THE CLASSICAL AGE

Or

THE AUGUSTAN AGE

Or

THE AGE OF POPE

INTRODUCTION:

Following the Restoration, in 1660 of the Stuart King, Charles II,

to the throne of England the manners of the 17th century

society became quite coarse, politics scandalously corrupt and

the general tone of society brutal. But people soon grew sick of

the outrageous license of the fashionable circles and the early

18th century witnesses a resolute attempt in the direction of

moral regeneration.

The eighteenth century in English literature has been called the Augustan Age, the Neoclassical Age, and the Age of Reason. The term 'the Augustan Age' comes from the self-conscious imitation of the original Augustan writers, Virgil and Horace, by many of the writers of the period. Specifically, the Augustan Age was the period after the Restoration era to the death of Alexander Pope (~1690 - 1744). The major writers of the age were Pope and John Dryden in poetry, and Jonathan Swift and Joseph Addison in prose. Dryden forms the link between

Restoration and Augustan literature; although he wrote ribald comedies in the Restoration vein, his verse satires were highly admired by the generation of poets who followed him, and his writings on literature were very much in a neoclassical spirit. But more than any other it is the name of Alexander Pope which is associated with the epoch known as the Augustan Age, despite the fact that other writers such as Jonathan Swift and Daniel Defoe had a more lasting influence. This is partly a result of the politics of naming inherent in literary history: many of the early forms of prose narrative common at this time did not fit into a literary era which defined itself as neoclassic. The literature of this period which conformed to Pope's aesthetic principles (and could thus qualify as being 'Augustan') is distinguished by its striving for harmony and precision, its urbanity, and its imitation of classical models such as Homer, Cicero, Virgil, and Horace, for example in the work of the minor poet Matthew Prior. In verse, the tight heroic couplet was common, and in prose essay and satire were the predominant forms. Any facile definition of this period would be misleading, however; as important as it was, the neoclassicist impulse was only one strain in the literature of the first half of the eighteenth century. But its representatives were the defining voices in literary circles, and as a result it is often some aspect of 'neoclassicism' which is used to describe the era.

'Neoclassicism'

The desire for improvement was feature of the literature of this

age, and particularly of the literature, that was created by

middle class writers who were most strongly influenced by the

moral considerations. But the people of this age were quite as

hostile, on the other hand, to the religious zeal and fanaticism

or the Puritans. And thus, thought England began to regain lost

ground morally, she did not recover the high passion or the

spiritual fervor of the Elizabethan age. People, in their dread of

the emotional excesses of the Puritans, fell into a mood of chilly

apathy, virtue was preached and recommended, but any

manifestation of earnestness even in the Pulpit was regarded as

‘enthusiasm’ and hence, shockingly bad taste. ‘Good sense’

became the idol of the time, and by ‘good sense’ was meant a

love of the reasonable and the useful and a hatred of the

extravagant, the mystical and the visionary.

This is shown in the field of religion in which the prevailing

principles were rationalism and utility. The same temper marks

the literature of the age which exhibits a similar coldness and

want of feeling, and a similar tendency towards shallowness in

thought and formality in expression. It is a literature of

intelligence which rarely goes much beneath the surface of

things of wit and of fancy and not a literature of emotion,

passion or creative energy which are the essential elements of

high class literature. In this literature, spontaneity and

simplicity are sacrificed to the dominant mania for elegance

and correctness. This is true even of poetry, which seldom

travelled, beyond the interests of that narrow world of

circumscribed, and finding its publicity in the coffee houses and

the drawing rooms, drew for its substance upon the politics and

the discussion of the hour; and the couplet was its accepted

dress, Such poetry, however clever, was necessarily more or

less fugitive; it lacked inevitably the depth and the grasp of

essential things which alone assure permanence in literature.

And the quest for refinement in style resulted too often in

stilted affections and frigid conventionalism.

THE NATURE AND GRAVEYARD POETS:

Neoclassicism was not the only literary movement at this time, however. Two schools in poetry rejected many of the precepts of decorum advocated by the neoclassical writers and anticipated several of the themes of Romanticism. The so-called nature poets, for example, treated nature not as an ordered pastoral backdrop, but rather as a grand and sometimes even forbidding entity. They tended to individualize the experience of nature and shun a methodized approach. Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea, was a rural poet in an urban era, and the poems of Miscellany Poems by a Lady (1713) were often observations of nature, largely free of neoclassical conventions. Her contemporaries regarded her as little more than a female wit, but she was highly praised by the Romantic poets, particularly William Wordsworth. A further influential poet of this school was James Thomas, whose poetical work The Seasons, which appeared in separate volumes from 1726 to 1730 and beginning with winter, was the most popular

verse of the century. In his treatment of nature, he diverged from the neoclassical writers in many important ways: through sweeping vistas and specific details in contrast to circumscribed, generalized landscapes; exuberance instead of balance; and a fascination with the supernatural and the mysterious, no name just a few.

This last was also the major concern of the poets of the Graveyard School. Foremost among them was Edward Young, whose early verses were in the Augustan tradition. In his most famous work, however, The Complaint: or, Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Immortality (1742-45), the melancholy meditations against a backdrop of tombs and death indicate a major departure from the conventions and convictions of the preceding generation. While the neoclassicists regarded melancholia as a weakness, the pervasive mood of The Complaint is a sentimental and pensive contemplation of loss. It was nearly as successful as Thomas's The Seasons, and was translated into a number of major European languages.

THE CLASSICAL OR THE AUGUSTAN AGE:

The period covering the age of Dryden as well as that of Pope

(1660-1745) is sometimes called the Classical and sometimes

the Augustan age of English literature. The poets and critics of

this age believed that the work of the writers of classical

antiquity, especially those of Latin writers, presented the best

of models and the ultimate standards of literary taste; and they

tried to imitate these models. Secondly, in a more general way,

like these Latin writers, they had little or no faith in the

promptings and guidance of individual genius, but they had

much faith in laws and rules imposed by the authority of the

past. In 1706, Walsh wrote to Pope: “The best of the modern

poets in all languages are those that have nearest copied the

ancients.” This expressed concisely the principle of classicism.

Pope himself reiterated this principle in the well-known lines in

his Essay on Criticism.

“Tis more to guide than spur the Muses’ steed;

Restrain his fury, than provoke his speed;

The winged courser, like a gen’rous horse,

Shows most true mettle when you check his course,

Those rules of old discover’d not devis’d.

Are natures still, but Nature methodis’d.

Nature like liberty, is but restrain’d

By the same laws which first herself ordain’d.

Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem.

To copy Nature is to copy them.”

In imitating the models set by the ancients and in following the

rules and laws laid by them, the poets of this period thought

that they themselves were producing work which would be

called classic or first rate. But the fact is that they only followed

their rules mechanically and imitated the ancient classic writers

so far as the form or technique of their work goes; otherwise

they lacked their genius. For this reason, the age is also called

the age of false or pseudo-classicism.

The epithet ‘Augustan’ was applies, to begin with, as a term of

high praise, because those who used it really believed that just

as the age of Augustans was the golden age of Latin literature,

the Age of Pope was the golden age of English literature. But

that is not the view of all; and hence, the original significance of

the term has disappeared. But the epithet is still retained for

the sake of convenience. It serves to bring out the analogy

between the English literature of the first half of the 18th

century and the Latin literature of the days of Virgil and Horace.

In both cases, men of letters were dependent upon powerful

patrons and in the both cases a critical spirit prevailed. In both

cases the literature produced by a thoroughly artificial society

was a literature, not of free creative effort and inspiration, but

of self-conscious and deliberate art.

“Our Excellent and Indispensable Eighteenth Century”.

The age of Pope (and for that matter the whole of the 18th

century) was the age of reason and the age of prose-“our

excellent 18th century”, as Arnold put it “the age of prose.” The

writers of the age, though they did not produce great poetry,

did other essential work for the service of literature:

• They settled (as Saintsbury has pointed out) English

grammar for prose use-infact, they laid the foundation of

real prose style in English literature

• They created a sort of “etiquette” or convention which

would prevent the absurd extravagances of metaphysical

poetry (e.g., describing the eyes of a lady as “walking

baths”

• They brought order and harmony both in poetry and

prose. Their poetry devoid as it was of imaginative quality,

was no doubt of an inferior order, but the prose of Steele

and Addison, the novels of Defoe and the work of Swift are

things of which any age may be proud.

LIMITATIONS OF THE AGE OF POPE:

The age of Pope has no doubt limitations. Its literature was

mostly the literature of the town, and as such the view of life

revealed in it is of a limited character. It has neither depth nor

breadth of interest. The writers cared more for form and rule

than for freedom and spontaneity. But we must not forget the

valuable contributions of the writers of the age. They extended

the domain of literature b:

• Perfecting the satire and the heroic couplet,

• Producing examples(unequalled even till today) of

excellent prose style,

• Getting the essay thoroughly into shape.

• Preparing the ground for the birth of novel. Thus the

age of Pope with the ideals of reason and good sense,

instead of merely repeating and continuing the

tendencies of the preceding ages, shaped new things

and made direct contribution to English literature. it

was, no doubt, deficient in poetry, but excelled in its

prose.

THE AGE OF SATIRE:-) :-) :-( :-P :-O :-@ :-/ :-D :-V

The Augustan age is chiefly remarkable for the rise of satire.

The social and political conditions of the time were just suitable

for the development of satire. T he fashionable society of the

day was immoral and corrupt and was infested with numerous

vices and follies. This was a matter of anxiety to sensible men

like Addison, Steele and Pope. Addison and Steele wrote mild

satires in the ‘Spectator’ and the ‘Tatler’ to reform but to

amuse himself and others at the expense of the unfortunate

and the foolish. With all his keen intelligence Pope could not

fail to see the emptiness of the life around him<and being a

satirist by nature, he did not fail to ridicule it.

The second cause for the development of satire the political life

of the day. It was a time of corrupt politics, and dirty party

warfare. The great politicians of the day vied with one another

in showering ridicules and abuses on their opponents. Hence,

authors, both of prose and poetry, who could write to serve

this purpose, were in great demand. The literature of this

period therefore became mostly a literature of satire, as almost

all the works of Pope himself are. The heroic couplet, which

was the chief medium of the poetry of this period, was

especially suitable for satire.

Town life-The Usual theme of the Poets.

To the authors of this period, both of prose and poetry, life

meant only the life of fashionable society of the town. Nothing

outside this life had any interest for them. Moreover, these

authors describe only the superficial aspects of this time and

the literature of this period is therefore, a literature of manners

only. Great authors, like Shakespeare, describe the basic

characteristics of human nature as it has always been and will

always be. The authors of the Augustan age, on the other hand,

describe only the artificial manners of a frivolous society.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF POETRY:

The chief characteristics of poetry in the age of Dryden and

Pope are as follows:

• 1. Classical poetry is, in the main, the product of mere

intelligence playing upon the surface of life and things.

• 2. It is markedly deficient in emotion and exercise of

imagination.

• 3. It is generally didactic (Pope’s “moral Epistles”) and

satiric (Dryden’s “Mac Flacknoe”, Pope’s Dunciad’).

• 4. It is a poetry of argument and criticism, of politics and

personalities.

• 5. It is almost exclusively’ town poetry’. Its theme is the

interest of ‘society’ in the great centers of culture.

• 6. The humbler aspect of life and the common man are

neglected in it;

• 7. and it shows no real love of nature, landscape and

countryside thing and people.

• 8. It is almost entirely lacking in all those elements

which we rather vaguely sum up under the epithet

‘romantic’ in an age of profound distrust of emotions

and ‘enthusiasm’, all that savored of romanticism

shocked their accepted notions of reasonableness and

‘good sense’.

• 9. The critical taste of the time was unsympathetic

towards Chaucer, Spenser and even Shakespeare, who

appeared to them to be ‘rude’ and barbaric.

• 10. It was especially hostile to everything that belonged

to the middle Ages with its chivalrous extravagance, and

idealism distrust of romantic literature and art is

reflected in the poetry of the age.

• 11. Extreme devotion to form and a love of superficial

polish led to the establishment of highly artificial and

conventional style, which soon became stereotyped into

a regular traditional poetic diction.

• 12. Classical embroidery of kinds was employed in

season and out of season till it was threadbare

disappeared before the growth of a false conception of

refinement, and high sounding phrases and pompous

circumlocution were substituted for plan and direct

expressions even when the matter dealt which was of

the simplest and most common place kind. The simple

‘God rest his soul’ of the old ballads would be rendered

by poets of the period into the pompous ‘Eternal

blessings on his shade attend’; and colloquialism into

beautiful poetry, Wordsworth was soon to revolt this

type of diction and style.

13. The poets of this age stuck to the closed couplet as the only

possible form for any serious work in verse on account of its

epigrammatic terseness, the form suited admirably to the kind

of poetry that was popular in to age. But it was too narrow and

inflexible to be made the vehicle of high passion or imagination,

and it was soon to grow monotonous. Pope was the supreme

master of the closed couplet.

14. On the whole, the poetry in the age of Dryden and pope

was not very good. It was only second rate because it had not

the universal appeal of the poetry of the Elizabethan age of

Milton and of the romantics later on.

15. It did not touch the heart. It only taxed the head.

POPE AS A REPRESENTATIVE POET OF 18TH CENTURY:

A representative poet is one who presents in his poetry the life

and ideas of the age to which he belongs. He is not a rebel

against his age. Rather, he accepts its ideals; and presents them

in his poetry. Pope wholly accepts the ideas of eighteenth

century poetry and works them out in his own poetry. In his

hands the heroic couplet reaches its perfection. Every line of

Pope’s poetry is so well constructed that it is impossible to

improve upon it. Satire is the best expression of the spirit of the

Neo-classical age. Since Pope is the representative poet of this

age. His poetry is mostly satirical in nature and Pope accepts its

literary theories. His Essay on Criticism is a collection of the

literary theories of the Neo-classical age. He knew his own ideal

of literature, could express that ideal critically, as few could,

and express it constructively as could no other man in the

world.

A great work of art, though universal in its appeal, is the most

typical product of its time. It is rooted in the contemporary

social and cultural life and reflects, implicitly or explicitly, that

life is in its essence and totality. It is an indispensable

prerequisite for the greatness of a work of art. If it fails to be of

its own age, almost as a rule, it will also fail to be universal in its

appeal. It is a great poem by all cannons of art and it does all

that admirably. Its focus mainly captures the typical features of

the aristocratic class of its time.

The Rape of The Lock gives a complete and graphic picture of

the 20th century. The Rape of The Lock is concerned with the

aristocratic society and presents a charming portrait of its

features. This portrait is not presented in word-pictures of

descriptive passages; but is richly suggested through the mock-

epic adventures of Lord Petre and Belinda – the representative

figures of the society. The aristocratic of the 18th century

English was a newly formed class, having emerged out of the

commercial prosperity of England since the exploits of the

Armada victory. The aristocratic people were primarily urban

people with easy flow of money from trade and commerce and

in some classes from the hoardings of land. They were luxury

loving people, enjoying life in idle games and fun and frolic.

Being wealthy with a new-found lust for money and craze for

fashion, mostly imitated from the French whose influence had

come through the Restoration. They got themselves

preoccupied in trivialities, Gossips, sex-intrigues, and courting

ladies. The ladies of the time loved being wooed and playing

coquets to the gentlemen.

Mirror to the 18th century: The Rape of the Lock is a mirror to

this kind of society of which Lord Petre and Belinda are the

representative figures. Belinda is presented as dazzling

charming like the sun, and lap-dogs were another indispensable

ingredient of their lives.

Now lap-dogs give themselves the rousing shake,

And sleepless lovers, just at twelve, awake:

It is significant that how Pope brackets lap-dogs and lovers as

though lovers were no better than lap-dogs.

Glittering fashion, celebrations in the form of parties, dances

with amorous intentions beneath, were the typical features of

the people belonging to the aristocratic class. Ariel’s speech

that Belinda hears in a state of dreaming portraits the sex-

intrigues of the dancing balls. The ladies spent more time

applying to them beauty aids, a large variety of cosmetics from

distant lands. They were always burning to win the heart of

their lover. They spent hours at the toilets, played card games,

danced and considered the dressing table a place of worship.

Coquetry was the only art that these ladies practiced

sedulously: rolling the eye ball for furtive glances or winking in

a debonair, apparently indifferent manner, blushing at the right

moment to attract the admiring eyes, were the manners that

they worked hard to acquire. The ladies as well as the gallant

young men were fickle-minded, inconsistent, unreliable frankly

trivializing valuable human relationship. Pretension,

dissimulation and hypocrisy constituted their way of life. Levity

was their common characteristic. The following shows their

picture.

On the rich guilt sinks with becoming woe,

Wrapt in a gown, for sickness, and for show.

The fair ones feel such maladies as these,

When each new night-dress gives a new disease

Pope gives minute details of the ladies’ constant concern for

enhancing their beauty effect with artificial means. For these

ladies, the conventionally serious things of life had lost their

importance. Their moods and passion were ruled by trivialities.

Trifles would make them anxious or angry. These ladies, in

other words, were devoid of any real moral sense, or any

serious, meaningful purpose in life. To them, the death of

husbands affected them only as much as that of their lap-dog

or breaking of China jars. Honor, to them, was almost equal to

nothing. The loss of chastity was no more serious than staining

of brocades. To them Church meant nothing. Missing a church

congregation was not a serious affair, but missing a ball was

considered an important thing. Losing heart or indulging in sex

was less important than the loss of a necklace.

All this goes to show that utter moral confusion prevailed in the

aristocracy of the eighteenth century. Serious purpose had

evaporated from their lives. Men were chiefly concerned with

getting richer and carrying on sexual adventures with fashion-

frenzy coquettish ladies. Their love letters were more sacred to

them than the Bible. In the Rape of the Lock, the adventurous

Baron builds an Alter of Love; it is built of twelve voluminous

French romances and all the prizes gained from him former

love; and significantly, the fire at the altar is raised with the

heaps of love-letters that he had received. Lord Petre’s sense of

victory at the cutting of Belinda’s lock is symbolic of the

shallowness, triviality, in fact, the emptiness of the youths of

the contemporary aristocratic class.

Shallowness of Judges, the fashion of coffee-taking.

The hungry judges soon the sentence sign

And wretches hang that the jury-men dine

“Coffee, (which makes the politician wise,)

and see through all things with half-shut eyes”

The Rape of the Lock is an epitome of the eighteenth century

social life. In this poem, Pope has caught and fixed forever the

atmosphere of the age. No great English poet is at once so

great and so empty, so artistic and yet so void of the ideal on

which all high art rests. As Dixon asserts: Pope is the

protagonist of a whole age, of an attitude of mind and manner

of writing. Hence, the poem is highly arresting because of its

presentation of social life of the age. It reflects and mirrors the

contemporary society.

Conclusion:

Pope fully bears the witticism of its age. In his conception of

theme and selection of the tile, Pope displays his unsurpassable

wit. This was the kind of life led by the fashionable people of

the upper classes in the age of Pope, and Pope has described it

in gorgeous colors on the one hand and with scathing satire on

the other. While it shows the grace and fascination of Belinda’s

toilet, he indicates the vanity and futility of it all. There is

nothing deep or serious in the lives and activities of the

fashionable people, all is vanity and emptiness and this Pope

has revealed with art and brilliance. The Rape of the Lock

reflects the artificial age with all its outward splendor and

inward emptiness. It is the mirror of a particular aspect of life in

the age of Pope. It was, says, Lowell, a mirror in a drawing

room, but it gave back a faithful image of society.

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