chapter ii literature review a. translation and register · the word kraniotomi is the example of...
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Translation and Register
Translation not only replaces one language to other language but also
utters the meaning and delivers it to the target language. Bassnett (2002: 12) states
that a good translation is when the translation from source language and target
language has similar message, idea and meaning. Moreover, the translator should
consider the structure of the translation in order to make it as close as possible
with source text without making the target text structures distorted.
Ordudari (2007: 1)explains further about translation that there are various
kinds of texts that can be translated. The main focus of the translation is to
reproduce different kinds of texts—including religious, literary, scientific, and
philosophical texts—to another language so that it can be consume for wider
reader or audiences. It can be done by transferring the message either in spoken or
written form from one language as Source Language into another as Target
Language so it can be understood with the exact meaning by target readers.
Basically, there are differences between translating general words and
translating words on technical terms. When translating technical terms, a
translator has to understand the context of the text and what register the text
refers to. Santosa (2003) stated that register is known as a language variation
based on use in a particular context of situation and a context of culture. It is a
holistic concept of the use of language to express a particular meaning intended in
the context. Munday (2001: 90-91) stated a Halliday’s model of discourse analysis
means that the context of situation construes three variable elements: field, tenor,
and mode; which work simultaneously to construct a contextual configuration or a
configuration of meaning which determines the use of language.
As stated above there are three aspects of situation, this research focus on
medical terms as a field of the research.In House’s model, field refers to the
subject matter and social action and covers the specificity of lexical items
(Munday 2001:93). For example, in medical terms there is a term “v-fib”, it refers
to “denyut jantung tak teratur”, a condition in which there is uncoordinated
contraction of the cardiac muscle of the ventricles in the heart, making them
quiver rather than contract properly. The “v-fib” is a register for doctor, when
translator translates it into “denyut jantung tak teratur” they consider the register
for audiences which from many different social background.
From those explanation about the definition of translation and register
above, it can be concluded that translation is not only transfering the message
from the one language (SL) into another language (TL) but there are aspects that
have to be considered i.e. transferring the equivalence of meaning and the style of
the source language and considering the purpose of the source language. The
translation also have to be equivalent while considering the register of the
audience.
B. Definition of Terms
There are various definitions of terms which are stated by various experts.
For general description of terminology, Pozzi states that terminology is “the
ancient process of naming concepts and objects belonging to a special subject or
field constitutes an essential part of what is now known as the discipline of
terminology” (Pozzi 1996:68). Budin (2000) also states terms as a structured set
of designations and concepts in a specific subject field in a certain language.
Moreover, Rogers (2007:13) defines term as a lexical unit with a
specialized meaning relating to a particular domain. Rogers gives an example of a
same word in a different field that lead to completely different meaning, e.g virus
(information technology) versus virus (microbiology), platform (general
language relating to train stations) versus platform (software); a term can be
multiword e.g. computerized axial tomography or an abbreviation e.g. CAT or
CT.
When translating terms, translators have to know the context and the field
of the terms so that translators can find the right equivalence when transfer terms
intotarget language.Munday (2001: 47–48) stated thatequivalence is a much
debated concept within the field of translation studies, so translatorsshould follow
principles of terminology like aiming at accuracy one of the formal theory
equivalence that can be followed by translator is Koller’s formal equivalence.
Munday also stated that the terms should be appropriate translation equivalents
adapted in spelling and should be found in up-to-date parallel texts that are
representative of the field. The theory wasproposed by Koller who argues that it is
related to “equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts”. There are five
different types of equivalence (Koller quoted in Munday 2001:47) that are stated
below:
1. ‘Denotative equivalence’ refers to the extralinguistic content of a text.
2. ‘Connotative equivalence’ refers to the lexical choices e.g. between near-
synonyms.
3. ‘Text-normative equivalence’ refers to different kinds of text types.
4. ‘Pragmatic equivalence’ refers to the orientation towards the receiver of
the text.
5. ‘Formal equivalence’ refers to the form and the aesthetics of the text.
The theory covers a wide variety of translation aspects, depending on what
kind of problems that have occurred. From different definitions of terms stated by
the experts above, it can be concluded that terms is different from common words
or phrases. Term is related to certain aspects ina particular subject field. In this
research the field of technical term is medical field. It can also be concluded that
when translating technical terms there are aspects that have to be considered by
translator, for example finding equivalence meaning of the term by considering
the context and the field.
C. Definition of Medical Term
Based on general definition of the term above, it shows that term is a word
that has a special meaning depending on the field of the word itself. Medical terms
is one of the example of technical terms, because medical terms is the professional
language forpeople that study about all kinds of branches in a medical field.
People who do not learn about medical often assume that medical terms are long
unpronounceable words that only experts can understand. In fact, people use
medical terms every day. People commonly use medical terms such as: influenza,
cancer, betadine or cardiac disease.
There are three categories of medical terms, each of them is used within its
specific group of people for communication, information and documentation
(Fogelberg and Petersson quoted in Rask 2008:7)
1. Scientific medical terms used among professional medical staff
For example, a term percutaneously means denoting the passage of
substances through unbroken skin, as in absorption by inunction; also
passage through the skin by needle puncture, including introduction of
wires and catheters by Seldinger technique(Farlex, 2012). Proffesional
medical staffs use the medical term becauseit is generally known among
them and also that term is briefer.
2. General medical terms used between medical staff and patients
For example, a term gastroschisis, instead of telling the patient with that
term usually medical staffs use more general term or often descibe it. For
term gastrochisis medical staffs can explain it with a birth defect in which
an infant's intestines are outside of the body because of a hole in the
abdominal wall (Lee, 2013).It will make the patient understand it.
3. Medical terms used among medical staff (often jargon)
For example, the term Rule of Five means that if more than five of the
patient's orifices are obscured by tubing, he has no chance of survival. It is
usually used only among medical staffs.
Löning, asquoted in Herget and Alegre (2009), also proposed similar
typology which differentiates four main levels according to the degree of
specialization among the communication partners and the aim of the text or the
conversation:
1. professional - professional (doctor – doctor)
2. professional - semi-professional (doctor – medical student/health
personnel)
3. professional - non-professional (doctor – patient)
4. non-professional - non-professional (journalist – reader)
D. Translating Technical Terms
Translating a text with technical terms can bring different problems. The
choice of the technique of translation depends on the characteristics of the source
text and the target text as well as the culture and the function in the context. In
intercultural communication it is necessary to consider the differences of
background knowledge of the target text audiences.
One of translation technique theories is defined by Molina and Albir
(2002: 509). They define translation techniques as “procedures to analyze and
classify how translation equivalence works”. They also state that translation
techniques are affecting the quality of translation and can be used to find solutions
for different types of translation (2002: 507). The translation techniques proposed
by Molina and Albir are elaborated as follows:
1. Adaptation
Adaptation replaces a cultural element from a source text with the ones
from the target culture text to make it more familiar and appropriate in the
target text. In order to avoid distortion meaning, both of two terms must have
the same concept. For example:
ST: as white as snow.
TT: seputih kapas
Instead of translating snow into salju, the translator changes it into kapas
to make it more acceptable for target readers, because snow is a concept from
four seasons country while kapas is a concept from tropical country.
2. Amplification
Amplification adds or introduces detail information that is not formulated
in the source text. This technique is the opposite of reduction. For example:
ST: Lebaran
TT: Lebaran, is an Islamic celebration to mark the end of the fasting month
of Ramadhan.
The example above explains meaning lebaran that is unavailable term in
the target language. The translator provides detail information that is not
formulated in the source text, which is an Islamic celebration to mark the end
of the fasting month of Ramadhan. It makes the readers have the idea about
the meaning.
3. Borrowing
Borrowing is used when the translator finds difficulty in finding the
equivalence of the words. Thus, the translator takes directly the words or
expression from the ST to the TT.
There are two types of borrowing techniques:
a. Pure borrowing is a translation technique that completely takes the
terms or words directly from the source language without any changes
into target language. For example:
ST: Pushing 150 propofol
TT: Menyuntikkan 150 propofol
The example above is pure borrowing, because the word propofol is
borrowed without any change.
b. Naturalized borrowing is a translation technique that takes directly
the terms or the words from the source language by naturalizing the
spelling into the target language. For example:
ST: Prep for craniotomy
TT: Siapkan untuk kraniotomi
The word kraniotomi is the example of naturalized borrowing, since
the word craniotomy is borrowed by naturalizing it into Indonesian
spelling.
4. Calque
Calque is the literal translation of a foreign word or phrase, that
following the structure or lexical. For example:
ST: Operation Room
TT: Ruang Operasi
Operation Roomis a phrase that is usually used in the SL. It is translated
into Ruang operasiand it is acceptable in TL.
5. Compensation
The translator uses compensation if there is an element from the
source text that cannot be reproduced and reflected in the same place in the
target text. It can be replaced by adding a compensated source-language
element somewhere else in the target text. For example:
ST: I thought that I pulled a muscle, so I trained through it.
TT: Kukira aku hanya terkilir. Jadi aku berlatih dengan menahan rasa
sakit itu.
Instead of translating pulled a muscle into menarik otot, the
translator changes it into terkilir to make it more acceptable for target
readers, because terkilir is more familiar in target text.
6. Description
Description is not quite different from amplification because
description is like adding more words to give information. But description
technique leaves out the original term or expression and replaces the entire
words or phrases in a descriptive explanation. For example:
ST: We'll go in percutaneously.
TT: Kita akan masuk melalui kulit.
In the source text, percutaneous means medical procedure where access to
inner organs or other tissue done by needle-puncture of the skin, but in the
target text, people might have no idea what percutaneously is, so the
translator describes it by giving an explanation.
7. Discursive creation
Discursive creation is used to establish a temporary equivalence
that is very unpredictable out of context following the translator creativity.
It is usually used in the translation of a title of literary products. For
example:
ST: Great Alexandre
TT: Aleksander yang Agung
8. Established equivalence
Established equivalence is a translation technique that uses a term
or an expression that is recognized by dictionaries or language in use, as
the equivalence in the target language. For example:
SL: No breath sounds on the right.
TL: Tak ada bunyi napas di kanan.
Breath sound is translated into target text as bunyi napas. In Indonesian
dictionary or glossary, breath sound can be found with its translation bunyi
napas.
9. Generalization
Generalization is translation technique that replaces a word or term
from the source language with a more general or neutral term. For
example, penthouse is translated into tempat tinggal. Penthouse is an
apartment on the top floor of a tall building, typically luxuriously fitted
and offering fine views. But in the target language, readers usually use
tempat tinggal generally.
10. Linguistic amplification
Linguistic amplification is translation technique that adds some
linguistic elements on target text in order to make them clear. It is the
opposite of linguistic compression. For example:
SL: No, I don’t
TL: Tidak, aku tidak suka padamu.
In English language as source language, it is possible to use a simple
sentence such as “yes I do, no I don’t, yes I will etc.” But the target
language or Indonesian language does not use that kind of simple sentence
construction.
11. Linguistic compression
Linguistic compression is translation technique that reduces some
linguistic elements of the source text. It is the opposite of linguistic
amplification. For example:
ST: Yes, I will.
TT: Ya, aku akan memberi makan anjingmu.
The example in source text shows a complete sentence of linguistic part,
and for simplicity, the translator compresses it and only translates the main
message of the source text.
12. Literal Translation
Literal Translation is done by translating a word or an expression
literary word for word. For example:
ST: Killing two birds with one stone.
TT: Membunuh dua burung dengan satu batu.
The example above shows a sentence that is translated word by word or
literally. Every word is fully translated.
13. Modulation
Modulation is translation technique that changes a point of view of
the source language text either structurally or lexically. For example:
SL: Nia bought me a chicken yesterday
TL: Aku dibelikan ikan oleh Nia kemarin
The translator transfers the message in other point of view even though
both of the sentences have the same message. The construction of source
text shows an active sentence, whereas target text is a passive sentence.
14. Particularization
Particularization is translation technique that uses more precise or
concrete term in the TL. In other words, it changes specific terms into
general terms. It is the opposite of generalization. For example:
SL: book.
TL: komik, majalah, buku pelajaran.
Book is translated into more particular word of book such as “komik”,
“majalah”, “buku pelajaran”.
15. Reduction
Reduction is the opposite to amplification technique. Reduction
suppresses ST information items in the target language text.For example:
SL: Jokowi, the president of republic of Indonesia.
TL: Jokowi
In the source text, Jokowi is given more information to avoid the
confusion of the readers who do not know about Jokowi. Jokowi is the
president of Indonesia. Indonesian readers do not need the explanation
anymore.
Different from linguistic compression, reduction is about
information of certain objects, while linguistic compression compresses
sentences in the term of linguistics.
16. Substitution
Substitution is translation technique that changes paralinguistic
elements (gesture and body language) into verbal. It is usually used in
interpreting process. For example, a speaker from India is pressing palm
together with a smile, the interpreter translates into greeting act, like
“hello” or “goodbye”.
17. Transposition
Transposition is a translation technique that changes source text
grammatical category in the target text, for example from verb to noun or
phrase to word. This technique is used because the grammatical structure
and language systems are often different in other languages and require
structural adjustment. For example:
SL: clot
TL: membeku
Clot in the SL is a noun, and it is translated into membeku, which
is a verb in TL.
18. Variation
Variation is a translation technique that changes linguistic or
paralinguistic elements, which influence linguistic variation (textual tone,
style, geographical dialect, and social dialect). For example:
ST: hi chick?
TT: hai cewek
Chick, is the example of slang word or non-standard English
language that is used by some people. The translator chooses variation
word to make the translation sounds more natural based on the context
situation and the culture of the readers.
The following techniques are translation techniques proposed by Newmark
(1988: 81-91) in his book entitled A Textbook of Translation which also employed
to analyze the translation, they are:
1. Couplets and Triplets
This technique combines two or three different techniques
respectively for dealing with a single problem. It is particularly common
for translating cultural words.
Example:
ST: Get the OR ready for an endovascular repair.
TT: Siapkan ruang operasi untuk operasi endovaskuler.
The translator translates the phrase “endovascular repair.” by
applying two techniques; they are naturalized borrowing technique and
established equivalence. First technique is established equivalence. The
translator transfers the word “repair” into “operasi”. Second technique is
naturalized borrowing. The translator borrows the word “endovascular”
into “endovaskuler”; it adapts SL to the normal pronunciation and the
spelling rules in TL.
2. Through Translation
Through translation technique is employed by putting literal
translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the
components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. This technique is also
known as calque or loan translation. Normally, through translation should
be applied only when the terms are already recognized globally.
Example:
ST: It's not in their DNA.
TT: Tidak ada dalam DNA mereka.
From example above, the terms of DNA is loaned by the translator.
DNA is an abbreviation of Deoxyribonucleic acid which meansmolecule
that encode genetic information. This technique is applied by the translator
by loaning the terms of DNA, since it is an internationally recognized in
medical terms.
3. Shifts or Transposition
Shift or transposition is a translation technique which is changing
the grammar from SL into TL. It is similar with the theory of transposition
proposed by Molina & Albir. There are five types of shift or transposition
stated by Newmark:
a. The change from singular to plural. Example:
ST: She was born with her intestines outside of her body.
TT: Dia terlahir dengan ususnya di luar tubuh.
According to example above, there is a changing of plural
into singular. The word “intestines” (plural) is translated into
“usus” (singular). It can be seen from the suffix –s in ST which
shows plurality in English. However, there is no system of adding
suffix –s as the marker of plurality in Bahasa Indonesia. This
technique is also done for conversely, from singular to plural.
b. The change is required when a source language
grammaticalstructure does not exist in the target language.
c. The one where literal translation is grammatically possible but
maynot accord with natural usage in the target language. Example:
ST: He's hypotensive and tachycardic.
TT: Dia hipotensi dan takikardi.
In the example above, there is a change of verb into noun.
The adjective “hypotensive” is transferred into a noun “hipotensi”.
This technique may be applied because the translation provides
equivalent meaning.
d. The replacement of a virtual lexical gap by grammatical structure.
e. The illustration of a frequent tension between grammar and stress.
E. Quality Assessment of Translation
Nababan (2003: 86) mentioned three main points of translation quality
assessment, 1) the accuracy of transferring the message, 2) the accuracy of
expressing the message to target language, and 3) the language naturalness of the
translation. There are three aspects in translation quality assessment that the
translator should concern with. Those are accuracy, acceptability, and readability.
1. Accuracy
Translator should deliver the information from the source language
into the target language properly and accurately. Accuracy is about finding
the equivalence of meaning and that is the point of the quality of
translation.It is stated by Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:3) that how
accurate the translation is can be seen from how match the translation with
the original text. It is aboutmaintaining the original or existing information
content of ST in TT, with an accuratetranslation.Its actual meaningin
context of a given translation must depend on the type of equivalence
found in the translation.
According to Nababan (2004: 61) “an evaluation of accuracy of the
translation is intended to find out whether the content of the source
language is accurately translated into SL”. So, translation can be called
accurate if the idea and the message of the source language and target
language is the same.
Baker (1992:57) also states that “accuracy is no doubt an important
aim in translation, but it is also important to bear in mind that the use of
common target-language patterns which are familiar to the target reader
plays an important role in keeping the communication channels open”. It
means that accuracy in translation is indeed very important but despite of it
a translator has to consider about the naturalization of the choosen word in
target language, so that target readers can fully understand the meaning of
the translation.
2. Acceptability
Translation product should be natural in order to make it
acceptable in target language system. It refers to the naturalness of the
translated text. Acceptability considers about the norm,culture, and rule
which exist in target language. Nida and Taber (1982: 12) state that a good
translation does not sound like a translation. They also state that translator
have to translate it with the closest equivalent but still the first priority is
the meaning(Nida and Taber 1982: 13). It means that acceptable
translation of medical terms emerges when the translation is appropriate
with TL norms and it does not sound like a translation, but the most
important is the equivalence of the meaning.
3. Readability
Readability considers the readers’ understanding towards the text.
The measurement is how understandable the translation for the target
audiences. The translation can be said to be good if the readers understand
well the meaning, idea, and context of the text (source language). Richard
et al as cited in Nababan (2003:62) says that the readability aspect
encompasses how easily written translation can be read and understood by
the readers. He also stated that readability depends on the average length
of sentence, the number of new words, and the grammatical complexity of
the language used.It means that translators have to considertheir choice of
words to make the target audiences fully understand the message without
much thinking.
F. Review of Related Studies
There have been many researches conducted in various subject fields. This
subchapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough and in-
depth search done by the researcher. There have been some studies about
technique of translating technical terms and its influence towards its quality in the
previous research.
In the previous research, Novia Rizky (2014) and Stevia Mega (2013)
analyzed the translation of technical terms specifically in sport field, i.e.
basketball terms and football terms. Another research analyzed by Roswita
Silalahi (2009) to find out the impact of the translation techniques, methods, and
ideologies on the quality of translated text Medical-Surgical Nursing in Bahasa
Indonesia. There are also some journals that discuss about translation of medical
terms. Katrin Herget and Teresa Alegre (2009) discussed the translation
difficulties which arise from translating medical terms from Portugese into
German. The main focus of this journal was to analyze the communication
between non-professionals. Nina Rask (2008) also analyzed a medical translation
in terminology and cultural aspects. She specifically analyzed the difficulties in
translating a medical text from English into Swedish.
This research focuses on technical terms specifically in medical terms
field. This research also only focuses in analyzing techniques applied by translator
and the impacts toward the translation quality of medical terms translation.
Researcher used tv series as the main source of data.
G. About the Tv Series Grey’s Anatomy
The researcher used the tv series entitled Grey’s Anatomy. Grey's Anatomy
is an American medical drama television series created by Shonda Rhimes. This
tv series air in several tv cable channel which provide subtitle for several
languages. According to official website of American Broadcasting Company
(ABC), Grey’s Anatomy premiered on ABC on March 27, 2005 and still on going
until now. The tv series is directed by Kevin McKidd and written by Shonda
Rhimes. The tv series is produced by Ann Kindberg and executively produced by
Shonda Rhimes. The cast includes Ellen Pompeo as Dr. Meredith Grey, Chandra
Wilson as Dr. Miranda Bailey, along with Sandra Oh as Dr. Cristina Yang, T. R.
Knight as Dr. George O'Malley, Katherine Heigl as Dr. Izzie Stevens, Justin
Chambers as Dr. Alex Karev, and Patrick Dempsey as Dr. Derek Shepherd. The tv
series is distributed by Buena Vista Home Entertainment and Disney–ABC
Domestic Television.
The show tells about Meredith Grey and her life as a resident at the
hospital and her relationship with her neurosurgeon husband, Derek Shepherd and
best friend Cristina Yang. It also explores her relationships with her peers and the
other doctors around her. Each episode relates into different medical cases and
personal dramas of the doctors at Seattle Grace Hospital.The series was created to
be racially diverse, it can be seen from the cast which consist from many different
race.
Researcher chooses this series because this series focuses on the fictional
lives of surgical interns and residents as they gradually evolve into seasoned
doctors, while trying to maintain personal lives and relationships. Because of that,
there are many medical terms found in this series. All the characters are basically
linked with hospital life, whether they are doctors, nurses, or even patients. In this
series there are several degree of specialization among communication partners.
This case leads translators to master the meaning of the medical term so that the
translators can deliver it to the audiences with the equivalent terms without
changing the meaning yet still understandable.