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Knowledge & Strategy Partners
IIT - Delhi EIL
Knowledge & Strategy Paper on Technology Upgradation in
April 2013New Delhi
CHEMICAL PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
&
For further details please contact...
Mr P. S. SinghHead-Chemicals Division, FICCI
Federation House, 1 Tansen Marg, New Delhi-110001
Tel: +91-11-2331 6540 (Dir)
EPBX: +91-11-23738760-70 (Extn 395)
Fax: +91-11-2332 0714/2372 1504
Email: [email protected]
Ms Charu SmitaAssistant Director-Chemicals Division, FICCI
Federation House, 1 Tansen Marg, New Delhi-110001
Tel: +91-112335 7350 (Dir)
EPBX: +91-1123738760-70 (Extn 474)
Fax: +91-112332 0714/2372 1504
Email: [email protected]
R.P. LuthraDirector Administration
Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (Northern Regional Center)C-27, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi-110016
Tel. .: 011-26532060, 26533539, E-Mail : [email protected] : www.iichenrc.org
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01
Coal Gasification
Dr. Siddhartha Mukherjee, Director - TechnologyAir Liquide Global E&C Solutions India Private Limited
Introduction
History
Chemical Reactions
The term gasification covers the conversion of any carbonaceous fuel to a gaseous product
with a usable heating value. The process includes pyrolysis, partial oxidation and
hydrogenation but excludes combustion because the product flue gas has no residual
heating value. The dominant technology is partial oxidation which produces a synthesis
gas consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in varying ratios.
The process of producing energy using the gasification method has been in use for more
than 180 years. The most important gaseous fuel used in the early nineteenth century was
town gas. This was produced by two processes namely pyrolysis of coal which produces a
gas with a relatively high heating value, and the water gas process, in which coke is
converted into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to produce a medium Btu gas.
The coke oven and the water gas reactors were operated at pressures less than 2 bar. This
resulted in voluminous equipment.
The fully continuous gasification process was developed only after Carl von Linde
commercialised the cryogenic separation of air. Gasification processes using oxygen were
now developed for the production of synthesis gas. Following this, some important
gasification processes were developed viz. the Winkler fluid-bed process (1926), the Lurgi
moving bed process (1931) and the Koppers-Totzek entrained flow process (1940s).
The chemistry of gasification is extremely complex. The most important reactions relevant
to the gasification process are similar to those of gas reforming. The processes of
gasification and reforming therefore have a lot in common. Both take place at relatively
high temperatures (approximately 1000 oC or more), which is a result of the heat of
exothermic combustion (oxidation) reactions driving the endothermic reduction
reactions. The basic gasification reactions are the following:
Oxidation:
C + ½ O CO ∆H = -111 kJ/mol (1)2CO + ½ O →CO H = -283 kJ/mol2H + ½ O →H O ∆H = -242 kJ/mol (3)2 2 2
→
∆ (2)2
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Knowledge & Strategy Partners
IIT - Delhi EIL
Knowledge & Strategy Paper on Technology Upgradation in
April 2013New Delhi
CHEMICAL PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
&
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The Indian chemical industry, an integral component of the Indian
economy has key linkages with several other industries such as
automotive, consumer durables, engineering, food processing etc and
produces & supplies more than 80000 products. With Asia's
increasing contribution to the global chemical industry, India
emerges as one of the focus destinations for chemical companies
worldwide.
Challenges to the Indian industry include growing competition from
other countries, sustainability of the business & perception issues of
the sector. In order to be competitive in the international market, the
chemical industry has to promote sustainable development by
investing in technologies that are water/energy/feedstock efficient,
protect the environment & stimulate growth while balancing
economic needs & financial constraints.
I am delighted that FICCI, jointly with the Department of Chemicals &
Petrochemicals, Government of India & Indian Institute of Chemical
Engineers (IIChE) is organising a Seminar on "Technology
Upgradation in the Chemicals and Petrochemicals industry" at New
Delhi on April 15-16, 2013.
I am confident the Seminar will achieve its objectives and wish it every
success.
Sd/-
Naina Lal KidwaiPresidentFICCI
Message Message
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The Indian chemical industry, an integral component of the Indian
economy has key linkages with several other industries such as
automotive, consumer durables, engineering, food processing etc and
produces & supplies more than 80000 products. With Asia's
increasing contribution to the global chemical industry, India
emerges as one of the focus destinations for chemical companies
worldwide.
Challenges to the Indian industry include growing competition from
other countries, sustainability of the business & perception issues of
the sector. In order to be competitive in the international market, the
chemical industry has to promote sustainable development by
investing in technologies that are water/energy/feedstock efficient,
protect the environment & stimulate growth while balancing
economic needs & financial constraints.
I am delighted that FICCI, jointly with the Department of Chemicals &
Petrochemicals, Government of India & Indian Institute of Chemical
Engineers (IIChE) is organising a Seminar on "Technology
Upgradation in the Chemicals and Petrochemicals industry" at New
Delhi on April 15-16, 2013.
I am confident the Seminar will achieve its objectives and wish it every
success.
Sd/-
Naina Lal KidwaiPresidentFICCI
Message Message
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stnetnoC foT ea lb
1. Coal Gasification- Dr Siddhartha Mukherjee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01Director Technology, Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions India Pvt. Ltd.
1
2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
3 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
4 Criteria for Assessment of Different Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
5 Gasification Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
6 Applications of Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
7 Coal Gasification - the Indian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
2. Latest Developments in the Fertilizer (Ammonia) Industry- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09Dr S. Nand; Mr V. K. Goyal and Mr Manish Goswami, Fertilizers Association of India
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
2 Growth of ammonia industry in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Energy conservation efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Benchmarking of Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Developments in ammonia technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1 Reforming of hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Conversion of CO to CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Synthesis gas Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 Ammonia synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3. Petrochemicals- Engineers India Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1 Introduction To Petrochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Petrochemicals from Steam Cracking of Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1 Feedstock options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Directly saleable products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Basic building blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Byproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Block flow diagram and brief process description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Technology suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
Executive Summary
The Indian chemical industry is an integral component of the Indian economy. The
industry has key linkages with several other downstream industries such as automotive,
construction, consumer durables, engineering, food processing etc. The industry
produces and supplies more than 80000 products. The chemicals industry which includes,
(as per national Industrial Classification) basic chemicals & its products, petrochemicals,
fertilizers, paints and varnishes, gases, soaps, perfumes and toiletries is one of the most
diversified of all industrial sectors covering thousands of commercial products. The robust
growth of this sector is important for the national economy.
The Indian chemicals industry generated total revenue of about USD 108 billion in 2010
(Source: CMIE). The relevance of the chemical industry to the overall manufacturing sector
can be gauged by the fact that 'Basic chemicals and chemical products' account for about
14% in overall Index of Industrial Production (IIP).
In the Chemical Sector, 100 percent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permissible thru
automatic route. Manufacture of most chemical products including organic / inorganic,
dyestuffs and pesticides is de-licensed. With Asia's increasing contribution to the global
chemical industry, India emerges as one of the focus destinations for chemical companies
worldwide. There is huge unrealised potential of further growth as indicated by the
present very low per capita consumptions in the country. The domestic demand is rapidly
increasing, and is being fuelled by approx. 200 million Indian middle class consumers. The
new National Manufacturing Policy has set the target of increasing the share of
manufacturing in GDP to at least 25% by 2025 (from current 16%). These all are
indications of the days of growth for this important sector.
However, for that to be possible, significant investments in capacity creation, R&D, feed
stock availability and infrastructure need to be created to enable the industry to be
globally competitive. If that is not done, the market forces will play and it will get served
through manufacturing done in other countries. The chemical industry in the coming
decades has to promote sustainable development by investing in technologies that
protects environment and stimulates growth while balancing economic needs and
financial constraints. This Seminar gives focus to this aspect.
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1. Coal Gasification- Dr Siddhartha Mukherjee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01Director Technology, Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions India Pvt. Ltd.
1
2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
3 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
4 Criteria for Assessment of Different Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
5 Gasification Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02
6 Applications of Coal Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04
7 Coal Gasification - the Indian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08
2. Latest Developments in the Fertilizer (Ammonia) Industry- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09Dr S. Nand; Mr V. K. Goyal and Mr Manish Goswami, Fertilizers Association of India
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09
2 Growth of ammonia industry in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Energy conservation efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Benchmarking of Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 Developments in ammonia technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1 Reforming of hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Conversion of CO to CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.3 Synthesis gas Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.4 Ammonia synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3. Petrochemicals- Engineers India Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1 Introduction To Petrochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Petrochemicals from Steam Cracking of Hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1 Feedstock options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2 Directly saleable products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Basic building blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Byproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Block flow diagram and brief process description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Technology suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01
Executive Summary
The Indian chemical industry is an integral component of the Indian economy. The
industry has key linkages with several other downstream industries such as automotive,
construction, consumer durables, engineering, food processing etc. The industry
produces and supplies more than 80000 products. The chemicals industry which includes,
(as per national Industrial Classification) basic chemicals & its products, petrochemicals,
fertilizers, paints and varnishes, gases, soaps, perfumes and toiletries is one of the most
diversified of all industrial sectors covering thousands of commercial products. The robust
growth of this sector is important for the national economy.
The Indian chemicals industry generated total revenue of about USD 108 billion in 2010
(Source: CMIE). The relevance of the chemical industry to the overall manufacturing sector
can be gauged by the fact that 'Basic chemicals and chemical products' account for about
14% in overall Index of Industrial Production (IIP).
In the Chemical Sector, 100 percent Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permissible thru
automatic route. Manufacture of most chemical products including organic / inorganic,
dyestuffs and pesticides is de-licensed. With Asia's increasing contribution to the global
chemical industry, India emerges as one of the focus destinations for chemical companies
worldwide. There is huge unrealised potential of further growth as indicated by the
present very low per capita consumptions in the country. The domestic demand is rapidly
increasing, and is being fuelled by approx. 200 million Indian middle class consumers. The
new National Manufacturing Policy has set the target of increasing the share of
manufacturing in GDP to at least 25% by 2025 (from current 16%). These all are
indications of the days of growth for this important sector.
However, for that to be possible, significant investments in capacity creation, R&D, feed
stock availability and infrastructure need to be created to enable the industry to be
globally competitive. If that is not done, the market forces will play and it will get served
through manufacturing done in other countries. The chemical industry in the coming
decades has to promote sustainable development by investing in technologies that
protects environment and stimulates growth while balancing economic needs and
financial constraints. This Seminar gives focus to this aspect.
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3 Pathways for Production of Various Petrochemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 Petrochemicals from Ethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Petrochemicals from Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Petrochemicals from C4 fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Petrochemicals from C5 fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Petrochemicals from Aromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Petrochemicals from Methanol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 Major Applications of Petrochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Technology Suppliers for Production Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. Breakthrough Applications of Ionic Liquids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61A Platform Technology- Alak Bhattarcharya; Joe Kocal; Manuela Serban; UOP LLC, a Honeywell Company; Soumendra Banerjee; UOP IPL, a Honeywell Company
1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3 Synthesis of Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 General Applications of Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5 Industrially Significant Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6 Current Honeywell-PMT/UOP Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7 Denitrogenation of Low sulfur Diesel: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8 Other applications of Ionic Liquids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5. Scope of Fuel Cell Technology in India- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Dr. Suddhasatwa Basu, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1 India - a growing economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Energy Landscape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.1 Electricity Demand supply situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3. Policy Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4. R&d Situation In India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5. Markets For Fuel Cells In India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1 Stationary Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2 Fuel cell markets in automotive sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6. Electrocoagulation for the Treatment of Industry Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Dr. Anil K Saroha, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi
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7. Strengthening of Mithi River Bridge Under N1 Taxiway at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Mumbai International AirportDr. Gopal L. Rai, CEO, R&M International Group
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2. Strengthening of the Bridge Under Runway [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3. Strengthening of bridge under the Taxiway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8. Technical Paper-Introduction to Poly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Tetra Fluoroethylene ( PTFE )& Its ApplicationsKapil Malhotra, Vice President Marketing andRajeev Chauhan, Sr. General Manager- R & D, Gujarat Fluoro Chemicals Limited
1. PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.2. Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.3. The Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.4. Making the TFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.5. Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2. PTFE - PRODUCT INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.1. Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2. Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.3. Characteristics of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.4. Classification of PTFE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.5. Fillers for Coumpounded PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.6. Application of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9. About IIT Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
10. About Engineers India Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
11. About IIChE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12. About FICCI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
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3 Pathways for Production of Various Petrochemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 Petrochemicals from Ethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Petrochemicals from Propylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 Petrochemicals from C4 fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 Petrochemicals from C5 fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Petrochemicals from Aromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Petrochemicals from Methanol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4 Major Applications of Petrochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Technology Suppliers for Production Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4. Breakthrough Applications of Ionic Liquids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61A Platform Technology- Alak Bhattarcharya; Joe Kocal; Manuela Serban; UOP LLC, a Honeywell Company; Soumendra Banerjee; UOP IPL, a Honeywell Company
1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3 Synthesis of Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 General Applications of Ionic Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5 Industrially Significant Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6 Current Honeywell-PMT/UOP Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7 Denitrogenation of Low sulfur Diesel: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8 Other applications of Ionic Liquids: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5. Scope of Fuel Cell Technology in India- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Dr. Suddhasatwa Basu, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1 India - a growing economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Energy Landscape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.1 Electricity Demand supply situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3. Policy Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4. R&d Situation In India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5. Markets For Fuel Cells In India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1 Stationary Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2 Fuel cell markets in automotive sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6. Electrocoagulation for the Treatment of Industry Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Dr. Anil K Saroha, Dept. of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi
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7. Strengthening of Mithi River Bridge Under N1 Taxiway at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Mumbai International AirportDr. Gopal L. Rai, CEO, R&M International Group
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2. Strengthening of the Bridge Under Runway [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3. Strengthening of bridge under the Taxiway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8. Technical Paper-Introduction to Poly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114Tetra Fluoroethylene ( PTFE )& Its ApplicationsKapil Malhotra, Vice President Marketing andRajeev Chauhan, Sr. General Manager- R & D, Gujarat Fluoro Chemicals Limited
1. PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.2. Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.3. The Manufacturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.4. Making the TFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.5. Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2. PTFE - PRODUCT INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.1. Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2. Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.3. Characteristics of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.4. Classification of PTFE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.5. Fillers for Coumpounded PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.6. Application of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9. About IIT Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
10. About Engineers India Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
11. About IIChE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
12. About FICCI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
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Coal Gasification
Dr. Siddhartha Mukherjee, Director - TechnologyAir Liquide Global E&C Solutions India Private Limited
Introduction
History
Chemical Reactions
The term gasification covers the conversion of any carbonaceous fuel to a gaseous product
with a usable heating value. The process includes pyrolysis, partial oxidation and
hydrogenation but excludes combustion because the product flue gas has no residual
heating value. The dominant technology is partial oxidation which produces a synthesis
gas consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in varying ratios.
The process of producing energy using the gasification method has been in use for more
than 180 years. The most important gaseous fuel used in the early nineteenth century was
town gas. This was produced by two processes namely pyrolysis of coal which produces a
gas with a relatively high heating value, and the water gas process, in which coke is
converted into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to produce a medium Btu gas.
The coke oven and the water gas reactors were operated at pressures less than 2 bar. This
resulted in voluminous equipment.
The fully continuous gasification process was developed only after Carl von Linde
commercialised the cryogenic separation of air. Gasification processes using oxygen were
now developed for the production of synthesis gas. Following this, some important
gasification processes were developed viz. the Winkler fluid-bed process (1926), the Lurgi
moving bed process (1931) and the Koppers-Totzek entrained flow process (1940s).
The chemistry of gasification is extremely complex. The most important reactions relevant
to the gasification process are similar to those of gas reforming. The processes of
gasification and reforming therefore have a lot in common. Both take place at relatively
high temperatures (approximately 1000 oC or more), which is a result of the heat of
exothermic combustion (oxidation) reactions driving the endothermic reduction
reactions. The basic gasification reactions are the following:
Oxidation:
C + ½ O CO ∆H = -111 kJ/mol (1)2CO + ½ O →CO H = -283 kJ/mol2H + ½ O →H O ∆H = -242 kJ/mol (3)2 2 2
→
∆ (2)2
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01
Coal Gasification
Dr. Siddhartha Mukherjee, Director - TechnologyAir Liquide Global E&C Solutions India Private Limited
Introduction
History
Chemical Reactions
The term gasification covers the conversion of any carbonaceous fuel to a gaseous product
with a usable heating value. The process includes pyrolysis, partial oxidation and
hydrogenation but excludes combustion because the product flue gas has no residual
heating value. The dominant technology is partial oxidation which produces a synthesis
gas consisting of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in varying ratios.
The process of producing energy using the gasification method has been in use for more
than 180 years. The most important gaseous fuel used in the early nineteenth century was
town gas. This was produced by two processes namely pyrolysis of coal which produces a
gas with a relatively high heating value, and the water gas process, in which coke is
converted into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to produce a medium Btu gas.
The coke oven and the water gas reactors were operated at pressures less than 2 bar. This
resulted in voluminous equipment.
The fully continuous gasification process was developed only after Carl von Linde
commercialised the cryogenic separation of air. Gasification processes using oxygen were
now developed for the production of synthesis gas. Following this, some important
gasification processes were developed viz. the Winkler fluid-bed process (1926), the Lurgi
moving bed process (1931) and the Koppers-Totzek entrained flow process (1940s).
The chemistry of gasification is extremely complex. The most important reactions relevant
to the gasification process are similar to those of gas reforming. The processes of
gasification and reforming therefore have a lot in common. Both take place at relatively
high temperatures (approximately 1000 oC or more), which is a result of the heat of
exothermic combustion (oxidation) reactions driving the endothermic reduction
reactions. The basic gasification reactions are the following:
Oxidation:
C + ½ O CO ∆H = -111 kJ/mol (1)2CO + ½ O →CO H = -283 kJ/mol2H + ½ O →H O ∆H = -242 kJ/mol (3)2 2 2
→
∆ (2)2
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Reduction:
C + CO 2 CO H = 172 kJ/mol (4)2C + H O→CO + H2 ∆H = 131 kJ/mol (5)2
Methane formation:
C + 2 H → CH ∆H = -75 kJ/mol (6)2 4
Water-gas shift:
CO + H O→CO + H2 ∆H = -41 kJ/mol (7)2 2
→ ∆
The reactions 1, 2 and 3 are essentially complete and do not need to be considered in
determining an equilibrium synthesis gas composition. However, the gas and solid phase
reactions 4, 5 and 6 have a role in determining the rate.
Practically speaking, the overall reaction can be written as:
n/2 m/2C H + O nCO + Hn m 2 2
where,
for gas as pure methane, m = 4, n =1
for oil, m/n = approx. 2
for coal, m/n = approx. 1
Besides economics and availability, efficiency and other process performance criteria
characterize individual gasification processes and aid in their comparison and
assessment. Some commonly used criteria for practical purposes are defined as follows:
Cold Gas Efficiency = (higher heating value of product gas) / (higher heating value of solid
feedstock)
Carbon Efficiency = 1 - (carbon in gasification residue) / (carbon in solid feedstock)
In practice, gasification processes use a broad range of reactor types. These reactor types
can be grouped into the following categories:
1. Moving Bed Gasifiers
2. Fluid Bed Gasifiers
3. Entrained Flow Gasifiers
Moving Bed Gasifiers : In moving bed gasifiers (sometimes called fixed-bed gasifiers) the
gasifying medium passes through a bed of granular or lump coal. The bed of coal moves
slowly downward under gravity as it is gasified, generally in a countercurrent blast. Such a
→
Criteria for Assessment of Different Processes
Gasification Processes
countercurrent arrangement gives high thermal efficiencies because the outgoing ash
heats the incoming gases, while the outgoing product gas heats the incoming solid
feedstock. Moving bed processes operate on lump coal. The long residence time (typically
1 hour), together with the temperature profile of the countercurrent system, gives high
carbon efficiencies (typically 96 - 99%). Among the moving bed processes, the oxygen
consumption for the Lurgi Fixed Bed Dry Bottom Gasifiers is very low since the operation is
below the ash fusion temperature, and therefore no additional oxygen is required to melt
the ash. However, pyrolysis products are present in the raw gas which report in the gas
liquor after gas cooling. The Lurgi Fixed Bed Dry Bottom Gasifiers are therefore ideal for
low rank coals since they operate below the ash softening point. The high ash content
would need a very high amount of oxygen if they were to operate above the ash softening
point.
Fluid-Bed Gasifier : Fluid-bed gasifiers are characterized by linear velocities of gasifying
medium sufficient to lift the solid particles. This requires smaller particle sizes, typically in
the 0.5 - 5 mm range. Such gasifiers offer very good mixing between feed and oxidant,
which promotes both heat and mass transfer. This ensures an even distribution of material
in the bed and hence a certain amount of partially reacted fuel is inevitably removed with
the ash. This places a limitation on the carbon conversion which is of the order of 90 - 95 %
for fluid-bed gasifiers. The operation of fluid-bed gasifiers are generally restricted to
temperatures below the ash softening point, since ash slagging will disturb the fluidization
in the bed. Sizes of particles in the feed is critical. Material that are too fine will get
entrained (cyclones installed downstream will only partially recapture them). The lower
temperature operation means that this process is also suited to low-rank coals.
Entrained Flow Gasifier : In entrained-flow gasifiers, solid particles are carried or
entrained by the reacting gases. Thus, solids and gases move in the same direction with
approximately the same velocity. To achieve this, the particles must be smaller than in
other systems (typically less than 500 microns). The retention time in these processes is
only a few seconds. This, together with high gasification temperatures (typically 1200 -
1900 oC) allows gasification rates high enough to ensure acceptable carbon conversion
during the short solids residence time in the gasifier. At such high temperatures, operation
is therefore in the slagging range. The high temperatures however create a high demand
for oxygen. Coals with high ash content would therefore call for oxygen demand to levels
that would make alternative processes have an economic advantage.
Refer table 1 for a comparative data on the three different types of gasifiers.
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Reduction:
C + CO 2 CO H = 172 kJ/mol (4)2C + H O→CO + H2 ∆H = 131 kJ/mol (5)2
Methane formation:
C + 2 H → CH ∆H = -75 kJ/mol (6)2 4
Water-gas shift:
CO + H O→CO + H2 ∆H = -41 kJ/mol (7)2 2
→ ∆
The reactions 1, 2 and 3 are essentially complete and do not need to be considered in
determining an equilibrium synthesis gas composition. However, the gas and solid phase
reactions 4, 5 and 6 have a role in determining the rate.
Practically speaking, the overall reaction can be written as:
n/2 m/2C H + O nCO + Hn m 2 2
where,
for gas as pure methane, m = 4, n =1
for oil, m/n = approx. 2
for coal, m/n = approx. 1
Besides economics and availability, efficiency and other process performance criteria
characterize individual gasification processes and aid in their comparison and
assessment. Some commonly used criteria for practical purposes are defined as follows:
Cold Gas Efficiency = (higher heating value of product gas) / (higher heating value of solid
feedstock)
Carbon Efficiency = 1 - (carbon in gasification residue) / (carbon in solid feedstock)
In practice, gasification processes use a broad range of reactor types. These reactor types
can be grouped into the following categories:
1. Moving Bed Gasifiers
2. Fluid Bed Gasifiers
3. Entrained Flow Gasifiers
Moving Bed Gasifiers : In moving bed gasifiers (sometimes called fixed-bed gasifiers) the
gasifying medium passes through a bed of granular or lump coal. The bed of coal moves
slowly downward under gravity as it is gasified, generally in a countercurrent blast. Such a
→
Criteria for Assessment of Different Processes
Gasification Processes
countercurrent arrangement gives high thermal efficiencies because the outgoing ash
heats the incoming gases, while the outgoing product gas heats the incoming solid
feedstock. Moving bed processes operate on lump coal. The long residence time (typically
1 hour), together with the temperature profile of the countercurrent system, gives high
carbon efficiencies (typically 96 - 99%). Among the moving bed processes, the oxygen
consumption for the Lurgi Fixed Bed Dry Bottom Gasifiers is very low since the operation is
below the ash fusion temperature, and therefore no additional oxygen is required to melt
the ash. However, pyrolysis products are present in the raw gas which report in the gas
liquor after gas cooling. The Lurgi Fixed Bed Dry Bottom Gasifiers are therefore ideal for
low rank coals since they operate below the ash softening point. The high ash content
would need a very high amount of oxygen if they were to operate above the ash softening
point.
Fluid-Bed Gasifier : Fluid-bed gasifiers are characterized by linear velocities of gasifying
medium sufficient to lift the solid particles. This requires smaller particle sizes, typically in
the 0.5 - 5 mm range. Such gasifiers offer very good mixing between feed and oxidant,
which promotes both heat and mass transfer. This ensures an even distribution of material
in the bed and hence a certain amount of partially reacted fuel is inevitably removed with
the ash. This places a limitation on the carbon conversion which is of the order of 90 - 95 %
for fluid-bed gasifiers. The operation of fluid-bed gasifiers are generally restricted to
temperatures below the ash softening point, since ash slagging will disturb the fluidization
in the bed. Sizes of particles in the feed is critical. Material that are too fine will get
entrained (cyclones installed downstream will only partially recapture them). The lower
temperature operation means that this process is also suited to low-rank coals.
Entrained Flow Gasifier : In entrained-flow gasifiers, solid particles are carried or
entrained by the reacting gases. Thus, solids and gases move in the same direction with
approximately the same velocity. To achieve this, the particles must be smaller than in
other systems (typically less than 500 microns). The retention time in these processes is
only a few seconds. This, together with high gasification temperatures (typically 1200 -
1900 oC) allows gasification rates high enough to ensure acceptable carbon conversion
during the short solids residence time in the gasifier. At such high temperatures, operation
is therefore in the slagging range. The high temperatures however create a high demand
for oxygen. Coals with high ash content would therefore call for oxygen demand to levels
that would make alternative processes have an economic advantage.
Refer table 1 for a comparative data on the three different types of gasifiers.
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04
Applications of Coal Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to generate a wide variety of products. The raw synthesis gas
from the gasifier is treated in an acid gas removal unit (AGR) to remove the acid
components from gasification viz. hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon oxysulphide (COS)
and also carbon dioxide (CO2).
The treated synthesis gas from acid gas removal unit as mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen can be directly used in a gas turbine to generate power. The synthesis gas can
also be used in a direct reduction (DRI) furnace to produce steel. Depending on the type of
gasification process used, a CO Shift unit may or may not be needed to adjust the synthesis
gas composition to meet the required stoichoimetric proportion (figure 1).
The synthesis gas can be methanated to produce a methane rich gas by the reactions :
CO + 3 H CH + H O 2 2
CO + 4 H ? CH + 2 H O2 2 4 2
The product gas called substitute natural gas and can be used as a fuel (figure 1).
→ 4
Table 1 : Data of Different Types of Gasifiers Figure 1 : Production of Syngas for DRI and SNG for Fuel
Description Fixed Bed Fluidized Bed Entrained Flow
Type Fixed Bed Fluidized Bed Entrained flow
Combustion type Grate fired combustors Fluidized bed Pulverized coal
combustors combustors
Feed State Solids only Solids only Solids or liquids
Feed Size 5-50 mm 0.5-5 mm < 500 microns
Fuel Retention Time 15-60 minutes 5-50 seconds 1-10 seconds
Oxidant Air-or oxygen-blown Air-or oxygen-blown Almost always
oxygen-blown
Gasifier Outlet 400- 600°C 900 -1100°C 1200 -1900°C
Temperature
Ash Conditions Slagging/non-slagging Non-slagging Always slagging
H2/CO Ratio 1.7-2.3 0.9 0.4-0.5
kg O2 / kg daf 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.7 0.9-1.1
CH4, raw gas 9-16 mol% 2-3 mol% < 0.1 mol%
Carbon Conversion 96-99 % 90-95 % > 99.5 %
Cold Gas Efficiency 85-90 % 60-80 % 77-82 %TMLicensors Lurgi FBDB , BGL SES / U-Gas, HTW, KBR GE Energy, Shell,
Prenflo
If ammonia synthesis gas is the desired product, then the synthesis gas after CO Shift and
AGR is washed by liquid nitrogen. The product hydrogen after AGR still contains
contaminants such as oxygen, argon, carbon monoxide and methane. These are washed by
liquid nitrogen. The product of the liquid nitrogen wash is purified hydrogen along with
nitrogen. Additional nitrogen is added to adjust the hydrogen - nitrogen ratio to that
required for ammonia synthesis (figure 2).
Figure 2 : Production of Ammonia Syngas
CoalPreparation
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
Ammonia Syngas
Ash
Acid GasRemoval
Nitrogen WashUnit
CO ShiftGasificationHP Steam
Air SeparationUnit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
If hydrogen is the desired product, then the raw from the gasifier is first shifted whereby
the carbon monoxide is first converted to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The carbon
dioxide is removed in the AGR. The product hydrogen from the AGR is treated in the
pressure swing adsorption (PSA) to produce hydrogen of the desired purity (figure 3).
CO2
SNG
Syngas for DRI
N2
Elemental Sulfur
Acid GasRemoval
Methanation
CO Shift(depending on raw gas
composition)
Ash
HP Steam
CoalPreparation
Gasification
Air SeparationUnit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
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Applications of Coal Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to generate a wide variety of products. The raw synthesis gas
from the gasifier is treated in an acid gas removal unit (AGR) to remove the acid
components from gasification viz. hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon oxysulphide (COS)
and also carbon dioxide (CO2).
The treated synthesis gas from acid gas removal unit as mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen can be directly used in a gas turbine to generate power. The synthesis gas can
also be used in a direct reduction (DRI) furnace to produce steel. Depending on the type of
gasification process used, a CO Shift unit may or may not be needed to adjust the synthesis
gas composition to meet the required stoichoimetric proportion (figure 1).
The synthesis gas can be methanated to produce a methane rich gas by the reactions :
CO + 3 H CH + H O 2 2
CO + 4 H ? CH + 2 H O2 2 4 2
The product gas called substitute natural gas and can be used as a fuel (figure 1).
→ 4
Table 1 : Data of Different Types of Gasifiers Figure 1 : Production of Syngas for DRI and SNG for Fuel
Description Fixed Bed Fluidized Bed Entrained Flow
Type Fixed Bed Fluidized Bed Entrained flow
Combustion type Grate fired combustors Fluidized bed Pulverized coal
combustors combustors
Feed State Solids only Solids only Solids or liquids
Feed Size 5-50 mm 0.5-5 mm < 500 microns
Fuel Retention Time 15-60 minutes 5-50 seconds 1-10 seconds
Oxidant Air-or oxygen-blown Air-or oxygen-blown Almost always
oxygen-blown
Gasifier Outlet 400- 600°C 900 -1100°C 1200 -1900°C
Temperature
Ash Conditions Slagging/non-slagging Non-slagging Always slagging
H2/CO Ratio 1.7-2.3 0.9 0.4-0.5
kg O2 / kg daf 0.3-0.5 0.5-0.7 0.9-1.1
CH4, raw gas 9-16 mol% 2-3 mol% < 0.1 mol%
Carbon Conversion 96-99 % 90-95 % > 99.5 %
Cold Gas Efficiency 85-90 % 60-80 % 77-82 %TMLicensors Lurgi FBDB , BGL SES / U-Gas, HTW, KBR GE Energy, Shell,
Prenflo
If ammonia synthesis gas is the desired product, then the synthesis gas after CO Shift and
AGR is washed by liquid nitrogen. The product hydrogen after AGR still contains
contaminants such as oxygen, argon, carbon monoxide and methane. These are washed by
liquid nitrogen. The product of the liquid nitrogen wash is purified hydrogen along with
nitrogen. Additional nitrogen is added to adjust the hydrogen - nitrogen ratio to that
required for ammonia synthesis (figure 2).
Figure 2 : Production of Ammonia Syngas
CoalPreparation
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
Ammonia Syngas
Ash
Acid GasRemoval
Nitrogen WashUnit
CO ShiftGasificationHP Steam
Air SeparationUnit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
If hydrogen is the desired product, then the raw from the gasifier is first shifted whereby
the carbon monoxide is first converted to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The carbon
dioxide is removed in the AGR. The product hydrogen from the AGR is treated in the
pressure swing adsorption (PSA) to produce hydrogen of the desired purity (figure 3).
CO2
SNG
Syngas for DRI
N2
Elemental Sulfur
Acid GasRemoval
Methanation
CO Shift(depending on raw gas
composition)
Ash
HP Steam
CoalPreparation
Gasification
Air SeparationUnit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
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If both hydrogen and carbon monoxide are required as products, the synthesis gas is
routed to a CO Cold box where the carbon monoxide and hydrogen are separated. The
carbon monoxide is taken as a product. The impure hydrogen is purified in a PSA to the
desired level (figure 4). Coal Gasification - the Indian Perspective
Indian coals have the advantage of relatively low sulphur content. The problem however
lies in the extremely high ash content, which could be as high as 40% or more. This high
ash content with a high melting point (typically above 1200 oC) presents great difficulties
to all slagging processes. Any gasifier operating in the slagging mode will consume more
oxygen because of the heat required to keep the slag molten. In most coals, this drawback is
outweighed by the advantage of high temperature operation such as elimination of all
volatiles in the gas. Thus, modern process developments have taken the high temperature
route. The high ash content of Indian coals however, makes the modern high temperature
processes extremely expensive in terms of oxygen demand.
India has the world's third largest reserves of coal and the fuel is primarily used for the
production of steel and power. Gasification of coal rather than combustion, provides an
alternative solution to meet the energy demands of countries having surplus resources of
domestic coal. Coal gasification is a commercially proven technology and with substantial
technical advancements, it is now enjoying a considerable attention. This is because of the
development of new applications such as gas-to-liquids projects based on Fischer-Tropsch
technology, Methanol Synthesis, Substitute Natural gas etc. Further, the prospects of
increased efficiency and environmental friendly emissions including CO2 capture through
the use of Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) in the power industry, favour the
deployment of such a process. The portfolio of Lurgi technologies provides solutions for
developing complete Coal to Liquid processes worldwide. As a member of the Air Liquide
Group since 2007, Lurgi technologies are a worldwide reference in the fields of process
engineering and technology licensing.
Figure 3 : Production of Hydrogen
Air Separation Unit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
CoalPreparation
CO2
N2
Hydrogen
Elemental Sulfur
Gasification CO ShiftAcid GasRemoval
PressureSwing
Adsorption
Ash
HP Steam
Figure 4 : Production of Hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide
Air Separation Unit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
CoalPreparation
Hydrogen
CO
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
CO Cold Box
PressureSwing
Adsorption
CO Shift(depending on the splitrequired)
Acid GasRemoval
Gasification
Ash
HP Steam
If methanol is the desired product, then hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
are desired in the methanol synthesis gas in a particular stoichiometric ratio. In such a
case, a part of the raw gas is passed through a CO Shift reactor, whereby some hydrogen and
carbon dioxide is produced. The shifted gas is then routed through the AGR to remove a
part of the carbon dioxide to achieve the desired stiochiometric quantities (figure 5). The
resultant synthesis gas is then sent for methanol synthesis.
Air Separation Unit
Acid GasRemoval
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
GasificationHP Steam
Ash
MethanolSynthesis
CoalPreparation
Methanol
CO Shift(depending on raw gas
composition)
Figure 5 : Production of Methanol
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If both hydrogen and carbon monoxide are required as products, the synthesis gas is
routed to a CO Cold box where the carbon monoxide and hydrogen are separated. The
carbon monoxide is taken as a product. The impure hydrogen is purified in a PSA to the
desired level (figure 4). Coal Gasification - the Indian Perspective
Indian coals have the advantage of relatively low sulphur content. The problem however
lies in the extremely high ash content, which could be as high as 40% or more. This high
ash content with a high melting point (typically above 1200 oC) presents great difficulties
to all slagging processes. Any gasifier operating in the slagging mode will consume more
oxygen because of the heat required to keep the slag molten. In most coals, this drawback is
outweighed by the advantage of high temperature operation such as elimination of all
volatiles in the gas. Thus, modern process developments have taken the high temperature
route. The high ash content of Indian coals however, makes the modern high temperature
processes extremely expensive in terms of oxygen demand.
India has the world's third largest reserves of coal and the fuel is primarily used for the
production of steel and power. Gasification of coal rather than combustion, provides an
alternative solution to meet the energy demands of countries having surplus resources of
domestic coal. Coal gasification is a commercially proven technology and with substantial
technical advancements, it is now enjoying a considerable attention. This is because of the
development of new applications such as gas-to-liquids projects based on Fischer-Tropsch
technology, Methanol Synthesis, Substitute Natural gas etc. Further, the prospects of
increased efficiency and environmental friendly emissions including CO2 capture through
the use of Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) in the power industry, favour the
deployment of such a process. The portfolio of Lurgi technologies provides solutions for
developing complete Coal to Liquid processes worldwide. As a member of the Air Liquide
Group since 2007, Lurgi technologies are a worldwide reference in the fields of process
engineering and technology licensing.
Figure 3 : Production of Hydrogen
Air Separation Unit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
CoalPreparation
CO2
N2
Hydrogen
Elemental Sulfur
Gasification CO ShiftAcid GasRemoval
PressureSwing
Adsorption
Ash
HP Steam
Figure 4 : Production of Hydrogen and Carbon Monoxide
Air Separation Unit
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
CoalPreparation
Hydrogen
CO
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
CO Cold Box
PressureSwing
Adsorption
CO Shift(depending on the splitrequired)
Acid GasRemoval
Gasification
Ash
HP Steam
If methanol is the desired product, then hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
are desired in the methanol synthesis gas in a particular stoichiometric ratio. In such a
case, a part of the raw gas is passed through a CO Shift reactor, whereby some hydrogen and
carbon dioxide is produced. The shifted gas is then routed through the AGR to remove a
part of the carbon dioxide to achieve the desired stiochiometric quantities (figure 5). The
resultant synthesis gas is then sent for methanol synthesis.
Air Separation Unit
Acid GasRemoval
Sulfur RecoveryUnit
Elemental Sulfur
CO2
N2
GasificationHP Steam
Ash
MethanolSynthesis
CoalPreparation
Methanol
CO Shift(depending on raw gas
composition)
Figure 5 : Production of Methanol
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Abbreviations
AGR Acid Gas Removal
DRI Direct Reduction Iron
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
SNG Substitute Natural Gas
Higman, C., Maarten van der, B., Gasification, Gulf Publishing Company, 2003.
Elvers, B., Hawkins, S., Ravenscroft, M., Rounsaville, J. F., Schulz, G., Ullmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Volume A12, 5th Edition, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mBH, 1989.
References
Latest Developments in the Fertilizer (Ammonia) Industry
Dr S Nand, V. K. Goyal and Manish GoswamiFertiliser Association of India
For Seminar on “Technology Upgradation in Chemical Industry”
on April 15-16, 2013, at IIChE, New Delhi
Abstract
1.0 Introduction
Fertilizer industry in India has evolved progressively during the last five decades keeping
pace with the developments in respect to technology and energy efficiency. The
developments in building of ammonia capacity and technological upgradation in existing
plants have been discussed in the paper. The paper also gives the performance of Indian
ammonia industry with respect to energy efficiency. The performance of Indian plants has
been compared with world ammonia plants. The paper has brought out various
developments in ammonia technology in the world during last few decades. The concept
of adiabatic pre-reformer, heat exchange reactor, auto-thermal reformer, synthesis gas
purification, multi synthesis converters and gas turbine for power generation along with
heat recovery for steam generation have been introduced by different technology
suppliers. Other major developments are in material of reformer tubes, burner design,
improved catalysts, efficient and reliable machinery/equipment, automation in process
control, etc. It became more and more viable to construct single stream ammonia plants of
larger capacities of 2000 tpd with lower and lower specific energy consumption. Apart
from adopting these developments in new plants, almost all old vintage plants have been
revamped by incorporating many of these improvements.
Fertiliser industry in India has grown to its present size during five decades starting
large scale production in 1950s. With the total production of about 38.6 Mt of
fertilizer products containing 16.5 Mt of plant nutrients (N + P2 O5) in 2011-12,
India is the third largest producer of fertilizers in the world and with consumption of
28.12 Mt nutrients or 60 Mt of products, it is the second largest consumer of
fertilizers in the world. Fertiliser industry in India is world class in terms of size of
plant, technology used and efficiency levels achieved.
Ammonia is the major building block for production of all nitrogenous fertilizers. It is
also technology and energy intensive. India produced 13.6 Mt of ammonia in 2011-
12. There have been challenges in improving operating factors and energy efficiency
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Know
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08
Abbreviations
AGR Acid Gas Removal
DRI Direct Reduction Iron
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
SNG Substitute Natural Gas
Higman, C., Maarten van der, B., Gasification, Gulf Publishing Company, 2003.
Elvers, B., Hawkins, S., Ravenscroft, M., Rounsaville, J. F., Schulz, G., Ullmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, Volume A12, 5th Edition, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft mBH, 1989.
References
Latest Developments in the Fertilizer (Ammonia) Industry
Dr S Nand, V. K. Goyal and Manish GoswamiFertiliser Association of India
For Seminar on “Technology Upgradation in Chemical Industry”
on April 15-16, 2013, at IIChE, New Delhi
Abstract
1.0 Introduction
Fertilizer industry in India has evolved progressively during the last five decades keeping
pace with the developments in respect to technology and energy efficiency. The
developments in building of ammonia capacity and technological upgradation in existing
plants have been discussed in the paper. The paper also gives the performance of Indian
ammonia industry with respect to energy efficiency. The performance of Indian plants has
been compared with world ammonia plants. The paper has brought out various
developments in ammonia technology in the world during last few decades. The concept
of adiabatic pre-reformer, heat exchange reactor, auto-thermal reformer, synthesis gas
purification, multi synthesis converters and gas turbine for power generation along with
heat recovery for steam generation have been introduced by different technology
suppliers. Other major developments are in material of reformer tubes, burner design,
improved catalysts, efficient and reliable machinery/equipment, automation in process
control, etc. It became more and more viable to construct single stream ammonia plants of
larger capacities of 2000 tpd with lower and lower specific energy consumption. Apart
from adopting these developments in new plants, almost all old vintage plants have been
revamped by incorporating many of these improvements.
Fertiliser industry in India has grown to its present size during five decades starting
large scale production in 1950s. With the total production of about 38.6 Mt of
fertilizer products containing 16.5 Mt of plant nutrients (N + P2 O5) in 2011-12,
India is the third largest producer of fertilizers in the world and with consumption of
28.12 Mt nutrients or 60 Mt of products, it is the second largest consumer of
fertilizers in the world. Fertiliser industry in India is world class in terms of size of
plant, technology used and efficiency levels achieved.
Ammonia is the major building block for production of all nitrogenous fertilizers. It is
also technology and energy intensive. India produced 13.6 Mt of ammonia in 2011-
12. There have been challenges in improving operating factors and energy efficiency
-
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