Cognitive Development Cognitive Development

In the First Two YearsIn the First Two Years

Jean Piaget: Period of Sensorimotor IntelligenceJean Piaget: Period of Sensorimotor IntelligencePiaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) believed that

infants were smart, active learnersAlso that they adapted to experienceCalled infancy (birth to 24 months) the

sensorimotor period because infants learn through their senses and motor skills

Period subdivided into 6 sub-stages

Piaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) believed that infants were smart, active learners

Also that they adapted to experienceCalled infancy (birth to 24 months) the

sensorimotor period because infants learn through their senses and motor skills

Period subdivided into 6 sub-stages

Stages 1 & 2: Primary circular reactionsStages 1 & 2: Primary circular reactionsThe brain and senses interact involve

the infant’s own body (birth to 1 month)Sensation, perception and cognition

cycle back and forth (Piaget’s circular reaction)

Stage 1: stage of reflexes--the reflexes of grasping, rooting, staring, listening--are adapted into deliberate actions

Sensation becomes perception

The brain and senses interact involve the infant’s own body (birth to 1 month)

Sensation, perception and cognition cycle back and forth (Piaget’s circular reaction)

Stage 1: stage of reflexes--the reflexes of grasping, rooting, staring, listening--are adapted into deliberate actions

Sensation becomes perception

Stage 2 of Primary Circular Reactions: acquired adaptationsStage 2 of Primary Circular Reactions: acquired adaptationsAccommodation and coordination of

reflexes (1-4 months)Example: sucking becomes adapted--

infant sucks a pacifier differently than a nipple

This indicates thinking: the infant has figured out that the pacifier is something different than a bottle

Accommodation and coordination of reflexes (1-4 months)

Example: sucking becomes adapted--infant sucks a pacifier differently than a nipple

This indicates thinking: the infant has figured out that the pacifier is something different than a bottle

Stages 3 & 4: Secondary Circular ReactionsStages 3 & 4: Secondary Circular ReactionsInvolve the infant’s responses to objects

and peopleStage 3 (4-8 months) includes making

interesting sights last: it is responding to people and objects, as in clapping hands when mother says “Patty-cake!”

Also includes responding to toysThe sight of something that delights the

infant will trigger active efforts for interaction

Involve the infant’s responses to objects and people

Stage 3 (4-8 months) includes making interesting sights last: it is responding to people and objects, as in clapping hands when mother says “Patty-cake!”

Also includes responding to toysThe sight of something that delights the

infant will trigger active efforts for interaction

Stage 4 of Secondary Circular ReactionsStage 4 of Secondary Circular ReactionsNew adaptation and anticipationInfant becomes more deliberate and

purposeful in responding to people and objects

Example: putting other’s hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake

Thinking is more innovative--babies are thinking about a goal and how to reach it

New adaptation and anticipationInfant becomes more deliberate and

purposeful in responding to people and objects

Example: putting other’s hands together in order to make her start playing patty-cake

Thinking is more innovative--babies are thinking about a goal and how to reach it

Goal-directed behavior is a big dealGoal-directed behavior is a big dealThis behavior stems from1) an enhanced awareness of cause and

effect2) memory for actions already

completed3) understanding of other people’s

intentionsThis new awareness coincides with new

motor skills that are needed to achieve goals

This behavior stems from1) an enhanced awareness of cause and

effect2) memory for actions already

completed3) understanding of other people’s

intentionsThis new awareness coincides with new

motor skills that are needed to achieve goals

Object Permanence:Object Permanence:Piaget thought babies attain this at 8

monthsObject permanence refers to the

awareness that objects or people continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, touched or heard

Probably occurs as early as 5 months, new research indicates it happens somewhere between 4 and 6 months

Piaget thought babies attain this at 8 months

Object permanence refers to the awareness that objects or people continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, touched or heard

Probably occurs as early as 5 months, new research indicates it happens somewhere between 4 and 6 months

Stages 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular ReactionsStages 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular ReactionsSecond year of life Feedback loops involve active

exploration of the environment and experimentation

“Little Scientists” in stage 5, (12-18 months) new means through active experimentation

Examples: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing, or squeezing all the toothpaste out of the tube

Second year of life Feedback loops involve active

exploration of the environment and experimentation

“Little Scientists” in stage 5, (12-18 months) new means through active experimentation

Examples: putting a teddy bear in the toilet and flushing, or squeezing all the toothpaste out of the tube

Stage 6: Stage 6: New means through mental

combinations (18-24 months)Considering before doing provides the

child with new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial-and-error experiments

This will hopefully involve remembering that flushing teddy down the toilet resulted in an overflowing toilet the last time it was tried

New means through mental combinations (18-24 months)

Considering before doing provides the child with new ways of achieving a goal without resorting to trial-and-error experiments

This will hopefully involve remembering that flushing teddy down the toilet resulted in an overflowing toilet the last time it was tried

Stage 6:Stage 6:Using mental combinations involves

intellectual experimentation that supersedes active experimentation

Children can now combine 2 ideas: they know a doll is not a real baby, but also that the doll can be belted into a stroller and taken for a walk

They begin to think about consequencesThey also can defer imitation (copy

behavior they saw hours or days before)

Using mental combinations involves intellectual experimentation that supersedes active experimentation

Children can now combine 2 ideas: they know a doll is not a real baby, but also that the doll can be belted into a stroller and taken for a walk

They begin to think about consequencesThey also can defer imitation (copy

behavior they saw hours or days before)

Criticism of Piaget:Criticism of Piaget:Piaget underestimated infant cognition,

probably because he based his ideas on observations of his own children, not of many children from many cultures

Modern research includes “Habituation” or repeated exposure to get used to an object or event

Then sensitive physiologic measurements are used to record reactions

Using this, even 1-month-olds can be demonstrated to differentiate between sounds

Piaget underestimated infant cognition, probably because he based his ideas on observations of his own children, not of many children from many cultures

Modern research includes “Habituation” or repeated exposure to get used to an object or event

Then sensitive physiologic measurements are used to record reactions

Using this, even 1-month-olds can be demonstrated to differentiate between sounds

More criticism:More criticism:The brain and its growth can now be

measured by fMRI, which measures electrical activity in the brain that indicates firing of neurons

This has shown us that the brain has a huge amount of early growth, then trims off dendrites

Also shows that growth continues after the first 2 years

Piaget didn’t have this technology

The brain and its growth can now be measured by fMRI, which measures electrical activity in the brain that indicates firing of neurons

This has shown us that the brain has a huge amount of early growth, then trims off dendrites

Also shows that growth continues after the first 2 years

Piaget didn’t have this technology

Summing up Piaget:Summing up Piaget:Piaget discovered that infants are very

active learnersDescribed this as Sensorimotor PeriodSubstages: Circular ReactionsLacked modern technologyAlso used a restricted sample that may

have led him to place some behaviors later than is true with the majority

Piaget discovered that infants are very active learners

Described this as Sensorimotor PeriodSubstages: Circular ReactionsLacked modern technologyAlso used a restricted sample that may

have led him to place some behaviors later than is true with the majority

Information Processing Theory:Information Processing Theory:A perspective that compares human

thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

Many versions of this theoryAll share the belief that a step-by-step

description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding

A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output

Many versions of this theoryAll share the belief that a step-by-step

description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding

How it works:How it works:Human information processing begins

with input picked up by the sensesIt proceeds to brain reactions,

connections, and stored memoriesIt concludes with some outputWith the aid of technology, the

information processing model has found impressive intellectual capabilities in infants, like a basic grasp of cause and effect by the middle of the first year

Human information processing begins with input picked up by the senses

It proceeds to brain reactions, connections, and stored memories

It concludes with some outputWith the aid of technology, the

information processing model has found impressive intellectual capabilities in infants, like a basic grasp of cause and effect by the middle of the first year

Affordances:Affordances:Opportunities for perception and

interaction that are offered by a person, place, or environment

Which particular affordance is perceived and acted upon depends on 4 factors:

Sensory awarenessImmediate motivationCurrent level of developmentPast experience

Opportunities for perception and interaction that are offered by a person, place, or environment

Which particular affordance is perceived and acted upon depends on 4 factors:

Sensory awarenessImmediate motivationCurrent level of developmentPast experience

Selective perception:Selective perception:Example: consider a lemon, an

opportunity (an affordance) for smelling, touching, tasting, viewing, throwing, squeezing, and biting

Further, each of these is an affordance for pleasure, pain, or some other emotional response

Which affordance is perceived and acted upon is dependent upon sensations, motives, age, and experience

Example: consider a lemon, an opportunity (an affordance) for smelling, touching, tasting, viewing, throwing, squeezing, and biting

Further, each of these is an affordance for pleasure, pain, or some other emotional response

Which affordance is perceived and acted upon is dependent upon sensations, motives, age, and experience

How do they research this?How do they research this?Mostly by looking at what infants attend

to on a TV screenVaries with ageVaries with noveltyVaries with experienceEven varies with vocabulary

Mostly by looking at what infants attend to on a TV screen

Varies with ageVaries with noveltyVaries with experienceEven varies with vocabulary

Visual Cliff experiment:Visual Cliff experiment:Tested depth perceptionAn infant’s awareness was affected by

experience, especially with falling

Tested depth perceptionAn infant’s awareness was affected by

experience, especially with falling

Movement: Dynamic PerceptionMovement: Dynamic PerceptionDynamic perception is perception that is

primed to focus on movement and change

Babies pay close attention to things that move and to people

They also love to move: they grab, they scoot, they crawl, they walk

And they realize that motion changes what the world affords them

Dynamic perception is perception that is primed to focus on movement and change

Babies pay close attention to things that move and to people

They also love to move: they grab, they scoot, they crawl, they walk

And they realize that motion changes what the world affords them

Dynamic Perception:Dynamic Perception:Almost any moving creature will get the

attention of an infant, who will chase and grab at it

Even infants who are not mobile will try to catch a ball moving past them

Experience affect this: younger babies may ignore slow-moving balls, but attempt to catch fast ones unsuccessfully, 20% or less success

9-month-olds know to reach for the slow moving balls, with an almost 100% success rate

Almost any moving creature will get the attention of an infant, who will chase and grab at it

Even infants who are not mobile will try to catch a ball moving past them

Experience affect this: younger babies may ignore slow-moving balls, but attempt to catch fast ones unsuccessfully, 20% or less success

9-month-olds know to reach for the slow moving balls, with an almost 100% success rate

People Preference:People Preference:Another universal principle of infant

perception is that they are innately attracted to other humans, evident in visual, auditory, tactile, and other preferences

In objects, infants prefer noveltyIn people, infants prefer familiarityThey recognize their caregivers and

expect certain affordances from them: comfort, food, entertainment)

Another universal principle of infant perception is that they are innately attracted to other humans, evident in visual, auditory, tactile, and other preferences

In objects, infants prefer noveltyIn people, infants prefer familiarityThey recognize their caregivers and

expect certain affordances from them: comfort, food, entertainment)

More on people preference:More on people preference:Infants can infer emotional affordances

long before they understand languageThey “get” and respond to smiles,

shouts, facial expressions, and tones of voice very early in life

Studies indicate that 7-month-olds can reliably match facial expression and emotional tone of voice based on photos and tapes

And even younger infants can do this with people they know

Infants can infer emotional affordances long before they understand language

They “get” and respond to smiles, shouts, facial expressions, and tones of voice very early in life

Studies indicate that 7-month-olds can reliably match facial expression and emotional tone of voice based on photos and tapes

And even younger infants can do this with people they know

Smiling and mommy and daddy:Smiling and mommy and daddy:In these experiments, infants did not

match the facial expressions and emotional voice of strangers, but could do so for their moms/dads, reacting swiftly and correctly

The idea of researchers is that parents offer the affordance of JOY!

In these experiments, infants did not match the facial expressions and emotional voice of strangers, but could do so for their moms/dads, reacting swiftly and correctly

The idea of researchers is that parents offer the affordance of JOY!

Memory:Memory:Processing and remembering requires a

certain amount of experience and brain maturation

Even with repetition, infants have difficulty storing memories in their first year

This is partly due to language deficitsBut infants do form memories--especially if

motivated and if reminded repeatedlyExperiments with mobiles and kicking

indicate this

Processing and remembering requires a certain amount of experience and brain maturation

Even with repetition, infants have difficulty storing memories in their first year

This is partly due to language deficitsBut infants do form memories--especially if

motivated and if reminded repeatedlyExperiments with mobiles and kicking

indicate this

Reminders and Repetition:Reminders and Repetition:Reminder session: a perceptual

experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment

Research employing these sessions demonstrated that even 3-month-olds could remember actions that they learned 2 weeks previously

Reminder session: a perceptual experience that is intended to help a person recollect an idea, a thing, or an experience, without testing whether the person remembers it at the moment

Research employing these sessions demonstrated that even 3-month-olds could remember actions that they learned 2 weeks previously

And it gets better:And it gets better:After 6 months, infants can retain

information with less training, repetition and reminding

By the end of the first year, many kinds of memory are apparent: deferred imitation by 9 months

By 18 months, infants can remember and repeat complex sequences

Toddlers action indicates conceptual thinking is present

After 6 months, infants can retain information with less training, repetition and reminding

By the end of the first year, many kinds of memory are apparent: deferred imitation by 9 months

By 18 months, infants can remember and repeat complex sequences

Toddlers action indicates conceptual thinking is present

Child-directed speech:Child-directed speech:The high-pitched, simplified, and

repetitive way adults speak to infantsFosters early language developmentBy 7 months, infants begin to recognize

words, but only words that are highly distinctive: bottle, dog, and mama are recognized before baby, Bobby, and Barbie

Within the first few months of life, hearing becomes more selective, too

The high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants

Fosters early language developmentBy 7 months, infants begin to recognize

words, but only words that are highly distinctive: bottle, dog, and mama are recognized before baby, Bobby, and Barbie

Within the first few months of life, hearing becomes more selective, too

What selective hearing means:What selective hearing means:They prefer child-directed speechThey like alliterative soundsThey love songs--rhyme, rhythm, and

repetitionAnd simple sounds more than complex

soundsInfants respond to sounds they like (by

4 months) with squealing, growling, gurgling, grunting, crooning, and yelling

They prefer child-directed speechThey like alliterative soundsThey love songs--rhyme, rhythm, and

repetitionAnd simple sounds more than complex

soundsInfants respond to sounds they like (by

4 months) with squealing, growling, gurgling, grunting, crooning, and yelling

Babbling:Babbling:The extended repetition of certain

syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old

Responses from other people encourage it

It stops in deaf babies because they cannot hear responses

Using sign language shows that babies can express language with gestures sooner than with speech

The extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old

Responses from other people encourage it

It stops in deaf babies because they cannot hear responses

Using sign language shows that babies can express language with gestures sooner than with speech

First words:First words:Usually at about 1 yearCaregivers understand the baby’s words

before strangersIn the first months of the second year of

life, vocabulary understanding is about 10 times the number of words they can say

Holophrases: a single word spoken in such a way that expresses a complete, meaningful thought

Usually at about 1 yearCaregivers understand the baby’s words

before strangersIn the first months of the second year of

life, vocabulary understanding is about 10 times the number of words they can say

Holophrases: a single word spoken in such a way that expresses a complete, meaningful thought

Naming Explosion:Naming Explosion:A sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary,

especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age

In almost every language, the name of each significant caregiver, sibling, and sometimes, pet, is learned between 12-18 months of age

Once the vocabulary reaches 50 words, it builds at a rate of 50-100 words per month

21 month olds say twice as many words as 18 month olds

A sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age

In almost every language, the name of each significant caregiver, sibling, and sometimes, pet, is learned between 12-18 months of age

Once the vocabulary reaches 50 words, it builds at a rate of 50-100 words per month

21 month olds say twice as many words as 18 month olds

Cultural differences:Cultural differences:Cultures and families vary a lot in how

much child-directed speech children hear

Some are more verbal than othersSome cultures emphasize quiet children

(not the US)And languages vary: some are Verb-

Friendly (verbs are placed before nouns) so infants learn as many verbs as nouns, unlike English

Cultures and families vary a lot in how much child-directed speech children hear

Some are more verbal than othersSome cultures emphasize quiet children

(not the US)And languages vary: some are Verb-

Friendly (verbs are placed before nouns) so infants learn as many verbs as nouns, unlike English

Social context matters, tooSocial context matters, tooIf social interaction is emphasized by

the culture, verbs will be acquired as much as nouns

Example: Chinese toddlers learn more verbs than US toddlers, who learn more nouns

Ethnicities that speak the language of the country they have immigrated to have babies that learn language like the new culture

If social interaction is emphasized by the culture, verbs will be acquired as much as nouns

Example: Chinese toddlers learn more verbs than US toddlers, who learn more nouns

Ethnicities that speak the language of the country they have immigrated to have babies that learn language like the new culture

Concepts and Language:Concepts and Language:Some concepts are easy, some are notIn English, infants confuse before and

afterDutch infants misuse out when it refers

to taking off clothingLearning adjectives is easier in Italian

and Spanish than in English or French because of the patterns in those languages

Some concepts are easy, some are notIn English, infants confuse before and

afterDutch infants misuse out when it refers

to taking off clothingLearning adjectives is easier in Italian

and Spanish than in English or French because of the patterns in those languages

Language:Language:Conveys/encodes cultural values and

social constructsIf a child is more referential than

expressive, it likely reflects the cultures, values, and priorities of the parents

Conveys/encodes cultural values and social constructs

If a child is more referential than expressive, it likely reflects the cultures, values, and priorities of the parents

Putting words together:Putting words together:Grammar: all the methods--word order, verb

forms, etc.--that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves

Grammar is obvious in 2-word sentences (baby cry, more juice), at about 21 months

Grammar will correlate with the size of the child’s vocabulary, reflecting a knowledge of clear communication

Learning more than one language can slow down language and grammar acquisition

Grammar: all the methods--word order, verb forms, etc.--that languages use to communicate meaning, apart from the words themselves

Grammar is obvious in 2-word sentences (baby cry, more juice), at about 21 months

Grammar will correlate with the size of the child’s vocabulary, reflecting a knowledge of clear communication

Learning more than one language can slow down language and grammar acquisition

Theories of Language Learning:Theories of Language Learning:50 years ago, the first theory reflected

behaviorism (learning theory) and said that children needed to be taught language, step by step, through reinforcement

This theory includes the ideas that parents/caregivers are expert teachers and help children speak

Frequent repetition is instructiveWell-taught infants become well-spoken

children

50 years ago, the first theory reflected behaviorism (learning theory) and said that children needed to be taught language, step by step, through reinforcement

This theory includes the ideas that parents/caregivers are expert teachers and help children speak

Frequent repetition is instructiveWell-taught infants become well-spoken

children

Studies in Behavioral Theory:Studies in Behavioral Theory:Indicate great variation in how parents

reinforce infants’ speechThe frequency of paternal response at 9

months predicted infants language many months later

Adults teach, infants learn language

Indicate great variation in how parents reinforce infants’ speech

The frequency of paternal response at 9 months predicted infants language many months later

Adults teach, infants learn language

Theory 2: Infants teach themselvesTheory 2: Infants teach themselvesNoam Chomsky & followers believe

that language is too complex to be learned through step-by-step conditioning

Believe that because infants all master basic grammar at about the same age, there is a human mental structure that all are born with that prepares them to incorporate aspects of language

Noam Chomsky & followers believe that language is too complex to be learned through step-by-step conditioning

Believe that because infants all master basic grammar at about the same age, there is a human mental structure that all are born with that prepares them to incorporate aspects of language

Language Acquisition Device:Language Acquisition Device:Chomsky’s term for a hypothesized

mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation

Enables children worldwide to derive the rules of grammar from the speech they hear everyday (whether English, Tamil, Urdu, Chinese, or Xhosa)

Chomsky’s term for a hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and intonation

Enables children worldwide to derive the rules of grammar from the speech they hear everyday (whether English, Tamil, Urdu, Chinese, or Xhosa)

This theory is accepted by many:This theory is accepted by many:Reflects the differences without

ignoring language characteristicsReflects the fact that all languages are

logical, coherent and systematicBelieves that the brain expects

language, and quickly and efficiently connects neurons to support whatever words an infant hears

Works even with deaf infants who are taught signs

Reflects the differences without ignoring language characteristics

Reflects the fact that all languages are logical, coherent and systematic

Believes that the brain expects language, and quickly and efficiently connects neurons to support whatever words an infant hears

Works even with deaf infants who are taught signs

Third Theory: Social impulses foster infant language learningThird Theory: Social impulses foster infant language learningSocial-Pragmatic theory: says that

neither behaviorism nor epigentic theory is correct--says that communication, the social reason for learning language, is most important

Infants communicate because they are social beings dependent upon each other for survival, well-being, and joy

Social-Pragmatic theory: says that neither behaviorism nor epigentic theory is correct--says that communication, the social reason for learning language, is most important

Infants communicate because they are social beings dependent upon each other for survival, well-being, and joy

Social newborn:Social newborn:Newborns seek out human facesBy 9 months, infants’ brain patterns

indicate attention when they hear people talk to them

The emotional content, not the words, are most important in early communication

Communication is the servant of social interaction

Newborns seek out human facesBy 9 months, infants’ brain patterns

indicate attention when they hear people talk to them

The emotional content, not the words, are most important in early communication

Communication is the servant of social interaction

Social toddler:Social toddler:Social impulses propel toddler language

acquisitionToddlers learn language much more

quickly from human interaction than from television, even though they watch TV

Thus social language acquisition is more meaningful than simply learning words

Social impulses propel toddler language acquisition

Toddlers learn language much more quickly from human interaction than from television, even though they watch TV

Thus social language acquisition is more meaningful than simply learning words

Hybrid theory:Hybrid theory:All three perspectives have meritSome of each theory has been

demonstrated to workThe important thing is that children are

active learners, and that multiple factors are involved in learning language

All three perspectives have meritSome of each theory has been

demonstrated to workThe important thing is that children are

active learners, and that multiple factors are involved in learning language