chapter 6, nancy langton and stephen p. robbins, fundamentals of organizational behaviour, third...

Chapter 6, Nancy Langton and Stephen P. Robbins, Fundamentals of Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition 6-1Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

Chapter 6

Communication, Conflict, and Negotiation


Chapter Outline

• The Communication Process

• Barriers to Effective Communication

• Current Issues in Communication

• How Communication Breakdown Leads to Conflict

• Conflict Resolution

• Negotiation


Communication

1. How does communication work?

2. What are the barriers to communication?

3. What are other issues in communication?

4. What is conflict?

5. How can conflict be resolved?

6. How does one negotiate effectively?


Communication Problems• People spend nearly 70 percent of their waking hours communicating

—writing, reading, speaking, listening.• WorkCanada’s survey of 2039 Canadians in six industrial and service

categories found – 61 percent of senior executives believed that they did a good job of

communicating with employees. – only 33 percent of the managers and department heads believed that

senior executives were effective communicators. – Only 22 percent of hourly workers, 27 percent of clerical employees,

and 22 percent of professional staff reported that senior executives did a good job of communicating with them.

• Canadians reported less favourable perceptions about their company’s communications than did Americans.


Communication Terms

• Communication– The transfer of meaning among people.

• Sender – Establishes a message, encodes the message, and

chooses the channel to send it.

• Receiver – Decodes the message and provides feedback to

the sender.


Exhibit 6-1 The Communication Process Model

Encodes themessage

Chooses thechannel

Choosesa message

Providesfeedback

Decodes themessage

Sender Receiver

Considers the receiver

Considers the sender


Communication Terms

• Message– What is communicated.

• Encoding– Converting a message to symbolic form.

• Channel– The medium through which a message travels.

• Decoding– Retranslating a sender’s message.


Choosing Channels

• Channels differ in their capacity to convey information.

• Rich channels have the ability to – Handle multiple cues simultaneously

– Facilitate rapid feedback

– Be very personal


Exhibit 6-2 – Information Richness of Communication Channels

Source: Based on R. H. Lengel and R. L. Daft, “The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,” Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 225-232; and R. L. Daft and R. H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design,” Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 554-572. Reproduced from R. L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Forth Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.


Barriers to Effective Communication• Filtering

– Refers to a sender manipulating information so that it will be seen more favourably by the receiver.

• Selective Perception– Receivers in the communication process

selectively see and hear based on their needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.


Barriers to Effective Communication

• Defensiveness– When individuals interpret another’s message as

threatening, they often respond in ways that retard effective communication.

• Information Overload– When the information we have to work with exceeds our

processing capacity.

• Language– Words mean different things to different people.


Communicating Under Stress

• Speak clearly.

• Be aware of the nonverbal part of communicating.

• Think carefully about how you state things.


Exhibit 6-4 Emoticons: Showing Emoticons in Email

:)<g>

:(;):-[

SmileGrinFrownWinkReally sad face

:-e:-@:-0:-D:’ (

DisappointedScreamYellShock or surpriseCrying


Electronic Communications:Tips for Writing and Sending E-mail

• Use a subject line.

• Use emoticons and acronyms sparingly for business communications.

• Write clearly and briefly.

• Copy emails to others only if they really need the information.

• Sleep on angry emails.


Nonverbal Communication

• Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and the receiver– Kinesics

• The study of body motions, such as gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body

– Proxemics• The study of physical space in interpersonal relationships


Silence as Communication

• Defined as an absence of speech or noise

• Not necessarily inaction—can convey:– Thinking or contemplating a response to a question – Anxiety about speaking – Agreement, dissent, frustration, or anger

• Individuals should be aware of what silence might mean in any communication.


Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

• Men use talk to emphasize status, women use it to create connection.

• Women and men tend to approach points of conflict differently.


Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

• Men and women view directness and indirectness differently.– Women interpret male directness as an assertion

of status and one-upmanship.– Men interpret female indirectness as covert,

sneaky, and weak.

• Men criticize women for apologizing, but women say “I’m sorry” to express empathy.


Cross-Cultural Communication Difficulties

• Sources of barriers– Semantics

– Word connotations

– Tonal differences

– Differences in perceptions


Cross-Cultural Communications: Helpful Rules

• Assume differences until similarity is proven.

• Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

• Practise empathy.

• Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.


Conflict Defined

• A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.– Functional

• Supports the goals of the group and improves its performance

– Dysfunctional• Hinders group performance


Exhibit 6-5Conflict Intensity Continuum

Annihilatoryconflict

Noconflict

Overt efforts to destroythe other party

Aggressive physical attacks

Threats and ultimatums

Assertive verbal attacks

Overt questioning orchallenging of others

Minor disagreements ormisunderstandings

Sources: Based on S. P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 93-97; and F. Glasl, “The Process of Conflict Escalation and the Roles of Third Parties,” in Conflict Management and Industrial Relations, ed. G. B. J. Bomers and R. Peterson (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp. 119-140).


Research Findings

• Cognitive– Conflict related to differences in perspectives and

judgments• Task-oriented

• Results in identifying differences

• Usually functional conflict

• Affective– Emotional conflict aimed at a person rather than an issue

• Dysfunctional conflict


Conflict Resolution

• Two Dimensions:– Cooperativeness

• The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns.

– Assertiveness• The degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her

own concerns.


Five Conflict-Handling Strategies

• Forcing• Imposing one’s will on the other party.

• Problem solving• Trying to reach an agreement that satisfies both one’s own and the

other party’s aspirations as much as possible.

• Avoiding• The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.

• Yielding• Accepting and incorporating the will of the other party.

• Compromising• A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up

something.


Exhibit 6-6 Conflict-Handling Strategies and Accompanying Behaviours

Uncooperative Cooperative

COOPERATIVENESS

Trying to satisfy the other person’s concerns

Forcing

Satisfying one’s own interestswithout concern for the other’s

interests • Make threats and bluffs • Make persuasive arguments • Make positional commitments

Problem solving

Clarifying differences to findmutually beneficial outcomes • Exchange information about priorities and preferences • Show insights

• Make trade-offs between important and unimportant issues

Compromisingr

Giving up something to reach anoutcome (done by both parties) • Match other’s concessions • Make conditional promises and threats

• Search for a middle ground

Avoiding

Withdrawing from or ignoringconflict

• Don’t think about the issues

Yielding

Placing the other’s interests aboveone’s own

• Make unilateral concessions • Make unconditional promises • Offer help

AS

SER

TIV

EN

ES

S

Try

ing

to s

ati

sfy o

ne’s

ow

n c

on

cern

s’

Un

ass

ert

ive

Ass

ert

ive

Sources: Based on K. W. Thomas, “Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations,” in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 3, 2nd ed., ed. M. D. Dunnette and L. M. Hough (Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668; C. K. W. De Dreu, A. Evers, B. Beersma, E. S. Kluwer, and A. Nauta, “A Theory-Based Measure of Conflict Management Strategies in the Workplace,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 22, no. 6 (September 2001), pp. 645-668; and D. G. Pruitt and J. Rubin, Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate and Settlement (New York: Random House, 1986).


What Can Individuals Do to Manage Conflict?

• Problem solving

• Developing superordinate goals

• Smoothing

• Compromising

• Avoidance


Techniques for Managing Work-Related Conflicts

• Expansion of resources

• Authoritative command

• Altering the human variable

• Altering the structural variables


Factors That Lead to Personality Conflicts

• Misunderstandings based on age, race, or cultural differences

• Intolerance, prejudice, discrimination, and bigotry

• Perceived inequalities

• Misunderstandings, rumours, or falsehoods about an individual or group

• Blaming for mistakes or mishaps (finger-pointing)


Tips for Employees Having a Personality Conflict

• Communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived conflict.

• Avoid dragging co-workers into the conflict.

• If necessary, seek help from direct supervisors or human resource specialists.

Source: R. Kreitner and A. Kinicki, Organizational Behavior, 6th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004), p. 492, Table 14-1. Reprinted by permission of McGraw-Hill Education.


Tips for Third-Party Observers of a Personality Conflict

• Do not take sides.

• Suggest the parties work things out themselves.

• If necessary, refer the problem to parties’ direct supervisors.



Tips When Manager’s Employees Are Having a Personality Conflict

• Investigate and document conflict.

• If appropriate, take corrective action (e.g., feedback or behaviour shaping).

• If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution.

• Refer difficult conflicts to human resource specialists or hired counsellors.



Negotiation• A process in which two or more parties

exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them.– Distributive bargaining

• Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation.

– Integrative bargaining• Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that

can create a win-win solution.


Bargaining Distributive IntegrativeCharacteristic Bargaining Bargaining

Available resources

Primary motivations

Primary interests

Focus of relationships

Fixed amount of resources to be divided

I win, you lose

Opposed to each other

Short term

Variable amount of resources to be divided

I win, you win

Convergent or congruent with each other

Long term

Exhibit 6-7 Distributive vs. Integrative Bargaining

Source: Based on R. J. Lewicki and J. A. Litterer, Negotiation (Homewood, IL:Irwin 1985), p.280


Exhibit 6-8 The Negotiation Process

Developing a strategy

Defining ground rules

Clarification andjustification

Bargaining andproblem solving

Closure andimplementation

Source: This model is based on R. J. Lewicki, “Bargaining and Negotiation,” Exchange: The Organizational BehaviorTeaching Journal 6, no. 2 (1981), pp. 39-40.


How to Negotiate

• Five steps to negotiation:– Developing a strategy.– Definition of ground rules.– Clarification and justification.– Bargaining and problem solving.– Closure and implementation.

• Identify BATNA:– Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement.


Exhibit 6-9 Staking Out the Bargaining Zone

Buyer’s aspiration rangeSeller’s aspiration range

BargainingZone

Buyer’stargetpoint

Seller’s resistance

point

Buyer’sresistance

point

Seller’stargetpoint

$400 $475 $525 $600


Getting to Yes

• Separate the people from the problem. Work on the issues at hand, rather than getting involved in personality issues between the parties.

• Focus on interests, not positions. Try to identify what each person needs or wants, rather than coming up with an unmovable position.

• Look for ways to achieve mutual gains. Rather than focusing on one “right” solution for your position, brainstorm for solutions that will satisfy the needs of both parties.

• Use objective criteria to achieve a fair solution. Try to focus on fair standards, such as market value, expert opinion, norms, or laws to help guide decision making.


Summary and Implications

1. How does communication work?• Communication works through choosing the correct

channel, being an effective listener, and using feedback.

2. What are the barriers to communication?• Errors arise from filtering, selective perception,

defensiveness, information overload, and language.



3. What are the other issues in communication?

- The big topics in communication are the importance of nonverbal communication and silence, gender, and cross-cultural differences

in communication. 4. What is conflict?

- Conflict occurs when one party perceives that another party’s actions will have a negative effect on something the first party cares about.



5. How can conflict be resolved?– Depending on how a conflict is defined, it can

be settled in a win-lose solution or a win-win solution.

6. How does one negotiate effectively?– Integrative bargaining tends to provide

outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships.


OB at Work


For Review

1. Describe the communication process and identify its key components. Give an example of how this process operates with both oral and written messages.

2. Contrast encoding and decoding.3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of email? Of

instant messaging?4. What is nonverbal communication? Does it aid or hinder

verbal communication?5. What does the phrase “sometimes the real message in a

communication is buried in the silence” mean?


For Review

6. What are the managerial implications from the research contrasting male and female communication styles?

7. List four specific problems related to language difficulties in cross-cultural communication.

8. What is the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict? What determines functionality?

9. What defines the bargaining zone in distributive bargaining?

10. How can you improve your negotiating effectiveness?


For Critical Thinking

1. “Ineffective communication is the fault of the sender.” Do you agree or disagree? Discuss.

2. Using the concept of channel richness, give examples of messages best conveyed by email, in face-to-face communication, and on the company bulletin board.

3. Why do you think so many people are poor listeners?4. Assume one of your co-workers had to negotiate a contract with

someone from China. What problems might he or she face? If the co-worker asked for advice, what suggestions would you make to help facilitate a settlement?

5. From your own experience, describe a situation you were involved in where the conflict was dysfunctional. Describe another example, from your experience, where the conflict was functional. Would the other parties in the conflicts agree with your assessment of what is functional or dysfunctional?


Point-CounterPoint• Conflict Is Good for the

Organization Conflict is a means by which

to bring about radical change. Conflict facilitates group

cohesiveness. Conflict improves group and

organizational effectiveness. Conflict brings about a

slightly higher, more constructive level of tension.

• All Conflicts Are Dysfunctional! The negative consequences

from conflict can be devastating.

Effective managers build teamwork, not conflict.

Competition is good for an organization, but not conflict.

Managers who accept and stimulate conflict don’t survive in organizations.


Breakout Group Exercises

• Form small groups to discuss the following topics:1. Describe a situation in which you ignored someone. What

impact did it have on that person’s subsequent communication behaviours?

2. What difference have you observed in the ways that men and women communicate?

3. You and two other students carpool to school every day. The driver has recently taken to playing a new radio station quite loudly. You do not like the music, or the loudness. Using one of the conflict-handling intentions, indicate how you might go about resolving this conflict.


Giving More Effective Feedback

• Relate feedback to existing performance goals and clear expectations.

• Give specific feedback tied to observable behaviour or measurable results.

• Channel feedback toward key result areas.• Give feedback as soon as possible.• Give positive feedback for improvement, not just final

results.• Focus feedback on performance, not personalities.• Base feedback on accurate and credible information.


Supplemental Material

Slides for activities I do in my own classroom


Effective ListeningIf you want to improve your listening skills, look to these behaviours as guides:

1. Make eye contact.2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial

expressions.3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures.4. Ask questions.5. Paraphrase.6. Avoid interrupting the speaker.7. Don’t overtalk.8. Make smooth transitions between the roles of speaker and

listener.


Nonverbal Exercise• Rank order in terms of importance for leadership:

– Extroverted personality– Sensitivity to others– Technical expertise– Strong ethical values– Concern for getting the task done– Charisma– Internal locus of control– Power

• Directions: Sit on your hands. Use NO nonverbal communication (gestures, facial movements, body movements, etc.).


Nonverbal Exercise Questions

• How effective was communication?

• What barriers to communication existed?

• What happens when nonverbal communication is absent?

• What purpose does nonverbal communication serve?


Communication Questions

• What types of difficulties have you experienced when communicating with someone from a different culture than yours?

• How do you let the other person know you have heard what they are saying? How often do you do this?

• Describe an example of communication breakdown. What led to the breakdown?

chapter 6, nancy langton and stephen p. robbins, fundamentals of organizational behaviour, third...

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