Chapter 8Chapter 8Personality AssessmentPersonality Assessment

Objective TestsObjective Tests

Objective test involve the Objective test involve the administration of a standard set of administration of a standard set of questions or statements to which the questions or statements to which the examinee responds using a fixed set examinee responds using a fixed set of potions. of potions.

Many objectives test use a true false Many objectives test use a true false or yes/no response format others or yes/no response format others provide a dimensional scale (e.g. provide a dimensional scale (e.g. o=strong disagree; 1= disagree; 2= o=strong disagree; 1= disagree; 2= neutral; 3= agree; 4= strongly agree). neutral; 3= agree; 4= strongly agree).

Advantages of Advantages of Objective Test Objective Test

Objective tests of personality or self-report have had a Objective tests of personality or self-report have had a

central role in the development of clinical psychology. central role in the development of clinical psychology.

First of all, their economical. After only brief instructions, First of all, their economical. After only brief instructions, large groups can be tested simultaneously, or a single large groups can be tested simultaneously, or a single patient can completed inventory alone. Even computer patient can completed inventory alone. Even computer scoring an interpretation of these tests are possible. scoring an interpretation of these tests are possible.

Second, scoring and administration are relatively simple Second, scoring and administration are relatively simple and objective. This in turn tends to make the interpretation and objective. This in turn tends to make the interpretation easier and seems to require less interpret to skill of the part easier and seems to require less interpret to skill of the part of the clinician. of the clinician.

A final attraction to self-report inventories, particularly for A final attraction to self-report inventories, particularly for clinicians who are disenchanted with the problems inherent clinicians who are disenchanted with the problems inherent in projective tests, is their appearance objectivity and in projective tests, is their appearance objectivity and reliability.reliability.

Disadvantages of Disadvantages of Objective TestsObjective Tests

For clinicians who tend to pay little attention to mediating variables such For clinicians who tend to pay little attention to mediating variables such as motives or cognitions, this is a virtue rather than aid defect.as motives or cognitions, this is a virtue rather than aid defect.

Inventories often provide a single overall score, which may reflect various Inventories often provide a single overall score, which may reflect various combinations of these behaviors, cognitions, and needs. Therefore, to combinations of these behaviors, cognitions, and needs. Therefore, to individuals were achieved the same score may actually be quite different, individuals were achieved the same score may actually be quite different, even in reference to the personality traits or construction in question. even in reference to the personality traits or construction in question. Thus, the same score on a measure may have several alternative Thus, the same score on a measure may have several alternative interpretations. interpretations.

Other difficulties involved a transparent meeting of some inventories Other difficulties involved a transparent meeting of some inventories questions, which can obviously facilitate faking on the part of some questions, which can obviously facilitate faking on the part of some patients. Some tests tend to develop heavily on the patience self-patients. Some tests tend to develop heavily on the patience self-knowledge. knowledge.

In addition, the forced choice approach prevents individuals from In addition, the forced choice approach prevents individuals from qualifying or elaborating their responses to that some additional qualifying or elaborating their responses to that some additional information may be lost or distorted the limited understanding or even the information may be lost or distorted the limited understanding or even the limited reading ability of some individuals may lead them to misinterpret limited reading ability of some individuals may lead them to misinterpret question or to answer questions and a random fashion.question or to answer questions and a random fashion.

Methods of Test Construction Methods of Test Construction for Objective Testsfor Objective Tests

Content validationContent validation. The most . The most straightforward approach to measure it is for straightforward approach to measure it is for clinicians to decide what it is they wish to clinicians to decide what it is they wish to assess and then simply ask the patient for assess and then simply ask the patient for that information. that information.

Ensuring content validityEnsuring content validity -content validation -content validation methods involve (a) carefully defining all methods involve (a) carefully defining all relevant aspects of the variable you are relevant aspects of the variable you are attempting to measure; (b) consulting attempting to measure; (b) consulting experts before generating items;(c) using experts before generating items;(c) using judges to assess each potential items judges to assess each potential items relevance to the variable of interest; and (d) relevance to the variable of interest; and (d) using psychometric analysis to evaluate using psychometric analysis to evaluate each item before you can include it in your each item before you can include it in your measure. measure.

Methods of Test Methods of Test Construction for Objective Construction for Objective TestsTests Potential problems are inherent in the content Potential problems are inherent in the content

validity approached to test construction. validity approached to test construction.

– First, it can clinicians assume that every patient First, it can clinicians assume that every patient interpreted a given item in exactly the same way?interpreted a given item in exactly the same way?

– Second, when patients accurately report their own Second, when patients accurately report their own behavior or emotions? behavior or emotions?

– Third, will patients be honest, or will they attempt to Third, will patients be honest, or will they attempt to place themselves in a good light? place themselves in a good light?

– Fourth, can clinicians assume that the experts can be Fourth, can clinicians assume that the experts can be counted on to define the essence of the concept they counted on to define the essence of the concept they are trying to measure?are trying to measure?

Empirical Criterion KeyingEmpirical Criterion KeyingObjective TestsObjective Tests

.. The most prominent example of this general math that is the original The most prominent example of this general math that is the original

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. In this approach, new Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. In this approach, new assumptions made as to whether a patient is telling the truth or the assumptions made as to whether a patient is telling the truth or the response really corresponds to behavior or feelings. What is important is response really corresponds to behavior or feelings. What is important is that certain patients describe themselves in certain ways. that certain patients describe themselves in certain ways.

The import and assumption inherent in this approach is that members of a The import and assumption inherent in this approach is that members of a particular diagnostic group will tend to respond in the same way. particular diagnostic group will tend to respond in the same way. Consequently, it is not necessary to select test items in a rational, Consequently, it is not necessary to select test items in a rational, theoretical fashion. All of that is required is to show on an empirical basis theoretical fashion. All of that is required is to show on an empirical basis that the members of a given diagnostic group respond to a given item in a that the members of a given diagnostic group respond to a given item in a similar fashion. similar fashion.

The utility of the item is thus determined solely by the extent to which The utility of the item is thus determined solely by the extent to which discriminates among known groups. discriminates among known groups.

Of course, the criterion keying method has its problems. Foremost is the Of course, the criterion keying method has its problems. Foremost is the difficulty of interpreting the meaning of a score. difficulty of interpreting the meaning of a score.

Although demonstrating that the tests can discriminate among various Although demonstrating that the tests can discriminate among various patient groups is one aspect of establishing the validity of a task, the sole patient groups is one aspect of establishing the validity of a task, the sole use of the empirical criterion keying method to select items for a test is not use of the empirical criterion keying method to select items for a test is not recommended. recommended.

Factor Analysis WorkFactor Analysis WorkObjective TestObjective Test

The idea is to examine the intercorrelations among the individual The idea is to examine the intercorrelations among the individual items from many existing personality inventories. Succeeding items from many existing personality inventories. Succeeding factory analyses will then reduce or purify scales thought to reflect factory analyses will then reduce or purify scales thought to reflect basic dimensions of personality. The exploratory factor analytic basic dimensions of personality. The exploratory factor analytic approach is atheoretical. One begins by capturing a universe of approach is atheoretical. One begins by capturing a universe of items and then proceeds to reduce them to basic elements-items and then proceeds to reduce them to basic elements-personality, adjustment, diagnostic affiliation, or whatever-in personality, adjustment, diagnostic affiliation, or whatever-in attempt to arrive at the core traits and dimensions of personality. attempt to arrive at the core traits and dimensions of personality.

Confirmation factor analytic approaches are more theory driven, Confirmation factor analytic approaches are more theory driven, seeking to confirm a hypothesize factor structure for the test seeking to confirm a hypothesize factor structure for the test items. items.

This trend of the factory analytic approach to test construction is This trend of the factory analytic approach to test construction is the emphasis on an empirical demonstration that items purporting the emphasis on an empirical demonstration that items purporting book to measure a variable or dimension of personality are highly book to measure a variable or dimension of personality are highly related to one another. related to one another.

A limitation to this approach is that it does not in and of itself A limitation to this approach is that it does not in and of itself demonstrate that these items are actually measuring durable of demonstrate that these items are actually measuring durable of interest; we only know that the items tend to be measuring the interest; we only know that the items tend to be measuring the same thing. same thing.

Construct Validity ApproachConstruct Validity ApproachObjective Test Objective Test

This approach combines many aspects of the content This approach combines many aspects of the content validity. Empirical criterion keying, and factor that validity. Empirical criterion keying, and factor that analytic approaches. In this approach, skills are analytic approaches. In this approach, skills are developed to measure specific concepts from a given developed to measure specific concepts from a given theory. The selection of items is based on the extent theory. The selection of items is based on the extent to which they reflect the theoretical construct under to which they reflect the theoretical construct under study. Item analysis, factor analysis, and other study. Item analysis, factor analysis, and other procedures for used to ensure that a homogeneous procedures for used to ensure that a homogeneous skill is developed. skill is developed.

Because of its comprehensiveness, construct validity Because of its comprehensiveness, construct validity

approached to test construction is both the most approached to test construction is both the most desirable at the most labor intensive. In fact, desirable at the most labor intensive. In fact, establishing the construct validity of the test is a establishing the construct validity of the test is a never ending but process, with empirical feedback never ending but process, with empirical feedback used to refine both the theory and the personality used to refine both the theory and the personality measure.measure.

The MMPI and MMPI-2The MMPI and MMPI-2

The MMPI back was long the best The MMPI back was long the best example of empirical keying approach example of empirical keying approach to test construction. Published by to test construction. Published by Hathway and McKinley in 1943, it is Hathway and McKinley in 1943, it is still considered the preeminent self-still considered the preeminent self-reported inventory. The MMPI, which reported inventory. The MMPI, which has been used for virtually every has been used for virtually every predictive purposing imaginable, predictive purposing imaginable, ranging from the likelihood of ranging from the likelihood of episodes of psychosis to marriage episodes of psychosis to marriage suitability.suitability.

Description: MMPIDescription: MMPI The basic purpose was to identify the psychiatric diagnoses The basic purpose was to identify the psychiatric diagnoses

of individual. of individual.

The following psychiatric categories were used: The following psychiatric categories were used: hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviation, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and deviation, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania. Two additional skills, masculinity-femininity and hypomania. Two additional skills, masculinity-femininity and a social introversion it were added later. These skills a social introversion it were added later. These skills names reflected a diagnostic classification system that was names reflected a diagnostic classification system that was used in 1940's and 1950's but is now antiquated. used in 1940's and 1950's but is now antiquated.

The original MMPI was composed of 550 items to which the The original MMPI was composed of 550 items to which the patient answered true, false or cannot say. Only those patient answered true, false or cannot say. Only those items that differentiated a given clinical group from a items that differentiated a given clinical group from a nonclinical group were included. nonclinical group were included.

Although the test was originally designed for people aged Although the test was originally designed for people aged 16 and older, the MMPI has been used with individuals 16 and older, the MMPI has been used with individuals considerably younger. The test was Machines Corp. or considerably younger. The test was Machines Corp. or hand scored. Indeed, it was possible to completely hand scored. Indeed, it was possible to completely administer, score, and interpret the MMPI by computer. administer, score, and interpret the MMPI by computer.

Description: MMPI-2Description: MMPI-2

With our original MMPI standardization sample had been criticized for With our original MMPI standardization sample had been criticized for many years as unrepresentative of the general U.S. population. many years as unrepresentative of the general U.S. population.

For restandardization, all 550 items were retained, but 82 were For restandardization, all 550 items were retained, but 82 were rewritten. The original meaning of the items were preserved, but the rewritten. The original meaning of the items were preserved, but the language was made more contemporary. In addition, 154 new items language was made more contemporary. In addition, 154 new items were added to the top item pool, bringing the total to 704 items. But were added to the top item pool, bringing the total to 704 items. But after adjustments, the final version of theMMPI-2 now includes 567 of after adjustments, the final version of theMMPI-2 now includes 567 of the larger pool of 704 items. However, only the first 370 items in the the larger pool of 704 items. However, only the first 370 items in the test booklet are administered when only the traditional validity and test booklet are administered when only the traditional validity and clinical scales are of interest. clinical scales are of interest.

Participants for the restandardization sample came from Minnesota, Participants for the restandardization sample came from Minnesota, Ohio, North Carolina, Washington, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio, North Carolina, Washington, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and California, and the samples were based on U.S. census data from 1980. California, and the samples were based on U.S. census data from 1980.

The authors of the MMPI-2 state that it can be used but individuals The authors of the MMPI-2 state that it can be used but individuals were in least 13 years old and or can read at eighth grade level. It can were in least 13 years old and or can read at eighth grade level. It can be administered individually or in groups. It has only one booklet form. be administered individually or in groups. It has only one booklet form. It can be computer scored, and non-English-language versions of the It can be computer scored, and non-English-language versions of the test are available. It also has an adolescent version (MMPI- A).test are available. It also has an adolescent version (MMPI- A).

MMPI: Validity ScalesMMPI: Validity Scales A potential problem itself reported inventories, including the MMPI-2, is their A potential problem itself reported inventories, including the MMPI-2, is their

susceptibility to distortion through various test-taking attitudes or responds sets. For susceptibility to distortion through various test-taking attitudes or responds sets. For example, some respondents may wish to place themselves at a favorable light; other example, some respondents may wish to place themselves at a favorable light; other may fake bad to increase the likelier to receive aid. Obviously, if the condition is not may fake bad to increase the likelier to receive aid. Obviously, if the condition is not aware of these responses out in a given patient, the test interpretation can be a gross aware of these responses out in a given patient, the test interpretation can be a gross error. error.

To help detect malingering-faking bad- other response sets or tests-taking attitudes, and To help detect malingering-faking bad- other response sets or tests-taking attitudes, and carelessness or misunderstanding, the MMPI-2 continues to incorporate the traditional carelessness or misunderstanding, the MMPI-2 continues to incorporate the traditional for validity scales that were included in the original MMPI. for validity scales that were included in the original MMPI.

1.? Scale. This is the number of items left unanswered. 1.? Scale. This is the number of items left unanswered. 2. F scale. The 60 items were seldom answered in the scored direction by the 2. F scale. The 60 items were seldom answered in the scored direction by the

standardization group. A high F score may suggest deviant behavior, or other hypothesis standardization group. A high F score may suggest deviant behavior, or other hypothesis about extra tests characteristics or behaviors. about extra tests characteristics or behaviors.

3. L (lie) scale. This includes 15 items who's endorsed places the respondent of very 3. L (lie) scale. This includes 15 items who's endorsed places the respondent of very positive light. positive light.

4. K (Defensiveness) Scale. PS 30 items suggest defensiveness and admitting certain 4. K (Defensiveness) Scale. PS 30 items suggest defensiveness and admitting certain problems. These items reportedly detect faking good.problems. These items reportedly detect faking good.

5. Fb (Back-page Infrequency) Scale. These 40 items are scoring in the end of the test 5. Fb (Back-page Infrequency) Scale. These 40 items are scoring in the end of the test are infrequently endorsed.are infrequently endorsed.

6. VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) Scale. This consisted of 67 pairs of items with 6. VRIN (Variable Response Inconsistency) Scale. This consisted of 67 pairs of items with either similar opposite content. High BRIN scores suggest random responding. either similar opposite content. High BRIN scores suggest random responding.

7. TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) scale. This consists of 23 item pairs that are 7. TRIN (True Response Inconsistency) scale. This consists of 23 item pairs that are opposite in content. High TRIN White scores suggest a tendency to give true responses opposite in content. High TRIN White scores suggest a tendency to give true responses indiscriminately; low TRIN scores suggest a tendency to give false responses indiscriminately; low TRIN scores suggest a tendency to give false responses indiscriminately. indiscriminately.

These seven MMPI-2 validity scales provide a means for understanding the test These seven MMPI-2 validity scales provide a means for understanding the test respondence motivation and test-taking attitudes. respondence motivation and test-taking attitudes.

MMPI: Short Forms MMPI: Short Forms These scales where typically shorten the MMPI to considerably less than the These scales where typically shorten the MMPI to considerably less than the

traditional 550 items. Some lost of interpretative power can also be traditional 550 items. Some lost of interpretative power can also be expected. expected.

More generally, one short form of any psychological tests should, but More generally, one short form of any psychological tests should, but perhaps, rarely be developed and, if so, should be subjected to quite perhaps, rarely be developed and, if so, should be subjected to quite stringent standards of reliability of validity as a stand-alone measure. stringent standards of reliability of validity as a stand-alone measure.

Interpretation patterns: profile analysis. Interpretation patterns: profile analysis.

Because the original scales were developed to predict psychiatric Because the original scales were developed to predict psychiatric categorization, the initial use of the MMPI depended on simple categorization, the initial use of the MMPI depended on simple interpretations based on elevated scale scores. interpretations based on elevated scale scores.

However, the medical experts quickly taught that some compartmentalize However, the medical experts quickly taught that some compartmentalize interpretations or oversimplification. Some nonclinical respondents achieve interpretations or oversimplification. Some nonclinical respondents achieve White high SC scores, and so do other diagnostic groups.White high SC scores, and so do other diagnostic groups.

Interpretation has now shifted to an examination of patterns, or profiles, of Interpretation has now shifted to an examination of patterns, or profiles, of scores. scores.

Interpretation through content. Interpretation through content.

Thus, a major change of improvement in the clinical use of the MMPI and Thus, a major change of improvement in the clinical use of the MMPI and MMPI-2 have been a shift away from differential psychiatric diagnosis based MMPI-2 have been a shift away from differential psychiatric diagnosis based on the elevation of a single score to a more sophisticated profile analysis of on the elevation of a single score to a more sophisticated profile analysis of scale scores considered as measures of personality traits. scale scores considered as measures of personality traits.

Supplementary ScalesSupplementary Scales

There are 450 supplementary There are 450 supplementary scales for the MMPI. For the MMPI-scales for the MMPI. For the MMPI-2, there are 12 supplementary 2, there are 12 supplementary scales scales

A Summary Evaluation of A Summary Evaluation of the MMPI and MMPI-2the MMPI and MMPI-2

SCREENINGSCREENING. Many clinicians are attracted to . Many clinicians are attracted to theMMPI-2 because of its screening capabilities. When theMMPI-2 because of its screening capabilities. When information about the severity of a patient's problem information about the severity of a patient's problem is needed, and when the condition was general is needed, and when the condition was general hypothesis about a patient's diagnostic status, the hypothesis about a patient's diagnostic status, the MMPI-2 can be a valuable asset. MMPI-2 can be a valuable asset.

THE QUESTION OF PERSONALITY DYNAMICS. THE QUESTION OF PERSONALITY DYNAMICS. The MMP I -2 is atheoretical. The MMPI- 2 is primarily The MMP I -2 is atheoretical. The MMPI- 2 is primarily a measure of various symptoms of psychopathology. a measure of various symptoms of psychopathology. Although the features tapped by the MMPI-2 items Although the features tapped by the MMPI-2 items may suggest certain personality traits or styles, it was may suggest certain personality traits or styles, it was not developed with personality constructs in mind. not developed with personality constructs in mind.

MMPI: Reliability and MMPI: Reliability and Validity Validity

When the MMPI is used in the manner for which it was When the MMPI is used in the manner for which it was designed and validated, it psychometrics properties are designed and validated, it psychometrics properties are likely to be adequate for the clinical research purposes. likely to be adequate for the clinical research purposes. There are two issues related to the validity of MMPI-2 scores: There are two issues related to the validity of MMPI-2 scores: incremental validity is supported if scaled scores provide incremental validity is supported if scaled scores provide information about a person's behavior, personality features, information about a person's behavior, personality features, where psychopathology features that is not provided by where psychopathology features that is not provided by other measures. other measures.

As for the validity of cutoff scores, it is important to keep in As for the validity of cutoff scores, it is important to keep in mind that the optimal cutoff scores will vary depending on mind that the optimal cutoff scores will vary depending on the nature of the population of the patients sampled. the nature of the population of the patients sampled.

MMPI-2 cutoffs were derived using the distribution of scores MMPI-2 cutoffs were derived using the distribution of scores from the normative sample. Therefore, these cutoffs may or from the normative sample. Therefore, these cutoffs may or may not be appropriate in certain clinical context. may not be appropriate in certain clinical context.

MMPI: Personnel Selection MMPI: Personnel Selection and Biasand Bias

Lack of trust in our social institutions Lack of trust in our social institutions and the concern of minorities have and the concern of minorities have been reflected in criticisms of the been reflected in criticisms of the tests. Given the nature of the original tests. Given the nature of the original sample that MMPI was validated on, sample that MMPI was validated on, questions have been raised as to questions have been raised as to whether the instrument may be whether the instrument may be biased against certain ethnic and biased against certain ethnic and racial groups. racial groups.

The Revised NEO-The Revised NEO-Personality InventoryPersonality Inventory

The revised NEO- Personality Inventory is a self- The revised NEO- Personality Inventory is a self- reported measure personality features that reported measure personality features that comprise the influential model of personality known comprise the influential model of personality known as the five-factor model. as the five-factor model.

But five factors or domains are neuroticism, But five factors or domains are neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Each agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Each domain as six facets or subscales-personality traits domain as six facets or subscales-personality traits that represent various aspects of each domain. that represent various aspects of each domain.

The NEO-P I-R consists of 240 items. Individuals The NEO-P I-R consists of 240 items. Individuals read each of the 240 statements on a five-point read each of the 240 statements on a five-point scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree)and strongly agree)

NEO-Personality NEO-Personality Inventory continuedInventory continued The Neo-PI-R was developed using a rational-The Neo-PI-R was developed using a rational-

empirical test construction strategy that empirical test construction strategy that emphasized construct validity. Items selection was emphasized construct validity. Items selection was based on empirical performance; that is the most based on empirical performance; that is the most reliable and valid items were retained. reliable and valid items were retained.

Factor analysis or performed to ensure that the Factor analysis or performed to ensure that the item loaded on their respective factors. item loaded on their respective factors. Approximately half of the NEO-P I-R items are Approximately half of the NEO-P I-R items are reverse scored; that is, lower scores of more reverse scored; that is, lower scores of more indicative of the trait in question. indicative of the trait in question.

The more controversial aspects of the NEO-PI-R lack The more controversial aspects of the NEO-PI-R lack of the validity scale to evaluate the respondence of the validity scale to evaluate the respondence test-taking approaches.test-taking approaches.

NEO-Personality NEO-Personality Inventory continuedInventory continued NORMS. NORMS. Adult norms of based on 500 men 500 women on Adult norms of based on 500 men 500 women on

from several samples of community residents. The from several samples of community residents. The normative sample closely approximates U. S. Census normative sample closely approximates U. S. Census Bureau projections for 1995 in the distribution of fact age Bureau projections for 1995 in the distribution of fact age and racial groups. The NEO-PI-R manual represents and racial groups. The NEO-PI-R manual represents normative data for college students as well. normative data for college students as well.

RELIABILITY AND STABILITYRELIABILITY AND STABILITY. NEO-P I-R scores show . NEO-P I-R scores show excellent levels of both internal consistency and test-retest excellent levels of both internal consistency and test-retest reliability. reliability.

Factor structure. Factor analysis have, in general, the Factor structure. Factor analysis have, in general, the support the hypothesize five-factor structure of the NEO-P I support the hypothesize five-factor structure of the NEO-P I E-R. E-R.

VALIDITY. VALIDITY. The NEO-P I-R manual presents a variety of The NEO-P I-R manual presents a variety of evidence attesting to the validity of the instrument scores. evidence attesting to the validity of the instrument scores.

NEO-Personality NEO-Personality Inventory continuedInventory continued CLINICAL APPLICATIONS.CLINICAL APPLICATIONS. Axis II personality disorders involve by definition, maladapted Axis II personality disorders involve by definition, maladapted

personality traits, these disorders represent and of this personality traits, these disorders represent and of this application for usage of the Neo-PI-R. Further, investigators application for usage of the Neo-PI-R. Further, investigators have begun to evaluate the utility to of the neo-P I-Re in have begun to evaluate the utility to of the neo-P I-Re in assessing personality characteristics of individuals with Axis I assessing personality characteristics of individuals with Axis I mood, anxiety and substance used as orders. Taken mood, anxiety and substance used as orders. Taken together, these studies suggest that the neo-P I-R and related together, these studies suggest that the neo-P I-R and related instruments hold some promise in the area clinical instruments hold some promise in the area clinical assessment. assessment.

ALTERNATE FORMS. ALTERNATE FORMS. A 68-item short form of the neo-P I-R, known as the neo-five A 68-item short form of the neo-P I-R, known as the neo-five

factor inventory may be used when a relatively short factor inventory may be used when a relatively short measure of the five major personality dimensions are measure of the five major personality dimensions are desired. Another version of the neo-P I-R is used for observer desired. Another version of the neo-P I-R is used for observer ratings. ratings.

. .

LIMITATIONS OF THE LIMITATIONS OF THE NEO-P I-RNEO-P I-R

First the NEO-P I-R has been criticized for its relative lack of First the NEO-P I-R has been criticized for its relative lack of validity items. validity items.

Second, the use of the NEO-PI-R for clinical diagnostic Second, the use of the NEO-PI-R for clinical diagnostic purposes remain to be demonstrated. purposes remain to be demonstrated.

Third, but too little research is being conducted on the use Third, but too little research is being conducted on the use of the NEO-P I-R in treatment planning to warrant the routine of the NEO-P I-R in treatment planning to warrant the routine use of this measure in clinical settings at this time. use of this measure in clinical settings at this time.

Finally, several psychometric criticisms have been leveled Finally, several psychometric criticisms have been leveled NEO-P I-R, including intercorrelation among certain domain NEO-P I-R, including intercorrelation among certain domain scores and the placement of certain facets with book in scores and the placement of certain facets with book in particular domainsparticular domains

PROJECTIVE TESTSPROJECTIVE TESTS

Projective tests can be traced to Hermann Projective tests can be traced to Hermann Rorschach's classic 1921 monograph, in Rorschach's classic 1921 monograph, in which he described the use of inkblots as a which he described the use of inkblots as a method for the differential diagnosis of method for the differential diagnosis of psychopathology. psychopathology.

In 1935, Morgan and Murray introduced the In 1935, Morgan and Murray introduced the Thematic Apperception Test and 1938; Thematic Apperception Test and 1938; Murray carefully described the process of Murray carefully described the process of projection. The term projective really came projection. The term projective really came into popular use following L. K. Frank's into popular use following L. K. Frank's widely discussed a 1939 paper on widely discussed a 1939 paper on projective methods.projective methods.

The Nature of Projective The Nature of Projective TestsTests

Projective techniques, taken as a whole, Projective techniques, taken as a whole, but tend to have the following but tend to have the following distinguishing characteristics:distinguishing characteristics:

– In response to what a structure on In response to what a structure on ambiguous stimulus, examinees of force to ambiguous stimulus, examinees of force to impose own structure and, in so doing, impose own structure and, in so doing, reveals something of themselves. reveals something of themselves.

– The stimulus material is unstructured. The stimulus material is unstructured. – The method is indirect. The method is indirect. – There is freedom of response. There is freedom of response. – Response interpretation deals with more Response interpretation deals with more

variables.variables.

Projective Test Measurement Projective Test Measurement and Standardizationand Standardization

The project is, by their very nature, seemed to resist The project is, by their very nature, seemed to resist psychometric evaluation. psychometric evaluation.

StandardizationStandardization. There are so many interacting variables . There are so many interacting variables that standardization interpreter approaches would surely that standardization interpreter approaches would surely destroy the holistic nature of projective tests. After all, destroy the holistic nature of projective tests. After all, they say, interpretation is that art. they say, interpretation is that art.

ReliabilityReliability. Test-retest reliability may be affected by . Test-retest reliability may be affected by psychological changes in the individual. It is true that psychological changes in the individual. It is true that clinicians can opt for establishing reliability through the clinicians can opt for establishing reliability through the use of alternative forms. Even split-half is difficult to use of alternative forms. Even split-half is difficult to ascertain because of the difficulty of demonstrate the ascertain because of the difficulty of demonstrate the equivalents of the two halves of each test.equivalents of the two halves of each test.

Validity.Validity. Because projective have been used for such a Because projective have been used for such a multiplicity of purposes, there is little point in asking multiplicity of purposes, there is little point in asking general questions.general questions.

The RorschachThe Rorschach

The Rorschach consists of 10 cards on which a printed inkblots The Rorschach consists of 10 cards on which a printed inkblots that are symmetrical from the right to left. Five of the ten cards that are symmetrical from the right to left. Five of the ten cards are black and white and the other five are colored. are black and white and the other five are colored.

ADMINISTRATIONADMINISTRATION.. The clinician hands the patient the first card The clinician hands the patient the first card and says, " Tell me what you see-what might be for you. There and says, " Tell me what you see-what might be for you. There are no right or wrong answers. Just tell me what it looks like to are no right or wrong answers. Just tell me what it looks like to you.” All the subsequent cards are administered in order the you.” All the subsequent cards are administered in order the clinician takes down verbatim everything the patients says. clinician takes down verbatim everything the patients says. Some clinicians also record the length of time it takes the patient Some clinicians also record the length of time it takes the patient to make the first response to each part as well as the total time to make the first response to each part as well as the total time spent on each card.spent on each card.

The clinician also notes which the position of the card as each The clinician also notes which the position of the card as each responses given. All spontaneous remarks or exclamations are responses given. All spontaneous remarks or exclamations are also recorded. Following this phase, the clinician moves to also recorded. Following this phase, the clinician moves to whether what is called the inquiry. The patient is reminded of all whether what is called the inquiry. The patient is reminded of all previous responses, one by one, and ask why what it was that previous responses, one by one, and ask why what it was that prompted each response. The patient is also asked indicate for prompted each response. The patient is also asked indicate for each card the exact location of the various responses.each card the exact location of the various responses.

The RorschachThe RorschachScoring TechniquesScoring Techniques

LocationLocation refers to the area of the card to which the patient refers to the area of the card to which the patient responds. responds.

Content refers to the nature of the objects seen. Content refers to the nature of the objects seen. DeterminantsDeterminants refer to those aspects of the card that refer to those aspects of the card that

prompted the patience response. prompted the patience response.

Exner's comprehensive system of scoring is most Exner's comprehensive system of scoring is most frequently used.frequently used.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY. The Rorschach responses The Rorschach responses can be scored reliably across raters. can be scored reliably across raters.

RORSCHACH INKBLOT "METHOD“ RORSCHACH INKBLOT "METHOD“ Weiner argued that Weiner argued that he Rorschach is best conceptualized as a method of data he Rorschach is best conceptualized as a method of data collection, not a test. collection, not a test.

The Thematic Apperception The Thematic Apperception TestTest

The Thematic Apperception Test was introduced by The Thematic Apperception Test was introduced by Morgan and Murray in 1935. It purports to reveal Morgan and Murray in 1935. It purports to reveal patience basic personality characteristics through the patience basic personality characteristics through the interpretation of their imaginative productions in interpretation of their imaginative productions in response to a series of pictures. response to a series of pictures.

Most clinician issues that T A T as a method of Most clinician issues that T A T as a method of informing psychological needs at of disclosing how the informing psychological needs at of disclosing how the patient interacts with the environment. The TAT is patient interacts with the environment. The TAT is used in for the content of personality and the mold of used in for the content of personality and the mold of social interactions. With the T A T, clinicians are likely social interactions. With the T A T, clinicians are likely to make specific judgments. The TAT is less likely to be to make specific judgments. The TAT is less likely to be used to assess the degree of maladjustments than to used to assess the degree of maladjustments than to reveal the locus of problem, the nature and needs or reveal the locus of problem, the nature and needs or the quality of interpersonal relationships.the quality of interpersonal relationships.

TAT DescriptionTAT Description

Their 31 TAT cards most of the people in a variety of Their 31 TAT cards most of the people in a variety of situations, but a few contain only objects. And one is a situations, but a few contain only objects. And one is a blank card. Some are said to be useful for boys and men, blank card. Some are said to be useful for boys and men, some for girls and women, and some for both genders. some for girls and women, and some for both genders. Murray suggested that 20 of the 31 cards be selected for a Murray suggested that 20 of the 31 cards be selected for a given examinee. given examinee.

ADMINISTRATION. ADMINISTRATION. In practice, clinicians typically select In practice, clinicians typically select somewhere between six and 12 cards for administration to somewhere between six and 12 cards for administration to be a given patient.be a given patient.

Exact instructions used vary from clinician to clinician it Exact instructions used vary from clinician to clinician it goes something like this: Now, I want you to make up a goes something like this: Now, I want you to make up a story about each of these pictures. Tell me who the people story about each of these pictures. Tell me who the people are, what are they doing, what they are thinking or feeling, are, what are they doing, what they are thinking or feeling, what led up to the scene, and how it will turn out. OK?what led up to the scene, and how it will turn out. OK?

TATTAT Reliability and Reliability and ValidityValidity Is very difficult to evaluate the reliability Is very difficult to evaluate the reliability

and validity of the T A T in any formal and validity of the T A T in any formal sense. There are so many variations in sense. There are so many variations in instructions, methods of administration, instructions, methods of administration, number of cards used, and the type of number of cards used, and the type of scoring system if any, that hard scoring system if any, that hard conclusions are virtually impossible. conclusions are virtually impossible.

The same methodological issues arise The same methodological issues arise when studying reliability.when studying reliability.

Sentence Completion Sentence Completion TechniquesTechniques

Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank - the Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank - the complete sentence blank consists of 40 sentence complete sentence blank consists of 40 sentence stems. Each of the completions can be sorted all stems. Each of the completions can be sorted all law a seven. Scale to provide a general index of law a seven. Scale to provide a general index of adjustment-maladjustment. adjustment-maladjustment.

ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES. The scoring is objective and . The scoring is objective and reliable. It can be used easily and economically, reliable. It can be used easily and economically, and it appears to be a good screening device. and it appears to be a good screening device. The ISB provide a cognitive and behavior picture The ISB provide a cognitive and behavior picture of the patient rather than a deep, of the patient rather than a deep, psychodynamic picture.psychodynamic picture.

Incremental UtilityIncremental Utility

Incremental validity refers to the degree of Incremental validity refers to the degree of which a procedure and adds to the which a procedure and adds to the prediction obtainable from other sources. prediction obtainable from other sources. For an assessment procedure to be of real For an assessment procedure to be of real value, it must tell clinicians something of value, it must tell clinicians something of importance that they cannot get from importance that they cannot get from merely inspecting the base rates for the merely inspecting the base rates for the population of interest. population of interest.

Finally, it should be noted that a given Finally, it should be noted that a given assessment instrument must demonstrate assessment instrument must demonstrate incremental validity over other more incremental validity over other more economical measures to justify its use. economical measures to justify its use.

Illusory CorrelationIllusory Correlation

The interpretation of projective tests The interpretation of projective tests responses depend heavily on the responses depend heavily on the psychodiagnostician's experience.psychodiagnostician's experience.

Illusory correlation based on Illusory correlation based on associative strength can introduce a associative strength can introduce a powerful source of error.powerful source of error.

The Use and Abuse of The Use and Abuse of TestingTesting Testing is big business. Psychological, educational, and Personnel Corporations sell Testing is big business. Psychological, educational, and Personnel Corporations sell many thousands of tests each year. many thousands of tests each year.

ProtectionsProtections. The American psychological Association's ethical standards require . The American psychological Association's ethical standards require that psychologists use only techniques or procedures that lie within their that psychologists use only techniques or procedures that lie within their competence. competence.

In addition, the purchase of Testing Materials is generally restricted by the publisher In addition, the purchase of Testing Materials is generally restricted by the publisher to individuals or institutions that can demonstrate their competence in administering, to individuals or institutions that can demonstrate their competence in administering, scoring, and interpreting tests. scoring, and interpreting tests.

The question of privacyThe question of privacy. The examinee must be given only test relevant to the . The examinee must be given only test relevant to the purpose of the evaluation. purpose of the evaluation.

The question of confidentialityThe question of confidentiality. Information revealed to psychiatrist and clinical . Information revealed to psychiatrist and clinical psychologist is typically regarded as a privilege, there are continuing assaults on the psychologist is typically regarded as a privilege, there are continuing assaults on the right to withhold such information. For example, the Tarasoff decision of the plant right to withhold such information. For example, the Tarasoff decision of the plant California Supreme Court makes it clear that information provided by a patient in the California Supreme Court makes it clear that information provided by a patient in the course of therapy cannot remain privileged if that information indicates that the course of therapy cannot remain privileged if that information indicates that the patient may be dangerous. patient may be dangerous.

The question of discriminationThe question of discrimination. Within psychology, attacks have centered on . Within psychology, attacks have centered on ways in which test discriminate against minorities. It is often charge that most ways in which test discriminate against minorities. It is often charge that most psychological tests are really designed for white middle-class population and that psychological tests are really designed for white middle-class population and that other groups are being tested with the devices that are inappropriate for them. other groups are being tested with the devices that are inappropriate for them.

Test biasTest bias. It is important to remember that significant differences between man . It is important to remember that significant differences between man scores on a test different groups do not in and of themselves indicate test bias or scores on a test different groups do not in and of themselves indicate test bias or discrimination. Rather, test bias or discrimination is a validity issue. That is, if it can discrimination. Rather, test bias or discrimination is a validity issue. That is, if it can be demonstrated that the validity of a tests varies significantly across groups, then a be demonstrated that the validity of a tests varies significantly across groups, then a case can be made that the test is biased for that purpose case can be made that the test is biased for that purpose

Computer-based Computer-based AssessmentAssessment..

Computers have been used for years to support tests and to generate Computers have been used for years to support tests and to generate psychological profiles. Now they are also used to a minister in interpret psychological profiles. Now they are also used to a minister in interpret responses to clinical interviews, IQ tests, a self reported inventories, and responses to clinical interviews, IQ tests, a self reported inventories, and even projective tests. The reason given for using computers include cutting even projective tests. The reason given for using computers include cutting costs, enhancing its clients' attention and motivation, and standardizing costs, enhancing its clients' attention and motivation, and standardizing procedures across clinicians. The increasing use of Internet-mediated procedures across clinicians. The increasing use of Internet-mediated psychological assessment raises a number of issues. First relatively few psychological assessment raises a number of issues. First relatively few studies have demonstrated that Internet-based vs. traditional psychological studies have demonstrated that Internet-based vs. traditional psychological test possess the same psychometric qualities. Second, online assessment test possess the same psychometric qualities. Second, online assessment may also be subjects to confounding factors like a lack of control over the may also be subjects to confounding factors like a lack of control over the testing situation, distractions, or technical problems. All these may serve to testing situation, distractions, or technical problems. All these may serve to make the on line test scores less valid. make the on line test scores less valid.

Computer -based test interpretations have Computer -based test interpretations have the advantagesthe advantages of generating of generating interpretive findings quickly, of minimizing subjectively in selecting interpretive findings quickly, of minimizing subjectively in selecting interpretations of scores, and of accessing a large databases and processing interpretations of scores, and of accessing a large databases and processing potentially complex scores patterns, there are numbers of limitations as well. potentially complex scores patterns, there are numbers of limitations as well.

Limitations:Limitations:First many CBTI systems have not been adequately scrutinized First many CBTI systems have not been adequately scrutinized from a scientific standpoint, and thus, in accurately interpretations result. from a scientific standpoint, and thus, in accurately interpretations result.

Second, the impression of scientific precision may lead clinicians to Second, the impression of scientific precision may lead clinicians to indiscriminately use CBTI material when it is not relevant or not appropriate. indiscriminately use CBTI material when it is not relevant or not appropriate. Therefore, CBTIs must be shown to be reliable, valid, and clinically useful. Therefore, CBTIs must be shown to be reliable, valid, and clinically useful.

Ultimately, the have of any Ultimately, the have of any clinical assessment instrument clinical assessment instrument will depend on whether the will depend on whether the information provided by the test information provided by the test is useful for planning, conducting, is useful for planning, conducting, in evaluating treatment. in evaluating treatment.