26

Significance of Review of Related Literature

Prevents Repetition of Research

Helps in Locating Comparative Data

Delimits the Problem

Seeks New Approaches

Provides Recommendations for

Further Research

Avoids Sterile Approaches

Develops Insight into the Matter

Fig. 2.1 Significance of Review of Related Literature

CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.0.0 Introduction

Review of literature is an essential aspect of investigations related to the research

study. Related literature acts as the backbone for researcher. Most research work involves

substantial use of published literature, indeed the ability to ferret out obscure facts is

often seen as the primary activity of the researcher and the regulations for research

degrees always contain a requirement that the candidate should demonstrate the ability to

make proper critical use of relevant literature.

For any worthwhile study in any field of knowledge, the research worker needs an

adequate familiarity with the work, which has already been done in the area of his choice.

“The survey of related studies implies locating, studying and evaluating reports of

relevant researches.”In the review of literature, previous research studies are abstracted

and significant writing of authorities in the area under study is reviewed.

27

The term ‘Learning Disabilities (LDS)’ emerged from a need to identify and serve

learning disabled children. The term learning disability was first coined by Samual Kirk

in 1963 to describe children who have serious problems in schools but do not fall under

other categories of handicap. The researcher has presented an exhaustive survey of

researches with regard to learning disability and instructional material

The chapter in hand endeavours to review studies conducted by earlier researchers

to give insight into the concept of learning disabilities. This has also helped in identifying

the factors influencing it. The present chapter has been organized under the following

under the following heads:

• Studies Conducted Abroad

• Studies Conducted in Indian Context

2.1.0 Studies Conducted in Abroad

The various research studies conducted in relation to learning disabilities

abroad are as follows:

• Walker (1987) investigated the effectiveness of two different methods of teaching

learning disabled middle school students. The study consists of sample of 50 learning

disabled middle school students. Two different methods of teaching were adapted for

the study, among them one of these was traditional methods of teaching. The

participant’s achievement and development patterns are described, and information

about encouraging resiliency among students from disadvantaged backgrounds is

provided. This study explored the generalization of the two instructional methods to

problem written in syntax that required the performance of two mathematics

operations, subtraction and addition.

• Bartz (1989) conducted a study on the use of writing and self-monitoring strategies

by learning disabled eighth graders. The sample of 25 learning disabled students of

eighth grade was taken. Strategies in capitalization, punctuation; sentence

completion and self-monitoring were introduced and practiced. Result revealed

significant improvement in vocabulary, thematic maturity and handwriting during the

period of strategic instruction.

28

• Cole (1992) investigated the effectiveness of designed instructional intervention for

students with learning disabilities. Sample, consisted of twelve students, attained

criterion performance levels in writing and increased the spelling performance. An

instructional intervention was designed to teach students with learning disabilities.

These students were asked to write a sequential expository paragraph through

strategic instruction and the use of a set instructional writing framework. Result

revealed that there is found a significant improvement in spelling and writing

performance by using instructional interventions.

• Lee (1992) investigated the effectiveness of a novel method for helping students on

mathematic word problem. The sample for the study consisted of 4th, 5th and 6th

graders with specific disabilities in Mathematics. The result revealed significantly

better scores in the skill of choosing correct operation in subtraction and addition

word problems.

• Rath (1995) examined the differential efficacy of verbal self instructional training on

reflective and impulsive reading disabled tribal and non tribal children. Sample

consisted of ten students of graders classes of tribal and non tribal children. Results

showed that verbal self instructional training has been very effective for non tribal

children and those having reflective cognitive style but failed to yield desirable

results for impulsive children.

• Kim (1998) compared two instructional methods for teaching spelling to elementary

students with learning disabilities to find out the most effective and expedient way to

increase the overall spelling performance. The study consisted of 35 students from

elementary school. The treatment group was taught using rule-based strategy

instruction focusing on teaching students in spelling rules. The control group was

taught in the traditional way that provided an array of spelling instructions. The

result revealed that the overall performance indicated that rule-based strategy

instruction focusing on teaching students in spelling rules was significantly better.

• Newben (1998) investigated the effect of service delivery alternatives on the

efficiency of instructional strategy taught to students with learning disabilities.

Sample consisted of 24 middle class students. A paraphrasing strategy was

29

implemented. The result indicated that strategy instruction improved the performance

of students with learning disabilities. Peer tutoring is considered as one of the

effective techniques of helping students in their studies.

• Wilson (1998) investigated the ability of general education middle school students to

prompt and reinforce skill acquisition of peers with moderate to severe disabilities in

the context of content area co-operative learning instructional settings. The above

study consisted of 22 students of general education middle school students. The

strategies with prompt and reinforce skill acquisition were used for the study. Results

indicated that the general education students learned to provide the identified

opportunities, reinforcement and prompt sequence to their peers with learning

disabilities. The tutors and tutees felt positive towards their participation.

• Gilberts (1999) investigated the effects of self monitoring instruction delivered to

students by peers on the participation of students with severe learning disabilities in

the general education setting. Sample consisted of 12 students with severe learning

disabilities. These students were treated with self monitoring instructions. Peer

tutors’ delivery of self monitoring strategies was found to be accurate and effective

and did not disturb the classroom environment.

• Pierson (1999) explored the study concerning the accomplishment of students with

specific learning disabilities and language impairment when engaged in interest

based apprenticeship learning. This study is centred on the future, relationship and

uses of the self –expressed interest and cognitive strengths of three six grade students

with language learning disabilities (LLD) in the design of interest based learning

context. The students participated with peers and teachers in self selected interest

based inquiry settings (IBIS) apprenticeships designed from student brainstorming

sessions and individual interviews.

The findings demonstrated that each of the students with LLD reliably

identified, talked about and acted in ways commensurate with their interest and

cognitive strengths and the ways they chose to engage the activities that mapped onto

the results from standardized assessment. Similarly, the student’s self identified areas

of relative weakness also mapped onto standardized assessment results. Second,

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while all three students experienced positive learning outcomes specific to the

‘language of learning’ relative to the domain of inquiry, the data suggested greater

outcomes for the two students whose genuine interest, as conceptualized by Dewey,

was tapped. These outcomes included increased; engagement in the learning activity,

effort and persistence to work passed frustration and challenges, sense of autonomy

and choice, knowledge of content specific vocabulary and schemes and ability to

demonstrate new knowledge.

Third and importantly, the IBIS apprenticeship contexts created opportunities

for all three students with LLD to engage in oral language use with peers and adults

in ways that were not represented during their typical school days. Regardless of

type of language impairment, marked increased opportunities to engage in oral

language use occurred. And last, in face of their verbal-linguistic weakness, these

students with LLD were able to recollect their learning with LLD from the IBIS

apprenticeship and thus demonstrated cognitive representation of their learning.

• Daqui (2000) explored the study concerning the effect of story mapping and story

map questions on the story writing performance of students with learning disabilities.

Forty students with learning disabilities in fourth and fifth class participated in the

study. They often experienced difficulties in writing fluently and using a diversity of

words. Because of their inherent processing problems, they cannot process and

retrieve information efficiently when completing writing assignment. Traditional

writing instruction and practice have been of limited value to students with learning

disabilities. For these students, specific and effective writing strategies must be

incorporated into instruction and demonstrated to them through modelling. The

purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an instructional strategy

that used the story map technique and story map questions. The two study questions

were: (a) what was the effect of story maps and story map questions on the fluency

of story writing by students with learning disabilities? (b) What was the effect of this

strategy on the diversity of word usage by these students?

The result of the study showed that three of the four students improved

writing fluency while the forth student, who was more fluent than the others prior to

31

the start of the study, did not demonstrate improvement fluency. Regarding the

diversity, of word usage, this study did not show significant changes in the students’

writing performance. While two students demonstrated a small overall increase

during intervention over the baseline condition, the diversity of word usage in other

two students’ stories remained relatively that the stories written by all four students

contained more story elements during the intervention and maintenance phases than

during baseline phases.

• Frantz (2000) examined the effectiveness of the infusion of remedial reading

instruction derived from the Reading Component Model (RCM), on the reading

achievement of children with learning disabilities and Title I class rooms. RCM is

composed of two major components, word recognition and comprehension and poor

functioning of either component can affect reading performance. Remedial

instruction is based on the weak component. In contrast, the discrepancy model, a

model that is predominant in U.S. schools, classifies students in two categories; those

with learning disabilities and the without learning disabilities, but does not, however

prescribe any particular instructional remediation. Twelve teachers from grades 2

through 6 provided the names of 151 children in their classrooms who were

experiencing difficulty in reading. Complete evaluation data were collected from 130

students using differential diagnostic procedures designed to locate and identify the

weak component that may cause the suspected deficits. Results indicated that 43% of

the poor readers from both treatment and control groups had weakness in decoding

skills only 33% had weakness in both decoding and comprehension skills received

10 hours of phoneme awareness training and 10 hours of comprehension strategy

instruction. Results indicated that treatment groups irrespective of category did not

make significant statistically positive gains from teachers indicated positive

outcomes for the treatment groups. Recommendations are made for multifaceted

evaluation measures and longer intervention.

• Lee (2000) conducted a study to employ meta- analysis methodology to synthesize

math intervention studies published during the last 28years students for identified

with learning disabilities (LD) and students identified as low achieving (LA). Sixty

one group-design experimental quasi experimental studies (40 studies involving LD,

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25 studies involving LA, and LD) published from 1971-1998 on the effects of math

intervention for K-12 students identified as LD or LA were selected and analyzed.

Effect sizes as a function of a instructional components, the foci of interventions,

instructional settings, duration of math instruction, class size and other

methodological feature were investigated for each group. The majority (about 74%

or 45 out of 61) of the studies focused on basic computation skills such as addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division. Computation in math was given more

emphasis with LD group (about 78% of the 40 LD studies) than with LA group (56%

of the 25 LA studies). For teaching computation intervention that included peer

tutoring strategies with two people or strategies using mastery level criterion are

more effective than other intervention. In contrast strategy – based instruction was

more effective than the other strategies for teaching problem solving.

• Bays (2001) presented a grounded theory and describe how the supervision of special

education instruction occurs in public elementary schools in rural setting. Nine

elementary schools in three rural districts in the State o f Virginia participated in this

study. Interview data was collected from 34 participants including special and

general education teachers, principals and directors of special education. The

grounded theory suggests that the supervisor’ role is assigned to the principal: (i)

Monitoring for legal compliance supervision of instruction for students of disability,

and (ii) Evaluation of teachers supervision. The outcome of negotiating competing

priorities and contextual factors is a dispersal of responsibility for supervision to

three groups of educators. Principal as a primary supervisor: utilizes three strategies

to address supervision: the observation evaluation process (ii) supervision by

disability and class. Their separate legal development doesn’t constitute an

institutional conflict.

Result indicated that for the most part the political discord among rights

struggle on the basis of race, sex disability and class has entailed a contest for

political movement energies and for political attention of particular legal rights

conceptions. At the same time educational rights on the basis of socioeconomic class

founded upon particular legal form of material resource equalization evidence the

potential to develop in the basic institutional coherence with right on the basis of race

33

as well as sex and disability. By contrast the school choice movement in the form of

charter and voucher school legislation actually with those on the basis of race, sex

and disability. Individual must in effect choose between the concrete, legal

attainment of such rights versus those on the basis of race, sex and disability.

• James and Deborah (2002) conducted a study on classroom behaviour and the

academic progress of learning disabled students. A total of 43 learning disabled (LD)

students who were identified in grades 1-3 were followed up in their second year of

special education services. Teachers completed the Classroom Behaviour Inventory

(CBI) for each LD student and for randomly selected classmates, and both groups of

students were observed with the SCAN system in regular classroom settings. Group

difference in teacher perceived task orientation, independence, and verbal

expressiveness replicated previous findings with CBI for this LD sample. SCAN

observations partially replicated previous results in that LD children interacted with

teachers more often than classmates. Multiple regression analysis indicated that both

measures of behaviour were predictive of reading achievement during year 1 when

the LD children were identified and that the CBI predicted academic progress from

one year to the next. Result indicated that both teacher ratings and observational

evidence converged on the importance of task –oriented behaviour, independent

functioning, and socially appropriate behaviour in understanding the poor

achievement of LD students.

• Bayer (2003) conducted a study on a descriptive study of teaching strategies used by

general education teacher in classroom including student with mild learning

disabilities. This study focused on teaching strategies and methodologies successful

in general education teacher in grade four through six used in teaching mathematics

within an inclusive setting. This study also focused on the rational of how teacher

ensure that special education has the opportunity to engage in successful learning

experience during mathematics instruction by using ongoing and continuous

assessment. The study included how student with learning disabilities benefited from

an inclusive setting and how teachers’ choice of specific instruction strategies were

based on individual student needs. The result can offer assistance to teacher who a

restruggling to implement such strategies.

34

• Mock (2003) conducted a study on identifying students with learning disabilities.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is to be reauthorized late in 2003.

Thus, adopting the problem solving model assumes the superiority of clinical

judgement over statistical judgement in identifying students with learning

disabilities. Research comparing statistical and clinical prediction has yielded

relatively consistent results. Statistical prediction methods have proven more

accurate than clinical method even when (a) the algorithm used for prediction is

simplistic; (b) the clinical judge has access to equal or greater amounts of

information or (c) the regression variables are weighted equally.

He investigated the difference between statistical and clinical judgement

relative to the identification of students with learning disabilities in reading.

Participants were asked to provide demographic information and to specify the

importance that they ascribed to the variables: (a) IQ (b) reading achievement (c)

difference between intelligence and achievement (d) response of instruction and (e)

the exclusion of mental retardation; when identifying with learning disabilities in

reading.

Results indicated that clinical and statistical judgement yielded different

results. Statistical judgement, across both conditions, yielded cases in which IQ

exceeded achievement. Clinical judgement yielded case studies in which response to

instruction was poor, irrespective of IQ and standardized regarding measures. When

asked what criteria they used, participants in the current study weighted the variables

in the following order of importance, from most to least important (a) difference

between IQ and reading achievement (b) reading achievement (c) response to

instruction and (d) the exclusion of mental retardation. Although participants gave

“Difference between IQ and Reading Achievement” the highest mean importance

weighting, this variable never achieved statistical significance as a predictor of

clinical judgements. “Reading Achievement” in combination with “Response to

Instruction” was found to be satisfactorily significant predictor of clinical

judgements at the whole sample level. Limitations, implications and suggestions for

future research are provided.

35

• Chrustenon (2004) conducted a study to examine the process special education

services under the learning disabilities category of particular interest. Qualitative

methods were used in the investigation. Three school districts of similar size but very

different student demographic compositions were selected as research sites. The

results of the investigation indicate that teams generally make an effort to look into

exclusivity factors, how this is accomplished often depends on the influential

members of the team, particularly the school psychologist.

Differences in student population with regard to demographic characteristics

greatly impact the resources at a district’s disposal. This in turn, impacts the role

special education plays as a resource for addressing academic needs in minority and

low income populations. Special education services under the learning disabilities

category of particular interest were the exclusionary factors of cultural,

environmental and economic deficits, and the role they play with regard to referral,

assessment and placement decision making.

• Kenneth and Mark (2004) examined social skills interventions for individuals with

learning disabilities. The purpose of the study was to examine the need and

effectiveness of social skills interventions. 65 learning disabled children participated

in the study for examining the social skills interventions for individual with learning

disabilities. Result laid stress that social skill deficits have become a primary target

for remediation and there is great need of training program and interventions activity

for student with learning disabilities.

• Lindsay (2004) examined the annual Review Meeting as a forum for developing

Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for elementary schools students with

disabilities as perceived by professional members of the IEP team. The purpose of

this study was: (a) to examine the functioning of Annual Review Meeting based on

effective work groups as conceptualized by Schmuck and Rankel 1994. Effective

groups are conceptualized by the three interdependent capabilities of communication

meeting a problem solving; (b) to investigate the types advanced preparation that

may take prior to the Annual Review Meeting (c) to explore the involvement of the

regular education teacher in the Annual Review Meeting. The study concluded that

36

Annual Review Meeting is perceived to accomplish the task that is set before them

by factual law. However, they are not perceived to be providing a forum that is

conducive to effective work group functioning. Findings also reflected that Annual

Review Meeting is not meeting the spirit and intent of law due to the amount of

advance perception that occur prior to meetings. The regular education teacher was

found to be involved in the Annual Review Meeting although the extent of their

involvement was perceived to vary.

• Fontenot (2005) examined the attitudes of rural, suburban and urban public

elementary school principals in Texas regarding the inclusion of students with

disabilities into the general education classrooms. A three point questionnaire, the

“Modified Principles” and inclusion survey, was sent to 733 randomly selected

principals, requesting information that could be used to evaluate attitudes toward

inclusion of students into the general education classroom setting. There was no

significant correlation found between age and attitudes, nor gender and attitudes of

principals toward inclusion of students with disabilities. Although a negative

correlation was found between full time regular educations teaching experiences in

regard to the attitude score of principles toward inclusion of students with

disabilities. Neither general education teaching experience nor special education

teaching experience was significantly correlated with attitude.

• Robert (2005) examined improving Young Children’s Social and emotional

Competence: A Randomized Trial of the Preschool “PATHS” curriculum. PATHS

are a universal, teacher – taught social – emotional curriculum that is designed to

improve children’s social competence and reduce problem behaviour. Twenty

classrooms in two Pennsylvania communities participated in the study. Teachers in

the 10 intervention classrooms implemented weekly lessons and extension activities

across a 9 – month period. Child assessments and teacher and parent reports of child

behaviour assessments were collected at the beginning and end of the school year.

Analysis of covariance was used to control baseline differences between the group

and pre test scores on each of the outcome measures. This paper reports the results

from a randomized clinical trial evaluating an adaptation of the Promoting

37

Alternative Thinking Strategies curriculum (PATHS) for preschool – age children in

Head Start. The results suggest that after exposure to PATHS, intervention children

had higher emotion knowledge skills and were rated by parents and teachers as more

socially competent compared to peers. Further, teachers rated interventions children

as less socially withdrawn at the end of the school year compared to controls.

• Brien (2006) evaluated the impact of video models on three levels – the extent to

which the video models improve the ability for students with learning disabilities to

learn the foundational information and rationale of a strategy. Implement the strategy

effectively and improve academic outcomes by implementing the strategy and

attempt was made to further pupil student’s perception of learning a strategy from a

video model through focus groups interviews.

Data was collected using a quasi – experimental design. Forty – nine

classrooms were randomly assigned to video – based and traditional treatment. The

full sample of 196 students, including 43 students with learning disabilities attempted

so implement literature circles in their middle school social studies classes.

Following data collection, quantitative statistical analysis was completed using

Multivariate Analysis of variance (MANCOVA) to examine group differences in

knowledge of the essential elements of the strategy. Implementation of the strategy

and content achievement qualitative analysis of student focus group responses was

completed by scrutinizing transcripts for general themes.

This study made a connection between lines of research on video – based

anchored instruction for students with learning disabilities and video anchors in

teacher preparation. Students demonstrated significantly more effective

implementation of literature circles. Students in the video model focus group

indicated that they benefited from the explicit, positive peer models demonstrated in

the video. The continued proliferation of visual impulse in the form of video – based

models represents a positive step toward increasing available resource to students

and teachers and ultimately comparing outcomes for students with learning

disabilities.

38

• Dimitrios (2006). A study on Academic Intrinsic Motivation and Perceived

Academic Competence in Greek Elementary Students with and without learning

disabilities. The aim of this study was to examine difference in intrinsic motivation

and perceived academic competence as well as in their association between 5th and

6th grade students with learning disabilities. The sample consisted of 40 learning

disabilities out from 980 Greek elementary students from the metropolitan area of

Athens. As predicted, students with LD showed lower intrinsic motivation and

perceived academic competence than students without LD almost across all

subscales. Exceptions were noticed in intrinsic motivation concerning

curiosity/interest and history subscales as well as perceptions of academic

competence in the subjects of history and science. The result was found that among

typically achieving students intrinsic motivation was positively and significantly

related at a moderate level to perceived academic competence across all subscales, as

opposed to students with LD for whom few correlations were found.

• Kazemi (2006) examined the psychological factors in learning disabilities. Children

and adolescents were between grades 5-11 with prior diagnosis of LD (N=41) and

individually. While the students were administered intelligence and an achievement

test and completed self report measures. Bolt models were tested using multiple

regressions analysis, the standard approach to testing video support for the second

proposed model suggesting that the low social adjustment of student with LD leads

to perceived social inefficacy, which then leads to heightened depression. Students

with learning disabilities (LD) are at heightened risk for internalizing disorders such

as anxiety and depression. However, there is no empirical data that document

possible causal explanations for the co-occurrence of these disorders as students with

LD. Researchers have found that in addition to academic difficulties, students with

LD have social skills deficits and are more likely than students without LD to be

rejected or neglected by peers. Therefore, this study investigated two possible

conceptual models for emotional problems of students by testing the influence of

their academic and social difficulties. In the first model, it was proposed that low

academic achievement leads to low academic self concept, perceived academic

inefficiency, maladaptive attribution patterns, and globally limiting views of the LD

39

diagnosis which, in turn lead to elevated anxious and depressed moods in students

with LD. In the second model, it was proposed that low social adjustment lends to

perceived social inefficiency which in turn leads to higher anxious and depressed

moods in these students.

• Madison (2006) presented grounded theory and he aimed at understanding how

members of learning disabilities (LD) teams in 9 Saudi study public elementary

schools perceived and made sense of students with LD and the context that

surrounded the identification process. The data were gathered through semi-

structured interviews with 13 LD teachers, 10 regular classroom teachers, 9 school

counsellors, 6 school principals, and 3 parents. The theory developed in the study

revealed that since the information of LD category into Saudi Schools in 1996, there

has been conflict over the identity of children experiencing learning difficulties in

Saudi School, between on one hand, the official LD discourse created by scientists

and policymakers and on the other the local commensurate social discourse created

by people in everyday life in Saudi Society. Data indicates that the point at which the

two discourses tend to diverge sharply include the notion that: (a) children with LD

have disability (b) the cause of children slow achievement lies within children due to

neurological damage, and that LD is a life-long phenomenon.

By labelling otherwise normal children’s as disabled, the LD discourse raised

complex dilemmas at the community level as well as at the individual level, where

disability labels have the potential to impact a child’s identity and self –worth in

negative ways. In response, participants coped with the new LD category by

dismissing, de-emphasizing or resisting the unfamiliar, aspects of LD, which in turn

affected the identification of students with LD. The identification process –via

referrals, evaluation, eligibility and remediation is seen as regular occurrence

intended to identify students who need extra help or services rather a process that

classifies children into a category of disability. The decision –making atmosphere

and the diagnosis of a child as LD generally were regarded as unproblematic.

As inclusive placements become an increasingly for students with learning

disabilities the need to assist general educators in establishing inclusive classrooms

becomes a major priority. Is logical terms, to prioritize the propagation of inclusive

40

practices in general education classroom – practices that would take into account the

natural diversity of student populations likely to be present in American Classrooms.

Cooperative learning, in the form literature circles, it offered in this study as a highly

effective method for laying the groundwork for inclusion. This study rooted in the

theory of anchored instruction, attempted to address the need for incorporating

inclusive practices by investigating the potential for students with learning

disabilities to implement literature circles by viewing video models.

• Yuan (2006) has analyzed the course for student with learning disabilities. The goal

of this study to examined the relationship between curriculum and competence of LD

children. Samples of 84 children were taken to study the new curriculum and to

measure the effectiveness of new curriculum. Result indicates that new curriculum

accommodates the requirement of LD children.

• Lutz (2007) conducted a study on social competence training for children with

Borderline Intellectual Functioning. A cognitive behavioural training is developed

and its effectiveness is examined school. 77 children with borderline intelligence are

enrolled participated in the study who received I group sessions over a period of 3

months outcome measure at the end of the intervention. Result shows that those

children were higher on self report, caregiver-reports and behavioural observations

of cognitive, emotional scale.

• Russell (2007) presents results of a meta-analysis on writing interventions for

students with learning disabilities and draw implications for practice. 13 studies

designed to teach students with learning disabilities to write better expository or

narrative text were analyzed. Results indicated that the interventions used in the

research studies constantly produced strong effects on the quality of student’s writing

as well as student’s sense of efficacy and understanding of the writing process.

Findings suggested that 3 components should be part of any comprehensive

instructional program. Explicit teaching of (a) the steps of the writing process, (b) the

critical dimensions of different writing genres should be provided, as well as (c)

structures for giving extensive feedback to students on the quality of their writing

from either teachers or peers.

41

• Ray (2008) conducted a study on evaluate the efficiency of the development

algebraic literacy Model: Pre passing special educator to implement effective

mathematics practices. For student with learning disabilities using a mixed method

design the current researcher investigated the usage of the developing Algebraic

literacy frame work multiple survey measure were given at pre- mid and post

junctures to asses teacher candidates attitudes about mathematics, sealing of efficacy

when teaching mathematics and content knowledge surrounding mathematics.

Result indicated an increase in perseveres teacher’s attitude towards mathematics

instruction. Thus study provides preliminary support for utilizing the DAL

instruction framework for future special educators.

• Anette (2010). Conducted a study on learning difficulties and academic competence

among children with and without learning disabilities. The aim of this study was to

examine learning difficulties as well as academic competence. The sample consisted

of 30 learning disabled children. These children were examined for the learning

difficulties and academic competence and experimental study was carried out. Result

was interpreted as indicating that children with learning disabilities have low

academic competence and need special assistance.

• Sara (2010) examined promoting social and academic competence in the classroom:

An intervention study examining the contribution of the Responsive Classroom

approach. Participants included 62 teachers and 157 children at six schools. This

exploratory study examined the contribution of the RC Approach over a two-year

period. The RC Approach integrates social and academic learning in order to

produce classroom environments that are conducive to learning by integrating social

and academic learning. Two questions are addressed. First, how does teacher use of

RC practices contribute to children’s academic and social growth? Second, how is

the relation between teachers’ use of RC practices and children’s academic and

social growth moderated by the presence of environmental adversity in the home?

Findings showed that teachers’ use of RC practices was associated with students’

improved reading achievement, greater closeness between teachers and children,

better pro-social skills, more assertiveness, and less fearfulness, even after

42

controlling for family risk and children’s previous years’ performance. Family risk

did not moderate the relation between RC practices and children’s performance.

These findings suggest to the positive contribution of the RC Approach in relation to

children’s gains over a one year period.

2.2.0 Studies Conducted in Indian context

The various research studies conducted in relation to learning disabilities in

Indian conditions are presented as follows:

• Singh (1981) studied this problem by investigating the effects of peer tutoring in

Mathematics skills of learning disabled students. The major question the study

attempted to answer was whether the learning disabled who received peer-tutoring

made significant gains in Mathematics computation and in the application of

Mathematics concepts over the learning disabled pupils who did not receive peer

tutoring. Results indicated that peer- tutored group of LD students made significant

gains in both Mathematics computation and Mathematics concepts application scores

over the non-peer tutored students.

• Bhattacharya (1982) conducted a study on Diagnosing and preventing learning

disabilities of primary school students in Arithmetic. To diagnose and prevent

learning disabilities in arithmetic of primary school. There are 40 samples of students

having learning difficulties in reference to mathematics of 10 primary schools. It was

found that learning through audio-visual methods caused prolonged retention than

traditional methods.

• Bhattacharya (1985). Conducted a study on the alleviation of learning disabilities of

the students in life science. There is a tried out technological approach for alleviation

of learning disabilities of the students in life science. The sample consisted of 24

students in life sciences. Results of the study indicated that learning through audio-

visual materials and techniques caused prolonged retention than by traditional

methods.

• Pandit (2000) conducted a study on factors affecting learning disabilities in

mathematics in central region of Nepal. There is a sample of 100 students for

43

conducting the study. 32 students were found to have factors affecting learning

disabilities in mathematics in central region of Nepal. The study concluded that the

factors related to the children with learning disabilities in mathematics were the poor

instruction, parents’ adverse behaviour to them, and teacher’s negligence in the class.

It was suggested that the quality of teaching strategies and quality of instruction in

the schools must be improved.

• Lall (2001) conducted a study on perceived relations social competence in children

with specific disorder of scholastic skills. This study aimed at examining perceived

peer relations and social competence in children with specific development disorders

of scholastic skills. A sample of twenty children with specific development disorders

of scholastic skills. A sample of twenty children with disorders of scholastic skill

aged, seven to twelve years and twenty controls matched on age, class and IQ were

taken. The two group were assessed on (i) A semi - structure interview schedule (ii)

Malian’s intelligence scale for Indian children (MISK) (iii) NIMHANS Index for

specific learning disabilities (iv) perceived peer relations questionnaire (v)

Interpersonal competence scale – teachers version.

Results revealed that children with scholastic skill disorder perceived their

relationship with peers as cordial. However teacher found these children as poorer in

social competence and in dimensions of academics popularly affiliation and

sportsmanship qualities.

• Mathew (2003) conducted a study on effectiveness of SIM and modern teaching

strategy in minimizing LDs of students in secondary school. A sample of 895

students from four different schools was selected for the study. Out of 895 students

204 students were identified as learning disabled and others as non learning disabled

students. Experimental method was adopted for this study. Research shows that both

SIM and modern teaching strategies are helpful in minimizing LDs.

• Kira (2005) conducted a study on race, gender and disability in today’s children’s

literature. Growth in immigration rising birth rates among Hispanic women and

yearly increases in the number of disabled students mainstreamed into general

classrooms have changed elementary and secondary school classrooms from

“homogeneous” to “diverse” settings.

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The result concluded that this demographic change forced educators to

rethink language arts curriculum and dispense with standard texts that had been used

for decades. The new classroom necessitated literature that is multicultural, inclusive

and gender bias free. While most educators advocate using said children literature, it

simply is not available, and our literary cannon seem bereft of books depicting

minorities African –American, disabled and non sexist literary characters.

• Chintamani (2006) conducted a study of social competence of children with learning

disabilities compared to class mates of low and average to high achievement. The

main objective of study to compare the social competence of learning disabled

children comparison with average to high achieving classmates. A second set of

comparison with children designated as low in academic achievement yielded

moderate effect sizes.

There is medium to large effect sizes for teachers perception of social

competence, peer preference ratings positive peer nominations, global self worth,

and self perception of scholastic performance. There is second set of comparison

with children designated as low in academic achievement yielded moderate effect

sizes for teachers’ perceptions of social competence and for peer social preference

rating small effect sizes were obtained for global self worth and self perceptions of

scholastic performance. It was concluded that children with learning disabilities and

their low achieving classmates do not appear to have accurate self perceptions of

social acceptance.

• Kulkarni and Karande (2007) examined educational provision and learning

disability. The objective of the study was to assess the impact of the provision of the

Maharashtra Govt. on the academic performance of children with learning

disabilities at the secondary school certificate board examination. The study was

conducted in Maharashtra with 12-18 years old girl. Three governments were

selected at random. Thirty 12-18 years old girls were selected from each school on

the basis of their academic performance. The result shows that there was as

significant improvement in their academic performance at the SSC board

examination.

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• Nidhi and Bora (2008) studied on Inclusive education practices for students with

disabilities. This study is an exploration of inclusive educational practices for

students with disabilities. Educational practices comprised of the environment in

which education takes place, the activities in which teacher and student participate

the interactions among teacher students with and without disabilities. The result of

the study on the development and the use of the triptych environment activities

interactions for learning disabled student.

• Puspalata (2008) conducted a study of relationship between competence and social

anxiety of LD children. The study was conducted on a sample of 100 children in the

age group of 10-14 years were selected randomly from two schools. Study shows

that learning disabled children has low academic competence and higher social

anxiety. Result indicates that learning disabled children have low academic

competence and is directly related to their social anxiety.

• Rani and Vashishtha (2008) conducted a study on determinants of Rorschachian

measures of learning disabilities. The objectives of the study are: (i) to develop the

tool for identification of learning disabled children in elementary school. (ii) To

identify the learning disabled children in elementary school. (iii) To determine

Rorschachian measures diagnosing learning disabled children in elementary school.

(iv) To evolve Rorschachian measures – based diagnostic model for learning

disabilities. The following tools were used: Self constructed tool for measuring

learning disabilities and Rorschachian ink blot test. The sample was taken from four

school affiliated to C.B.S.E. Board, Delhi. The sample consisted of 50 children (both

boys and girls) from 4 - 6 grades. The self-constructed test entitled as 3D-test, related

to three areas of learning disabilities dyslexia, dyscalculia and dysgraphia was

employed for identification of learning disability. The findings showed that a

comparison could be made between learning disabled and non disabled children in

order to discriminatory power of tool. Further it revealed that both groups had

distinct features on reading and arithmetic test but it could not be confirmed in

relation to language test. Learning disabled children had extroversive tendencies. By

psychogram it was found that learning disabled children had extroversive tendencies.

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They are highly responsive to their environment. They are creative in their

relationship to objects and people external to them and strive toward goals that have

staked out in the external world.

• Amruth and Devika (2009) examined effect of school remediation program on the

academic achievement of student with disabilities. The participants of this study

were student with disabilities enrolled in one middle school during 2007-2008 school

years. This study attempted to determine if a relationship existed between the

independent variable, attendance in an after school remediation program and the

dependent variable, the achievement test scores earned on the reading and the

program. The finding of this research study indicated that program participants

demonstrated positive response.

• Gupta and Vashishtha (2010) conducted a study of predictors of social competence

in learning disabled adolescent. The objectives of the study are: (i) To study the

effect of social problem –solving skills on social competence in learning disabled

adolescents. (ii) To study the effect of conflict resolution on social competence in

learning disabled adolescents. (iii) To examine the international effect of social

problem – solving skills and conflict resolution on social competence in learning

disabled adolescents. The sample of the study was 200 students from which 50 (25

boys and 25 girls) learning disabled adolescents were selected as a final sample for

the study. Self –constructed tool of social problem solving skills and conflict

resolution, self constructed questionnaire were used. The findings show that social

problem solving skills and conflict resolution are significantly related to criterion

variable i.e. social competence. The nature and extent of relationship of each

independent variable to social competence can be discussed as under: (i) the value of

co- efficient of correlation is 0.60 for social competence and social problem solving

skill score, and 0.69 for social competence and conflict resolution was found to be

significant at 0.01 levels. The positive moderate correlation reveals that social

competence and social problem solving skills depend on each other. It indicates that

an increase in the value of conflict resolution also increases the level of social

competence. The value of coefficient of multiple determinations being 0.4761

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indicates that there is 47.61% common variance among the predictive variables and

criterion variable. The separate variance of social problem solving skills and conflict

resolution in social competence is 36% and 47.61% respectively.

It can be concluded that social problem solving skills and conflict resolution

turn out to be strong predictors of social competence. It means that the LD

adolescents who have good social problem solving skills can resolve their conflict in

an effective manner and LD adolescents who have the ability to resolve their

conflicts in a healthy manner can solve their social and individual problems.

• Tiga and Vashishtha (2010) examined the study on social competence as a

determinant of self – concept and social anxiety of learning disabled and non

learning disabled adolescents. The objectives of the study are: (i) to study the social

competence of learning disabled and non learning disabled adolescents. (ii) to study

the self concept of learning disabled and non learning disabled adolescents. (iii) to

study the social anxiety of learning disabled and non learning adolescents. (iv) to

study the international effect of self- concept and social anxiety on social

competence of learning disabled and non learning disabled adolescents. Fifty

learning disabled adolescents were identified through self made questionnaire and

selected from class IX and X from the selected schools of Agra city.

The findings show that: (i) the CR value of social competence scores of LDA

and NLDA groups was found 9.4. CR which is significant at 0.01 level shows that

there is significant differences between social competence of leaning disabled

adolescents and non learning disabled students. (ii) CR value of self concept score

obtained in two groups i.e. LDA and NLDA groups was found to be 11.4 which was

significant at 0.01 level showing that and non learning disabled adolescents. (iii) CR

value of social anxiety scores of LDA and NLDA groups was found 11.0 which

show that there was a significant difference between social anxiety of learning

disabled and non learning disabled adolescents. (iv) the coefficients of multiple

determination between the scores of social competence, self concept and social

anxiety of learning disabled adolescents and non learning disabled adolescents were

0.8 (positive very high correlation) and 0.5 (positive moderate correlation)

respectively. These values show significant relationship between self-concept and

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social anxiety with social competence of learning disabled and non learning disabled

students.

The conclusion of the study is that learning disabled group had low level of

social competence in comparison to non learning disabled adolescents group.

Learning disabled group had poor self concept in comparison to the non learning

disabled adolescent group. Learning disabled adolescents group had higher level of

social anxiety than the non learning disabled group. Social competence depends on

self concept and social anxiety among the groups (learning disabled adolescents and

non learning disabled adolescents). Self concept and social anxiety are highly

correlated in learning disabled adolescents in comparison to non learning disabled

adolescents.

• Prasand and Vashishtha (2011) conducted study on social anxiety as determinant of

self concept and self efficacy of dyslexic children and non dyslexic children. The

objectives of the study are: (i) to study the self concept of dyslexic and non dyslexic.

(ii) to study the self efficacy of dyslexic and non dyslexic children (iii) to study the

social anxiety of dyslexic and non dyslexic children (iv) to study the international

effect of self concept and self efficacy on social anxiety of dyslexic and non dyslexic

children. The sample of 100 students of VIII class was selected in this study.

Dyslexic children are identified using a self – constructed self concept questionnaire,

Liebowitz social anxiety scale (1987) and the general self efficacy scale (GSE),

(1993) by Mattias Jerusalem.

The results indicated that (i) dyslexic children group had low level of self-

concept in comparison to non dyslexic children. (iii) dyslexic children group had

poor self–efficiency in comparison the non–dyslexic children (iii) dyslexic children

group had higher level of social anxiety than the non dyslexic children. (iv) social

anxiety depends on self concept and self efficacy among the groups i.e. dyslexic

children and non dyslexic children. (v) self concept and self efficacy is highly

correlated in dyslexic children in comparison than non dyslexic children.

The conclusion of the study is that dyslexic children lead a different life than

non dyslexic children. Special accommodations are necessary to provide an effective

academic experience for these students by enhancing their social mixing and

interrelations in order to raise their self concept and self efficacy. Within resource

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classrooms dyslexic children work at their own pace and may be less likely to feel

pressurized to do activities beyond their capabilities. They have disabilities of

listening, writing, reading, speaking, mathematics reasoning, thinking, gross and fine

motor skills, social, emotional domain and spelling and other disabilities therefore,

they cannot adjust with their educational environment and it promotes most of the

myths about dyslexic children and hence they are misunderstood as mentally

retarded children. Like other children, those with disabilities have the legal right to

education and should be encouraged for attending school for academic achievement

and socialization.

• Tiga and Kapoor (2011) conducted a study on development of a package to enhance

competence of learning disabled children. The objectives of the study are (i) to

identify children with learning disability in regular schools. (ii) to identify

competence among children with learning disability in regular schools. (iii) to design

and develop a package for LD children in regular schools. (iv) to find the

effectiveness of package in increasing competence among children with learning

disability. The sample consisted of 23 learning disabled children from of 5th grade

from two school affiliated to U.P. board. Tools were learning disabled identification

scale (self constructed) and children’s competence scale (self constructed) were used.

Findings of the study are (i) 66 % of the total children have low competence,

30% children have normal competence and 4% children have high competence. (ii)

Contents of the package were selected on the basis of needs of learning disabled

children and contents of the package were effectively presented in the form of

booklets and folders. (iii) After introducing the package, percentage of LD children

in high competence categories increased by 4% to 21%, in normal competence

categories % of LD children increased by 30% to 39% and in low competence

categories % of LD children decreased by 60% to 43%. (iv) Mean value of pre score

and post scores of competence of LD children was found to be 3.14 which is

significant at 0.01 and shows that there is significant difference between pre and post

scores of LD.

The result shows that learning disabled children have low level of

competence in comparison to non LD children and they need special assistance to

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enhance competence. It further reveals that effective package can enhance the

competence of the learning disabled children.

• Rani and Kapoor (2012) conducted a study on development of teaching learning

material for Home Science students with learning disabilities. The objectives of the

study are: (i) to identify learning disabled students in secondary school (ii) to study

the achievement of learning disabled in Home Science. (ii) to develop teaching

learning material in Home Science for learning disabled students of secondary school

(iv) to evaluate the efficacy of developed material in Home Science for learning

disabled students of secondary school. Purposive sampling method was used for the

selection of learning disabled children having Home Science in IX & X grade at

secondary stage. The researcher selected14 learning disabled students out of 300 on

the basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria. A Self-Constructed tool was used for

identifying the category of learning disabilities. A checklist prepared for teacher to

identify the learning disabilities was used. A self made achievement test was used to

the measure achievement of students. For the development of teaching learning

material and video assisted instruction material based on program learning material

principle were prepared On the basis of exclusion and inclusion criteria of tool 14

students were selected as sample (Students scoring below 50% on diagnostic test of

learning disability and students scoring above 50% on learning problem checklist).

Very few students get score in between 1 to 14 marks and no students can get

above score. It further reveals that these students have no more knowledge in Home

Science and they have deficiency to receive information, remembering them and also

difficulty in organizing the information therefore there are need to teaching strategy

and teaching learning material used by the teacher in the classroom.

After administering the teaching learning material based on program learning,

score of student in Home Science achievement test was increased in reference to pre

and post test with 27 and 94 respectively. Mean value of pre score test is 1.92 which

increased in post score with 6.71. The t-test value of pre score and post score of

achievement of LD students in Home Science was found 5.5. T test value was found

significant at 0.01 levels i.e. 3.01 and at 0.05 level i.e.2.16 which shows highly

significant difference between Pre and Post score of achievement test of LD students

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in Home Science. The conclusion of the study was that learning disabled children

need additional assistance to increase their academic achievement. Effective material

based on program learning can increase the academic achievement of leaning

disabled students.

2.3.0 Overview of the Chapter

After reviewing the above related literature it is found that there were studies

related to different method of teaching at middle school, writing and self monitoring

strategies for eight graders, instructional intervention for writing and spelling

performance, novel teaching method on mathematics, differential efficacy of verbal self

instructional training on reflective and impulsive reading disabled, instructional methods

for teaching spelling to elementary students with learning disabilities, service delivery

ability of general education of middle school students, self monitoring instructions

delivered to students by peers on the participation of students with severe learning

disabilities, accomplishment of students with specific learning disabilities and language

impairment, story mapping, infusion of remedial reading instruction, RCM model, social

competence, classroom behaviour, teaching strategies, social skills interventions,

individualized instruction education program, emotional competence, video models,

psychological factors, algebraic literacy model in reference to learning disabilities

conducted in abroad. On the other hand in Indian context, there were studies related to

educational provision, inclusive education practices, competence and social anxiety,

social remediation program peer tutoring mathematics skills, factor affecting learning

disabilities in mathematics and science.

It is evident from the above mentioned studies that only a few studies have

conducted with the help of instructional and teaching learning material in international

perspective on learning disabilities although a number of studies in this area is either

related with exploring various dimensional issues of learning disabilities expressing

psycho-clinical investigation. In India, it is almost a virgin’s field of educational research

where a very few studies are available on this topic. It may appear that as the apex bodies

are now a day’s focusing attention on Inclusive Education, the researcher are taking

initiative in this field which needs gross attention at secondary level.