CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Translation and Register

Translation not only replaces one language to other language but also

utters the meaning and delivers it to the target language. Bassnett (2002: 12) states

that a good translation is when the translation from source language and target

language has similar message, idea and meaning. Moreover, the translator should

consider the structure of the translation in order to make it as close as possible

with source text without making the target text structures distorted.

Ordudari (2007: 1)explains further about translation that there are various

kinds of texts that can be translated. The main focus of the translation is to

reproduce different kinds of texts—including religious, literary, scientific, and

philosophical texts—to another language so that it can be consume for wider

reader or audiences. It can be done by transferring the message either in spoken or

written form from one language as Source Language into another as Target

Language so it can be understood with the exact meaning by target readers.

Basically, there are differences between translating general words and

translating words on technical terms. When translating technical terms, a

translator has to understand the context of the text and what register the text

refers to. Santosa (2003) stated that register is known as a language variation

based on use in a particular context of situation and a context of culture. It is a

holistic concept of the use of language to express a particular meaning intended in

the context. Munday (2001: 90-91) stated a Halliday’s model of discourse analysis

means that the context of situation construes three variable elements: field, tenor,

and mode; which work simultaneously to construct a contextual configuration or a

configuration of meaning which determines the use of language.

As stated above there are three aspects of situation, this research focus on

medical terms as a field of the research.In House’s model, field refers to the

subject matter and social action and covers the specificity of lexical items

(Munday 2001:93). For example, in medical terms there is a term “v-fib”, it refers

to “denyut jantung tak teratur”, a condition in which there is uncoordinated

contraction of the cardiac muscle of the ventricles in the heart, making them

quiver rather than contract properly. The “v-fib” is a register for doctor, when

translator translates it into “denyut jantung tak teratur” they consider the register

for audiences which from many different social background.

From those explanation about the definition of translation and register

above, it can be concluded that translation is not only transfering the message

from the one language (SL) into another language (TL) but there are aspects that

have to be considered i.e. transferring the equivalence of meaning and the style of

the source language and considering the purpose of the source language. The

translation also have to be equivalent while considering the register of the

audience.

B. Definition of Terms

There are various definitions of terms which are stated by various experts.

For general description of terminology, Pozzi states that terminology is “the

ancient process of naming concepts and objects belonging to a special subject or

field constitutes an essential part of what is now known as the discipline of

terminology” (Pozzi 1996:68). Budin (2000) also states terms as a structured set

of designations and concepts in a specific subject field in a certain language.

Moreover, Rogers (2007:13) defines term as a lexical unit with a

specialized meaning relating to a particular domain. Rogers gives an example of a

same word in a different field that lead to completely different meaning, e.g virus

(information technology) versus virus (microbiology), platform (general

language relating to train stations) versus platform (software); a term can be

multiword e.g. computerized axial tomography or an abbreviation e.g. CAT or

CT.

When translating terms, translators have to know the context and the field

of the terms so that translators can find the right equivalence when transfer terms

intotarget language.Munday (2001: 47–48) stated thatequivalence is a much

debated concept within the field of translation studies, so translatorsshould follow

principles of terminology like aiming at accuracy one of the formal theory

equivalence that can be followed by translator is Koller’s formal equivalence.

Munday also stated that the terms should be appropriate translation equivalents

adapted in spelling and should be found in up-to-date parallel texts that are

representative of the field. The theory wasproposed by Koller who argues that it is

related to “equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts”. There are five

different types of equivalence (Koller quoted in Munday 2001:47) that are stated

below:

1. ‘Denotative equivalence’ refers to the extralinguistic content of a text.

2. ‘Connotative equivalence’ refers to the lexical choices e.g. between near-

synonyms.

3. ‘Text-normative equivalence’ refers to different kinds of text types.

4. ‘Pragmatic equivalence’ refers to the orientation towards the receiver of

the text.

5. ‘Formal equivalence’ refers to the form and the aesthetics of the text.

The theory covers a wide variety of translation aspects, depending on what

kind of problems that have occurred. From different definitions of terms stated by

the experts above, it can be concluded that terms is different from common words

or phrases. Term is related to certain aspects ina particular subject field. In this

research the field of technical term is medical field. It can also be concluded that

when translating technical terms there are aspects that have to be considered by

translator, for example finding equivalence meaning of the term by considering

the context and the field.

C. Definition of Medical Term

Based on general definition of the term above, it shows that term is a word

that has a special meaning depending on the field of the word itself. Medical terms

is one of the example of technical terms, because medical terms is the professional

language forpeople that study about all kinds of branches in a medical field.

People who do not learn about medical often assume that medical terms are long

unpronounceable words that only experts can understand. In fact, people use

medical terms every day. People commonly use medical terms such as: influenza,

cancer, betadine or cardiac disease.

There are three categories of medical terms, each of them is used within its

specific group of people for communication, information and documentation

(Fogelberg and Petersson quoted in Rask 2008:7)

1. Scientific medical terms used among professional medical staff

For example, a term percutaneously means denoting the passage of

substances through unbroken skin, as in absorption by inunction; also

passage through the skin by needle puncture, including introduction of

wires and catheters by Seldinger technique(Farlex, 2012). Proffesional

medical staffs use the medical term becauseit is generally known among

them and also that term is briefer.

2. General medical terms used between medical staff and patients

For example, a term gastroschisis, instead of telling the patient with that

term usually medical staffs use more general term or often descibe it. For

term gastrochisis medical staffs can explain it with a birth defect in which

an infant's intestines are outside of the body because of a hole in the

abdominal wall (Lee, 2013).It will make the patient understand it.

3. Medical terms used among medical staff (often jargon)

For example, the term Rule of Five means that if more than five of the

patient's orifices are obscured by tubing, he has no chance of survival. It is

usually used only among medical staffs.

Löning, asquoted in Herget and Alegre (2009), also proposed similar

typology which differentiates four main levels according to the degree of

specialization among the communication partners and the aim of the text or the

conversation:

1. professional - professional (doctor – doctor)

2. professional - semi-professional (doctor – medical student/health

personnel)

3. professional - non-professional (doctor – patient)

4. non-professional - non-professional (journalist – reader)

D. Translating Technical Terms

Translating a text with technical terms can bring different problems. The

choice of the technique of translation depends on the characteristics of the source

text and the target text as well as the culture and the function in the context. In

intercultural communication it is necessary to consider the differences of

background knowledge of the target text audiences.

One of translation technique theories is defined by Molina and Albir

(2002: 509). They define translation techniques as “procedures to analyze and

classify how translation equivalence works”. They also state that translation

techniques are affecting the quality of translation and can be used to find solutions

for different types of translation (2002: 507). The translation techniques proposed

by Molina and Albir are elaborated as follows:

1. Adaptation

Adaptation replaces a cultural element from a source text with the ones

from the target culture text to make it more familiar and appropriate in the

target text. In order to avoid distortion meaning, both of two terms must have

the same concept. For example:

ST: as white as snow.

TT: seputih kapas

Instead of translating snow into salju, the translator changes it into kapas

to make it more acceptable for target readers, because snow is a concept from

four seasons country while kapas is a concept from tropical country.

2. Amplification

Amplification adds or introduces detail information that is not formulated

in the source text. This technique is the opposite of reduction. For example:

ST: Lebaran

TT: Lebaran, is an Islamic celebration to mark the end of the fasting month

of Ramadhan.

The example above explains meaning lebaran that is unavailable term in

the target language. The translator provides detail information that is not

formulated in the source text, which is an Islamic celebration to mark the end

of the fasting month of Ramadhan. It makes the readers have the idea about

the meaning.

3. Borrowing

Borrowing is used when the translator finds difficulty in finding the

equivalence of the words. Thus, the translator takes directly the words or

expression from the ST to the TT.

There are two types of borrowing techniques:

a. Pure borrowing is a translation technique that completely takes the

terms or words directly from the source language without any changes

into target language. For example:

ST: Pushing 150 propofol

TT: Menyuntikkan 150 propofol

The example above is pure borrowing, because the word propofol is

borrowed without any change.

b. Naturalized borrowing is a translation technique that takes directly

the terms or the words from the source language by naturalizing the

spelling into the target language. For example:

ST: Prep for craniotomy

TT: Siapkan untuk kraniotomi

The word kraniotomi is the example of naturalized borrowing, since

the word craniotomy is borrowed by naturalizing it into Indonesian

spelling.

4. Calque

Calque is the literal translation of a foreign word or phrase, that

following the structure or lexical. For example:

ST: Operation Room

TT: Ruang Operasi

Operation Roomis a phrase that is usually used in the SL. It is translated

into Ruang operasiand it is acceptable in TL.

5. Compensation

The translator uses compensation if there is an element from the

source text that cannot be reproduced and reflected in the same place in the

target text. It can be replaced by adding a compensated source-language

element somewhere else in the target text. For example:

ST: I thought that I pulled a muscle, so I trained through it.

TT: Kukira aku hanya terkilir. Jadi aku berlatih dengan menahan rasa

sakit itu.

Instead of translating pulled a muscle into menarik otot, the

translator changes it into terkilir to make it more acceptable for target

readers, because terkilir is more familiar in target text.

6. Description

Description is not quite different from amplification because

description is like adding more words to give information. But description

technique leaves out the original term or expression and replaces the entire

words or phrases in a descriptive explanation. For example:

ST: We'll go in percutaneously.

TT: Kita akan masuk melalui kulit.

In the source text, percutaneous means medical procedure where access to

inner organs or other tissue done by needle-puncture of the skin, but in the

target text, people might have no idea what percutaneously is, so the

translator describes it by giving an explanation.

7. Discursive creation

Discursive creation is used to establish a temporary equivalence

that is very unpredictable out of context following the translator creativity.

It is usually used in the translation of a title of literary products. For

example:

ST: Great Alexandre

TT: Aleksander yang Agung

8. Established equivalence

Established equivalence is a translation technique that uses a term

or an expression that is recognized by dictionaries or language in use, as

the equivalence in the target language. For example:

SL: No breath sounds on the right.

TL: Tak ada bunyi napas di kanan.

Breath sound is translated into target text as bunyi napas. In Indonesian

dictionary or glossary, breath sound can be found with its translation bunyi

napas.

9. Generalization

Generalization is translation technique that replaces a word or term

from the source language with a more general or neutral term. For

example, penthouse is translated into tempat tinggal. Penthouse is an

apartment on the top floor of a tall building, typically luxuriously fitted

and offering fine views. But in the target language, readers usually use

tempat tinggal generally.

10. Linguistic amplification

Linguistic amplification is translation technique that adds some

linguistic elements on target text in order to make them clear. It is the

opposite of linguistic compression. For example:

SL: No, I don’t

TL: Tidak, aku tidak suka padamu.

In English language as source language, it is possible to use a simple

sentence such as “yes I do, no I don’t, yes I will etc.” But the target

language or Indonesian language does not use that kind of simple sentence

construction.

11. Linguistic compression

Linguistic compression is translation technique that reduces some

linguistic elements of the source text. It is the opposite of linguistic

amplification. For example:

ST: Yes, I will.

TT: Ya, aku akan memberi makan anjingmu.

The example in source text shows a complete sentence of linguistic part,

and for simplicity, the translator compresses it and only translates the main

message of the source text.

12. Literal Translation

Literal Translation is done by translating a word or an expression

literary word for word. For example:

ST: Killing two birds with one stone.

TT: Membunuh dua burung dengan satu batu.

The example above shows a sentence that is translated word by word or

literally. Every word is fully translated.

13. Modulation

Modulation is translation technique that changes a point of view of

the source language text either structurally or lexically. For example:

SL: Nia bought me a chicken yesterday

TL: Aku dibelikan ikan oleh Nia kemarin

The translator transfers the message in other point of view even though

both of the sentences have the same message. The construction of source

text shows an active sentence, whereas target text is a passive sentence.

14. Particularization

Particularization is translation technique that uses more precise or

concrete term in the TL. In other words, it changes specific terms into

general terms. It is the opposite of generalization. For example:

SL: book.

TL: komik, majalah, buku pelajaran.

Book is translated into more particular word of book such as “komik”,

“majalah”, “buku pelajaran”.

15. Reduction

Reduction is the opposite to amplification technique. Reduction

suppresses ST information items in the target language text.For example:

SL: Jokowi, the president of republic of Indonesia.

TL: Jokowi

In the source text, Jokowi is given more information to avoid the

confusion of the readers who do not know about Jokowi. Jokowi is the

president of Indonesia. Indonesian readers do not need the explanation

anymore.

Different from linguistic compression, reduction is about

information of certain objects, while linguistic compression compresses

sentences in the term of linguistics.

16. Substitution

Substitution is translation technique that changes paralinguistic

elements (gesture and body language) into verbal. It is usually used in

interpreting process. For example, a speaker from India is pressing palm

together with a smile, the interpreter translates into greeting act, like

“hello” or “goodbye”.

17. Transposition

Transposition is a translation technique that changes source text

grammatical category in the target text, for example from verb to noun or

phrase to word. This technique is used because the grammatical structure

and language systems are often different in other languages and require

structural adjustment. For example:

SL: clot

TL: membeku

Clot in the SL is a noun, and it is translated into membeku, which

is a verb in TL.

18. Variation

Variation is a translation technique that changes linguistic or

paralinguistic elements, which influence linguistic variation (textual tone,

style, geographical dialect, and social dialect). For example:

ST: hi chick?

TT: hai cewek

Chick, is the example of slang word or non-standard English

language that is used by some people. The translator chooses variation

word to make the translation sounds more natural based on the context

situation and the culture of the readers.

The following techniques are translation techniques proposed by Newmark

(1988: 81-91) in his book entitled A Textbook of Translation which also employed

to analyze the translation, they are:

1. Couplets and Triplets

This technique combines two or three different techniques

respectively for dealing with a single problem. It is particularly common

for translating cultural words.

Example:

ST: Get the OR ready for an endovascular repair.

TT: Siapkan ruang operasi untuk operasi endovaskuler.

The translator translates the phrase “endovascular repair.” by

applying two techniques; they are naturalized borrowing technique and

established equivalence. First technique is established equivalence. The

translator transfers the word “repair” into “operasi”. Second technique is

naturalized borrowing. The translator borrows the word “endovascular”

into “endovaskuler”; it adapts SL to the normal pronunciation and the

spelling rules in TL.

2. Through Translation

Through translation technique is employed by putting literal

translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the

components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. This technique is also

known as calque or loan translation. Normally, through translation should

be applied only when the terms are already recognized globally.

Example:

ST: It's not in their DNA.

TT: Tidak ada dalam DNA mereka.

From example above, the terms of DNA is loaned by the translator.

DNA is an abbreviation of Deoxyribonucleic acid which meansmolecule

that encode genetic information. This technique is applied by the translator

by loaning the terms of DNA, since it is an internationally recognized in

medical terms.

3. Shifts or Transposition

Shift or transposition is a translation technique which is changing

the grammar from SL into TL. It is similar with the theory of transposition

proposed by Molina & Albir. There are five types of shift or transposition

stated by Newmark:

a. The change from singular to plural. Example:

ST: She was born with her intestines outside of her body.

TT: Dia terlahir dengan ususnya di luar tubuh.

According to example above, there is a changing of plural

into singular. The word “intestines” (plural) is translated into

“usus” (singular). It can be seen from the suffix –s in ST which

shows plurality in English. However, there is no system of adding

suffix –s as the marker of plurality in Bahasa Indonesia. This

technique is also done for conversely, from singular to plural.

b. The change is required when a source language

grammaticalstructure does not exist in the target language.

c. The one where literal translation is grammatically possible but

maynot accord with natural usage in the target language. Example:

ST: He's hypotensive and tachycardic.

TT: Dia hipotensi dan takikardi.

In the example above, there is a change of verb into noun.

The adjective “hypotensive” is transferred into a noun “hipotensi”.

This technique may be applied because the translation provides

equivalent meaning.

d. The replacement of a virtual lexical gap by grammatical structure.

e. The illustration of a frequent tension between grammar and stress.

E. Quality Assessment of Translation

Nababan (2003: 86) mentioned three main points of translation quality

assessment, 1) the accuracy of transferring the message, 2) the accuracy of

expressing the message to target language, and 3) the language naturalness of the

translation. There are three aspects in translation quality assessment that the

translator should concern with. Those are accuracy, acceptability, and readability.

1. Accuracy

Translator should deliver the information from the source language

into the target language properly and accurately. Accuracy is about finding

the equivalence of meaning and that is the point of the quality of

translation.It is stated by Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:3) that how

accurate the translation is can be seen from how match the translation with

the original text. It is aboutmaintaining the original or existing information

content of ST in TT, with an accuratetranslation.Its actual meaningin

context of a given translation must depend on the type of equivalence

found in the translation.

According to Nababan (2004: 61) “an evaluation of accuracy of the

translation is intended to find out whether the content of the source

language is accurately translated into SL”. So, translation can be called

accurate if the idea and the message of the source language and target

language is the same.

Baker (1992:57) also states that “accuracy is no doubt an important

aim in translation, but it is also important to bear in mind that the use of

common target-language patterns which are familiar to the target reader

plays an important role in keeping the communication channels open”. It

means that accuracy in translation is indeed very important but despite of it

a translator has to consider about the naturalization of the choosen word in

target language, so that target readers can fully understand the meaning of

the translation.

2. Acceptability

Translation product should be natural in order to make it

acceptable in target language system. It refers to the naturalness of the

translated text. Acceptability considers about the norm,culture, and rule

which exist in target language. Nida and Taber (1982: 12) state that a good

translation does not sound like a translation. They also state that translator

have to translate it with the closest equivalent but still the first priority is

the meaning(Nida and Taber 1982: 13). It means that acceptable

translation of medical terms emerges when the translation is appropriate

with TL norms and it does not sound like a translation, but the most

important is the equivalence of the meaning.

3. Readability

Readability considers the readers’ understanding towards the text.

The measurement is how understandable the translation for the target

audiences. The translation can be said to be good if the readers understand

well the meaning, idea, and context of the text (source language). Richard

et al as cited in Nababan (2003:62) says that the readability aspect

encompasses how easily written translation can be read and understood by

the readers. He also stated that readability depends on the average length

of sentence, the number of new words, and the grammatical complexity of

the language used.It means that translators have to considertheir choice of

words to make the target audiences fully understand the message without

much thinking.

F. Review of Related Studies

There have been many researches conducted in various subject fields. This

subchapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-

depth search done by the researcher. There have been some studies about

technique of translating technical terms and its influence towards its quality in the

previous research.

In the previous research, Novia Rizky (2014) and Stevia Mega (2013)

analyzed the translation of technical terms specifically in sport field, i.e.

basketball terms and football terms. Another research analyzed by Roswita

Silalahi (2009) to find out the impact of the translation techniques, methods, and

ideologies on the quality of translated text Medical-Surgical Nursing in Bahasa

Indonesia. There are also some journals that discuss about translation of medical

terms. Katrin Herget and Teresa Alegre (2009) discussed the translation

difficulties which arise from translating medical terms from Portugese into

German. The main focus of this journal was to analyze the communication

between non-professionals. Nina Rask (2008) also analyzed a medical translation

in terminology and cultural aspects. She specifically analyzed the difficulties in

translating a medical text from English into Swedish.

This research focuses on technical terms specifically in medical terms

field. This research also only focuses in analyzing techniques applied by translator

and the impacts toward the translation quality of medical terms translation.

Researcher used tv series as the main source of data.

G. About the Tv Series Grey’s Anatomy

The researcher used the tv series entitled Grey’s Anatomy. Grey's Anatomy

is an American medical drama television series created by Shonda Rhimes. This

tv series air in several tv cable channel which provide subtitle for several

languages. According to official website of American Broadcasting Company

(ABC), Grey’s Anatomy premiered on ABC on March 27, 2005 and still on going

until now. The tv series is directed by Kevin McKidd and written by Shonda

Rhimes. The tv series is produced by Ann Kindberg and executively produced by

Shonda Rhimes. The cast includes Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey, Chandra

Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey, along with Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang, T. R.

Knight as Dr. George O'Malley, Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens, Justin

Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev, and Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd. The tv

series is distributed by Buena Vista Home Entertainment and Disney–ABC

Domestic Television.

The show tells about Meredith Grey and her life as a resident at the

hospital and her relationship with her neurosurgeon husband, Derek Shepherd and

best friend Cristina Yang. It also explores her relationships with her peers and the

other doctors around her. Each episode relates into different medical cases and

personal dramas of the doctors at Seattle Grace Hospital.The series was created to

be racially diverse, it can be seen from the cast which consist from many different

race.

Researcher chooses this series because this series focuses on the fictional

lives of surgical interns and residents as they gradually evolve into seasoned

doctors, while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. Because of that,

there are many medical terms found in this series. All the characters are basically

linked with hospital life, whether they are doctors, nurses, or even patients. In this

series there are several degree of specialization among communication partners.

This case leads translators to master the meaning of the medical term so that the

translators can deliver it to the audiences with the equivalent terms without

changing the meaning yet still understandable.