lighter-weight placenta

and increased risk of low birth weight baby

Continued…

What Nutrients and Behaviors Are Most Important for

a Healthy Pregnancy?

– Get plenty of folic acid to decrease risk

of neural tube birth defects

– Moderate fish and caffeine consumption

• Methylmercury can harm fetal nervous

system

• Caffeine intake under 1.5cups to reduce

risk of miscarriage, birth defects

– High caffeine intake may also decrease fertility

Fishing for a Healthy Baby

Table 12.1

What Behaviors Are Most Important for a Healthy

Pregnancy?

– Avoid cigarettes, alcohol, botanical supplements, and illicit drugs • Infants of smokers weigh less, have increased

risk of premature birth, death, SIDS

• Alcohol can lead to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

– Even low levels of alcohol may cause learning and behavioral disorders.

• Herbs and botanical supplements can be harmful – check with health care provider before consuming them

• Illicit drugs increase risk of miscarriage, preterm labor, low birth weight, and birth defects

Botanicals/Herbs

• Blue cohosh is an herb that is sometimes used

to induce labor.

• Juniper, Pennyroyal, Goldenseal, and Thuja may

also cause contractions that can lead to

miscarriage or premature labor.

• Green tea is healthy because of its antioxidant

content, however, it contains a compound that

inhibits folic acid, which may increase risk of

neural tube defects.

What Behaviors Are Most Important for a Healthy

Pregnancy?

In the first trimester:

– Women need to eat when food may not be

appetizing

– Practice food safety

– Some women develop food aversions and/or

cravings

• Pica: abnormal, compulsive intake of nonedible

substances such as clay, dirt, and cornstarch

• It is common in African American women.

…It Doesn’t Only Happen in the Morning

Morning sickness usually begins in first

trimester and often ends by twentieth

week; 80% women experience it

– Cause of morning sickness unknown;

fluctuating hormones may play role

– Rare cases of severe morning sickness with

vomiting called hyperemesis gravidarum can

cause serious complications: dehydration,

electrolyte imbalances, weight loss

• Often requires hospitalization

Morning Sickness

• Some women find relief in eating small,

frequent meals that are high in carbs such

as rice, pasta and crackers.

• B6 may also reduce the nausea and

vomiting.

• Some women have experienced relief

after drinking ginger ale.

What Nutrients and Behaviors Are Most Important for

a Healthy Pregnancy?

Goals for adequate weight gain:

– 25-35 pounds total weight gain for women

starting pregnancy at a healthy weight

What Nutrients Are Most Important for a

Healthy Pregnancy?

Dietary considerations:

– Need up to 50% more folate, zinc, iron

• Nutrient-dense food sources, prenatal supplement

may be needed

– Calcium needs don’t increase but diet needs

to meet requirements

Continued…

Staying Healthy During Pregnancy

The importance of exercise

– Exercise can improve sleep, lower risk of

hypertension and diabetes, prevent

backaches, relieve constipation, shorten

labor, and reduce stress, depression, and

anxiety.

– 30 minutes or more of moderate exercise

most days of the week

• Low-impact activities best

Uh-Oh…Trouble

Potential complications

Gestational diabetes: high blood glucose levels develop

after about twentieth week of pregnancy

– Should be tested in second trimester

• Can result in macrosomia: large baby weighing

more than 8 lbs, 13 oz.

• Increases risk of baby having jaundice (yellowish

coloring of the skin due to the presence of bile

pigments in the blood), breathing problems, birth

defects

– Pregnancy-induced hypertension includes gestational

hypertension, preeclampsia, eclampsia

Risk factors for Gestational Diabetes

• Being overweight

• Being over 25 years old

• History of higher than normal blood glucose

levels

• Family history of diabetes

• Being of Hispanic, African American, Native

American or Pacific Islander descent

• Have given birth to a large baby or stillborn

• Had gestational diabetes in past

…And More Trouble

– Gestational hypertension: high blood

pressure develops about halfway through

pregnancy (stress on kidneys and heart)

– Preeclampsia: includes hypertension, severe

edema and protein in urine

• Treatment includes bedrest, medication, even

hospitalization until baby can be safely delivered

• If untreated, can lead to eclampsia

– Eclampsia: can cause seizures in mother

and is major cause of death of women during

pregnancy

Concerns

• Fertility typically begins to decline in

women starting in their early 30s, so

conception may take longer.

What Is Breast-Feeding and Why Is It

Beneficial? • Lactation: prolactin produces milk in breast

and oxytocin causes milk to be released (let-

down)

• Breast-feeding provides physical, emotional,

and financial benefits for mothers.

– Breast-feeding helps with pregnancy recovery;

reduces risk of some chronic diseases

– Breast milk less expensive, more convenient

than formula

– Breast-feeding promotes bonding with baby

Breastfeeding

• Breastfeeding can help delay the return of the

menstrual cycle, which may decrease fertility.

• This does not mean that you can’t get

pregnant while breastfeeding!

• Breastfeeding has been shown to reduce the

risk of hip fractures later in life, increase bone

density, and reduce the risk of type 2

diabetes.

• The nutrient composition of breast milk

continues to change as the baby grows and

his or her needs change.

What Is Breast-Feeding and Why Is It

Beneficial?

Breast-feeding protects against infections,

allergies, chronic diseases and may enhance

brain development

– Decreases risk and severity of diarrhea, meningitis,

respiratory, ear and urinary tract infections

• Helps protect baby from pathogens, inflammation,

allergies, and diseases such as SIDS, asthma, leukemia,

heart disease, diabetes

• May reduce risk of childhood obesity

When Is Formula a Healthy Alternative to Breast

Milk?

Some women may not be able to breast-feed.

– Women infected with HIV, have AIDS, human T-cell

leukemia or active tuberculosis, receiving

chemotherapy and/or radiation, or use illegal drugs

should not breast-feed

– Women taking prescription medications should

check with health-care provider regarding safety

When Is Formula a Healthy Alternative to Breast

Milk?

Formula can be a healthy alternative to breast-

feeding.

– Cow’s milk doesn’t meet nutritional needs: too high

in protein (casein), potassium, and sodium; too low

in fat and linoleic acid; iron poorly absorbed

– Cow’s milk can cause intestinal blood loss in infants

– Infant formula as similar as possible to breast milk

• Regulated by FDA: sets nutrient requirements

• Made from cow’s milk (altered to improve nutrient content

and availability) or soy-protein

• Powdered, concentrated liquid, or ready-to-use

What Are the Nutrient Needs of an Infant and Why

Are They So High?

Infants grow at accelerated rate: double birth

weight by about 6 months, triples by 12 months

of age

Monitoring infant growth:

– Infants not receiving adequate nutrition may have

difficulty reaching milestones

– Failure to thrive (FTT): delayed in physical growth

or size or does not gain enough weight

– Growth charts track physical development.

• Head circumference, length, weight, and weight for length

measures are used to assess growth.

Nutrients

• There are 3 nutrients that must be added

to an infant’s diet: Vitamin K, Vitamin D,

and iron.

• Vitamin K to ensure their blood to clot.

• Vitamin D because they do not get enough

from breast milk to prevent rickets.

• Iron stores may be low.

When Are Solid Foods Safe?

Solid foods should be introduced gradually to

make sure child isn’t allergic or intolerant

– One new food per week

– Rice cereal is great first food: least allergy-

causing

– Other grains, then vegetables, fruits over a

period of months

Homemade or store-bought baby food?

– Homemade is cheaper, but can also find high-

quality store-bought foods without added sugar,

salt, preservatives

When Are Solid Foods Safe?

Some foods are dangerous and should be

avoided.

– Choking hazard from certain foods, such as hot dog

slices

– Avoid common food allergens: chocolate, cheese,

fish, strawberries, egg whites, cow’s milk, peanut

butter

– Honey can lead to botulism, which can be fatal.

– Herbal teas may pose risk

– Seasonings, salt, sugar, butter should not be added