Conditioning & Learning

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Cornell Notes Encouraged

Learning

Reinforcement

Response

Association

Stimulus

Habituation

Learning: Key Terms to know Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease,

injury, maturation, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning even though they can alter behavior

Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recurResponse: Any identifiable behavior Internal: Faster heartbeat Observable: Eating, scratching

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How do we learn?

We learn by making associations. This is connecting events that occur one after another. These events can be good, like connecting the birthday song to eating cake, or bad like seeing a flash of lightning then hearing loud thunder.

If a stimulus occurs normally in an environment, an animal’s natural response may dwindle. This lessening of a response is called habituation. Think of the stimulus as becoming habit, so why respond to it?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kfu0FAAu-10&feature=fvwrel

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlilZh60qdA

The examples above illustrate associative learning.

Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who studied digestionUsed dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powderReflex: Automatic, non-learned response

http://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=youtube+classical+conditioning+Ivan+Pavlov&mid=8405CFEC2DDFB03E88218405CFEC2DDFB03E8821&view=detail&FORM=VIRE1

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Pavlov theory applied elsewhere

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=nE8pFWP5QDM&NR=1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HfTTm-rgFFI

Fig. 8.1 In classical conditioning, a stimulus that does not produce a response is paired with a stimulus that does elicit a response. After many such pairings, the stimulus that previously had no effect begins to produce a response. In the example shown, a horn precedes a puff of air to the eye. Eventually the horn alone will produce an eye blink. In operant conditioning, a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes more likely to occur on future occasions. In the example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it hears a whistle

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Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.

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Fig. 8.3 The classical conditioning procedure.

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Fig. 8.5 Higher order conditioning takes place when a well-learned conditioned stimulus is used as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. In this example, a child is first conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell. In time, the bell will elicit salivation. At that point, you could clap your hands and then ring the bell. Soon, after repeating the procedure, the child would learn to salivate when you clapped your hands

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Older Brother shooting his younger brother with toy gun instills fear to brother

with quack soundUCS = Toy gun/shooting

UCR = Fear

CS = Quack + UCS = toy gun/shooting + UCR = Fear/hands up

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition: Training period when a response is strengthened

Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus (CS) is used to reinforce further learning

Expectancy: Expectation about how events are interconnected

Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement

Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction

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You and a partner Create an acquisition and break up the conditioning responses

Acquisition (scenario/training period)

UCS =

UCR =

CS(NS) = + UCS = + UCR =

Part 2 Read article Trauma as Classical Conditioning Break up conditioning responses

Trauma as Classical Conditioning

Read the article identify

NS

CS

UCR

UCS

How long was the extinction period?

How may spontaneous Recovery occur?

Building on Pavlov’s work, John B. Watson became the second well-known classical conditioning behaviorist.

Watson worked with a baby known as Little Albert, an average baby.

Watson knew that babies/people have a natural fear of sudden, loud sounds. Also, babies do not have a fear of white rats. Watson associated the two.

Watson placed a white rat next to Albert. Albert wanted to touch the rat. As he reached out, Watson banged a hammer on metal just behind Albert. Albert was scared and cried. This was repeated over and over.

4.Finally, the white rat and banging sound were associated. Merely the sight of the rat caused Albert to cry.

1.UCS = banging sound, UCR = crying

2.CS = white rat, CR = crying

5.In this demonstration, there were definitely ethical problems here. Specifically, the APA’s suggestion of “informed consent” wasn’t met. Though Albert’s mother gave the okay, he certainly didn’t.

1.After resigning in a scandal (where he eventually married his assistant), Watson went on to work for Maxwell House and start the “coffee break”.

Watson con’tAs he reached out, Watson banged a hammer on metal just behind Albert. Albert was scared and cried. This was repeated over and over.

Finally, the white rat and banging sound were associated. Merely the sight of the rat caused Albert to cry.

1.UCS = banging sound, UCR = crying

2.CS = white rat, CR = crying

EthicsIn this demonstration, there were definitely ethical problems here. Specifically, the APA’s suggestion of “informed consent” wasn’t met. Though Albert’s mother gave the okay, he certainly didn’t.

After resigning in a scandal (where he eventually married his assistant), Watson went on to work for Maxwell House and start the “coffee break”.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LVJMhk4oANM

Review Homework

Peer Grade

Fig. 8.4 Acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response. (after Pavlov, 1927).

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Terms

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Discrimination

Principles of Classical Conditioning (cont.)Write down terms

Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)

Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer))

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Fig. 8.6 (a) Stimulus generalization. Stimuli similar to the CS also elicit a response. (b) This cat has learned to salivate when it sees a cat food box. Because of stimulus generalization, it also salivates when shown a similar-looking detergent box.

Give and Example of a stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination on paper with partner

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Packet part 3 and 4 in group

Switch papers/peer grade

Random Tables will be selected for answers

New Terms to know

Operant Conditioning

Law of Effect

Skinner’s box

Molding

Operant Extinction

Reinforcements ( positive, negative, punishment, fixed ratio & interval, variable ratio & interval, primary, secondary, continuous, intermittent)

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning)

Definition: Learning based on the consequences

of responding; we associate responses with their consequences

Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has; responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects are nothttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vk6H7Ukp6To

Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of recurring

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Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) (cont.)

Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animalshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA

Response-Contingent Reinforcement: Reinforcement given after a desired response occurs

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Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. (A photograph of a Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.)

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Fig. 8.8 Assume that a child who is learning to talk points to her favorite doll and says either “doll,” “duh,” or “dat” when she wants it. Day 1 shows the number of times the child uses each word to ask for the doll (each block represents one request). At first, she uses all three words interchangeably. To hasten learning, her parents decide to give her the doll only when she names it correctly. Notice how the child’s behavior shifts as operant reinforcement is applied. By day 20, saying “doll” has become the most probable response.

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Shaping-Method of Successive Approximations

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCUWHP4YDgU

Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern (write an example)

BF Skinner used his skinner box to reinforce desirable behavior in pigeons. This was known as shaping.

ig. 8.10 Reinforcement and human behavior. The percentage of times that a severely disturbed child said “Please” when he wanted an object was increased dramatically by reinforcing him for making a polite request. Reinforcement produced similar improvements in saying “Thank you” and “You’re welcome,” and the boy applied these terms in new situations as well. (Adapted from Matson et al., 1990

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Operant conditioning Used to train pigeons to ping-pong

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vGazyH6fQQ4

Superstitious behavior

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6zS7v9nSpo

Superstitious Behaviors: Behaviors that are repeated because they appear to produce reinforcement, even though it is not necessary (write an example)

Operant Extinction

Definition: When learned responses that are NOT reinforced gradually fade away

Negative Attention Seeking: Using misbehavior to gain attention

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Primary vs. Secondary

Types of Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex) Intracranial Stimulation (ICS): Natural primary reinforcer;

involves direct activation of brain’s “pleasure centers”

Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise) Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money,

gold stars, poker chips and for example, in a Skinner Box, rats learned that pulling the lever (conditioned reinforcer) gave some food (primary reinforce).

Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people (e.g., learned desires for attention and approval)

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Fig. 8.15 Poker chips normally have little or no value for chimpanzees, but this chimp will work hard to earn them once he learns that the “Chimp-O-Mat” will dispense food in exchange for them.

Primary or Secondary Reinforcement?

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More Operant Conditioning Terms(complete part 6)

Positive Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event

Negative Reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event (e.g., the bells in Fannie’s car stop when she puts the seatbelt on); ends discomfort

Punishment: Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking)

Response Cost: Reinforcer or positive thing is removed, e.g., losing X-Box privileges

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2 Main Types of Reinforcers-anything that increases a preceding response

1.Positive reinforcement STRENGTHENS a response with a pleasurable stimulus after a response. Simply, if you do what’s wanted, you get a doggie treat! For example, a dog sits and you give him a piece of a hot dog. This

increases the likelihood he’ll sit.

2.Negative reinforcement STRENGHTHENS a response by removing something unpleasant. Simply, you do something to make something bad go away. For example, you hit the snooze button to make the annoying sound

stop. This increases the likelihood you’ll hit it again.

3.It’s important to remember, negative reinforcement is not punishment. Negative reinforcement encourages a behavior by removing

something bad. Punishment discourages a behavior by adding something bad

Schedules of reinforcement try to answer questions like, “When should the reinforce be given, every time?

Some times?”

Continuous reinforcement occurs when the reinforcement is given every time the behavior is down. (grade for a test)

Partial or intermittent reinforcement occurs when the reinforcement is not given after every behavior.(journals daily check)

Partial or intermittent reinforcement …(complete part 7)

Fixed Ratio – reinforcer is given after a set number of behaviors. Think of being paid for every 10 units you make on an assembly line.

Variable ratio – reinforcer is given after a random number of behaviors. Think of pulling a slot machine handle, you never know which pull

will win.

Fixed interval – reinforcer is given after a set time period. Think of being paid every Friday.

Variable interval – reinforcer is given after a random time period. Think of watching a bob-cork and waiting for a fish to bite.

What to know…

Differentiate between operant, classical and observational learning.

Modeling & mirror neurons

Latent learning

Cognitive Map

Insight learning & Aha moment

Abstract Learning

Taste Aversion

Operant conditioning vs. classical conditioning

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEDJF5u3inY

Learning is more specific than what we think of learning in school…to a psychologist, there are 3 main types of learning:

Classical conditioning occurs when we associate two stimuli and thus expect result.

Operant conditioning occurs when we learn to associate our own behavior (or our response) and its consequence. We therefore repeat behaviors with good results, we cut down on behaviors with bad results.

Observational learning occurs by watching others’ experiences.

One additional form of learning is through language. In this way, we can learn without experiencing something or watching someone else experience it.

Contrasting classical and operant conditioning

1.The differences between classical and operant conditioning can be summarized as…

1.Classical conditioning Links two stimuli together through association. Involves a natural, biological response. There is no decision made –

Pavlov’s dogs salivated naturally, biologically, with no decision of their own.

2.Operant conditioning Links a behavior to its results. There is a decision made here to do or not do a behavior. Behavior

that gets reinforced is more likely to be repeated.

Fig. 8.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d).

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Observation LearningWe can learn by watching others through what’s called observational learning. This is learned by observing others or learning without direct experience.

1.In modeling, we learn by watching and mimicking others.

2.We have mirror neurons that “fire” in the brain when we watch someone else doing an action. It’s as though we’re actually doing it, but we’re just observing it. 1.Mirror neurons improve our empathy for others. It helps us to feel

others’ pain. 2.More concrete examples are how we imitate others when they

yawn or how it’s difficult to smile when looking at a frown, or vice versa.

Fig. 8.25 A nursery school child imitates the aggressive behavior of an adult model he has just seen in a movie. (Photos courtesy of Albert Bandura.)

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Bandura’s Experiment1.Albert Bandura is the top name in observational learning.

2.He is most famous for the Bobo doll experiment. 1.In this experiment, a child watched an adult beat up an inflatable clown. The adult yelled things like, “Take that!” in the process.

2.The children were then placed into a “play room” and mimicked the adult by beating up the Bobo doll with almost the exact same actions and words as the adult model.

3.Children who had not observed the adult were less aggressive to the doll.

3.Bandura felt that we… 1.Imitate based on reinforcements and punishments that we see others get (or don’t get).

2.Will imitate people like us, who we see as successful, or who we see as admirable. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8

Observation Learning (example)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyZQ--Am-3w&feature=endscreen&NR=1

Albert Bandura - bobo doll

experiment

Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing

another’s emotional reactionshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-RGBdtSw7g8

Fig. 8.26 This graph shows the average number of aggressive acts per minute before and after television broadcasts were introduced into a Canadian town. The increase in aggression after television watching began was significant. Two other towns that already had television were used for comparison. Neither showed significant increases in aggression during the same time period. (Data compiled from Joy et al., 1986.)

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Fig. 8.22 Types of reinforcement and punishment. The impact of an event depends on whether it is presented or removed after a response is made. Each square defines one possibility: Arrows pointing upward indicate that responding is increased; downward-pointing arrows indicate that responding is decreased. (Adapted from Kazdin, 1975.)

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Learning Theorist

Robert Rescorla

The Rescorla–Wagner model is a model of classical conditioning in which the animal is theorized to learn from the discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually happens

Martin Seligman

Theory of Helplessness

Punishment Concepts

Aversive Stimulus: Stimulus that is painful or uncomfortable (e.g., a shock)Escape Learning: Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulusAvoidance Learning: Learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g., not going to a doctor or dentist)Punishment may also increase aggression

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Cognitive Learning-Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and

anticipating

Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is providedRote Learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning a set of rulesDiscovery(insight)Learning: Based on insight and understanding. The sudden appearance of a solution to a problem.

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Insightful LearningExperiment by Wolfgang Kohler http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPz6uvIbWZE

The sudden appearance of a solution to a problem. An AA—HA moment!!

Abstract Learning

Abstract learning

Involves understanding concepts such as tree or same

• Skinner box pigeons picking out certain shapes

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OS7GFHJV_SE&feature=related

Latent learning experiments by Edward Tolman

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4uJFe5Nmgc&feature=endscreen&NR=1

Cognitive maps

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALJ9BjXJubg&feature=related

John Garcia - Taste Aversion

Conditioned taste aversion occurs when a subject associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance. Generally, taste aversion is caused after ingestion of the food causes nausea, sickness, or vomiting.

Classical Conditioning in HumansPhobia: Fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists (e.g., arachnophobia (fear of spiders!))

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

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Self-Managed Behavior

Premack Principle: Any high frequency response can be used to reinforce a low frequency response (e.g., no GameBoy Advance SP until you finish your homework)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5y0ZSVSrcQg

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EXTRA INFORMATION IN THE UNIT OF LEARNING (WILL NOT BE ON TEST)

Programmed Instruction

Information is presented in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI): Learning is aided by computer-presented information and exercises

Drill and Practice: Correct answers are immediately given after questions are answered

Educational Simulations: Explore imaginary situations or “microworld” that simulates real-world problems (e.g., “The Sims” computer simulation)

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Fig. 8.18 Computer-assisted instruction. The screen on the left shows a typical drill-andpractice math problem, in which students must find the hypotenuse of a triangle. The center screen presents the same problem as an instructional game to increase interest and motivation. In the game, a child is asked to set the proper distance on a ray gun in the hovering space ship to “vaporize” an attacker. The screen on the right depicts an educational simulation. Here, students place a “probe” at various spots in a human brain. They then “stimulate,” “destroy,” or “restore” areas. As each area is altered, it is named on the screen, and the effects on behavior are described. This allows students to explore basic brain functions on their own.

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Fig. 8.24 Learning by understanding and by rote. For some types of learning, understanding may be superior, although both types of learning are useful. (After Wertheimer, 1959.)

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Self-Managed Behavioral Principles

Choose a target behavior

Record a baseline

Establish goals

Choose reinforcers

Record your progress

Reward successes

Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior

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How to Break Bad Habits

Alternate Responses: Try to get the same reinforcement with a new responseExtinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcementResponse Chains: Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired responseCues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit

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How to Break Bad Habits (cont.): Behavioral Contracting

Behavioral Contract: Formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply; written contract

State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you must accept

Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it

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