The Civil War & Reconstruction

Confederate Ascendancy to the Eve of

Emancipation, 1861-1862

Today’s Americans have the benefit of hindsight so we know that the Union defeated the Confederacy after 4 years of fighting and millions of civilian and military casualties but our Civil War era counterparts did not.

At the beginning of the war both sides thought that it would be a short conflict. Neither side knew that the war would last as long as it did, that the Union would win, and that it would devastate Americans.

The war’s outcome had as much to do with the specific decisions political figures that made and the resources (troops, provisions, etc.) they had as with what occurred on the battlefield. Indeed, looking back on the war there are many points where if the behavior of individuals was different, there might have been a different outcome.

The War

Recent research suggests that there were more than 10,000 engagements in the Civil War. This presentation, as well as the ones that follow, will cover some of the major or decisive engagements. Students may find on the Blackboard site more comprehensive information about several dozen major battles.

After providing a demographic profile and several comparisons, this presentation starts with the Confederacy’s win at Bull Run, which revealed that despite the Union’s seeming military strength, that the war would not be won easily.

What we will see is that after a series of initial missteps, Union forces began to recover by winning at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, Shiloh, and Corinth.

Despite these wins, Confederates’ fierce ability to wage surprise attacks (Shiloh) and to exact Union casualties meant that the war would continue much longer than anyone anticipated.

The War

CSA11 states9 million (30% of whom

were enslaved)1 million white men for

military service1 million served

800,000 enlisted (3 yrs of service)

340,000 casualties250,000 killed in action

or from disease

22 states22 million people3.5 million white men for

military servicePlus about 100,000 loyal

southerners & later free blacks and runaway slaves

2.9 million served1.5 million enlisted (3

years)650,000 casualties360,000 killed in action or

from disease

Demographic Profiles

USA

Recent research suggests the number of fatalities was higher. See the NYT Disunion Blog

Confederacy Had to create a new

government; War fought on their turf,

750,000 sq mi; Fierce determination to win to

establish their independence; More men trained to fight;

Numerous military academies, inc West Point

Culture of chivalry, honor, weaponry

Possibility of foreign recognition of the CSA; and

Slave labor

Economic strength—wealth and the nation’s banking and financial centers were located in NYC;

More modern infrastructure (communication, transportation, industry);

Existing government;Existing military service;

Militia Regular army Volunteers

Existing recognition by European powers.

Profiles in Strength

Union

ConfederacyGet the support of

and/or occupy the Border States

Protect Richmond (CSA capitol), threaten Washington, D.C.

Get recognition from Britain, France, and Spain

Keep the support of the Border States

Recall armies from the West Protect the South’s valuable

resources for the return to the Union

Protect Washington, D.C. (USA capitol), threaten Richmond

Control the Mississippi River—Anaconda Plan

Blockade of southern coasts to deny the CSA supplies and to stop them from trading with Europe.

Initial Priorities

Union

Most people focus on the army engagements but the naval engagements became more important as the war advanced.

The Union wanted to maintain the blockade of southern ports and dominate the Mississippi and Tennessee rivers.Started the war with a navy, focused on maintaining the

blockade, replacing outdated technology, and assisting army forces.

The Confederacy wanted to stop the USA’s merchant marine and maintain control over 3500 miles of coastal areas spanning Alabama, the Carolinas, and Mississippi.Started the war without a navy but quickly mobilized

resources and adapted new technology for warfare including submarines to sink USA warships and ironclads to attack the USA’s wooden ships.

Initial Priorities-Naval Campaigns

Surround the

CSA, control the

Mississippi, and

the divide CSA.

Downside of the

plan is that it

would take a

long time to

accomplish.

Winfield Scott’s Plan

Blockade of Charleston

Some historians have noted that the beginning of the war was very much like a safety valve being released, unleashing Americans’ pent-up frustrations with decades of fighting about slavery’s extension and states’ rights.

People on both sides began mobilizing for war—parading, mass meetings, volunteering, drilling.

Both sides wanted to overwhelm their opponents with decisive victories, leading to the control of more territory and resources.Unfortunately, few battles were decisive which a)

forced both sides to regroup and fight again for the same area and b) prolonged the war and increased the casualty figures.

The War Begins

The older style of fighting—phalanx—eventually disappeared as new technology was introduced.

Only a few sieges—Petersburg and Vicksburg.Trench warfare, wherein opposing sides attack the other

from a fixed position of trenches, was rare in the beginning but it became more common.

The use of snipers, bushwhacking (making one’s way through wooded area and attacking along the way) , and guerilla fighting (irregular fighting, sabotage, harassment) became more common.

Calvary—scouted, collected information.Balloons—to scout the location of troops (at risk of being shot

down, of course).Telegraph—to communicate information but most

commanders relied on scouts.Submarines—to attack ships and protect harbors.

Strategies for a Modern War

New TechnologyRifled MusketMinié BallLonger and more

effective range of shooting & soft lead bullet yielded high casualty rates and changed how men fought.

Forces mobilize in Kanawha Valley in the northwestern part of Virginia. Thomas (later “Stonewall”) Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston occupy Harper’s Ferry until the Union’s Robert Patterson takes over.

Union forces maintain the area, aiding Unionists’ efforts to develop a new state.

George McClellan becomes a hero.

Western Virginia

Rather than stay put, many enslaved people used the war’s beginning to flee their masters.

General Benjamin Butler labels the runaway slaves that show up at Fortress Monroe “contraband of war,” meaning enemy property.

Congress passed First Confiscation Act, which declared that any Confederate property being used to wage war against the Union, including enslaved people, could be confiscated.

General John C. Frémont issued a proclamation that declared free all of the enslaved people of Missouri Confederates. Lincoln rescinded the order to avoid losing the slaveholding loyalists

and because the order violated the Confiscation act. The two generals’ actions reflect the hesitancy of Lincoln and the

Congress to address the issue of enslaved people fleeing their masters and heading toward Union lines. They had no policies in place because they assumed enslaved people would

stay with their masters. This would be an ongoing issue between the administration and the generals

until Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation.

Slavery and the War, 1861

Seeking Union Lines, VA 1862

These fugitive slaves are crossing Virginia’s Rappahannock river.

African Americans pulling up railroad lines.

Enslaved people

played a

significant role in

building

railroads.

According to

Rhonn Laighton

Mitchell, during

the war, many

used the railway

lines, including

the broken ones,

to find their way

to Union troops

and to the North.

This 1863 image

was drawn by

Alfred Waud of

Harper’s Weekly.

It depicts African

Americans who

fled from slavery

coming into a

Union camp.

Alfred Waud’s “Contrabands”

CSAJoseph E. Johnston and

PGT BeauregardThomas Jackson earns

moniker of StonewallCasualties about 1,982

387 killed1,582 wounded13 missing

Victor—CSA Some historians say the

win gave the CSA overconfidence

Irvin McDowell Lincoln replaced

McDowell w/ McClellan

Union forced to retreat in demoralizing fashion

Casualties 2,896460 killed1,124 wounded1,312

captured/missing

First Bull Run (aka First Manassas) July 21, 1861

USA

First Bull Run

Image created by

Kurz and Allison

Victor-CSA

Exposes the

Union’s challenge

of having so many

inexperienced

soldiers.

Joseph E. Johnston

CSA

Commanded –

Armies of the

Shenandoah,

Northern Virginia,

and Tennessee as

well as Dept of the

West.

Major battles--1st

Bull Run, Peninsula

Campaign,

Vicksburg, Atlanta

Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard

CSA

Commanded the

Army of the

Potomac and the

Army of

Mississippi

Battles--1st Bull

Run, Shiloh,

Corinth,

Petersburg

Irvin McDowell

USA

Commanded—

Army of

Northeastern

Virginia, Army of

the Potomac,

Army of Virginia

Battles—1st and

2nd Bull Run

Lincoln replaced

him with

McClellan after

1st Bull Run

By the end of 1861:The CSA had won battles at Bethel, Bull Run,

Springfield, Lexington, Leesburg, and Belmont.The USA had been successful in western Virginia

and along the seaboard.Congress struck the first major blow at slavery by

instituting Confiscation Act, which allowed USA troops to confiscate any Confederate property, including enslaved people, being used in the war effort.

See also Adam Goodheart’s 1861.

1861 Balance Sheet

After losing to the

CSA at Bull Run,

the USA strikes

back.

In a land-water

union between

Ulysses S. Grant

and Rear Admiral

Andrew Foote, the

USA takes Fort

Henry, the

Confederate

garrison located on

the Tennessee

River.

This image is from

Harper’s Weekly

Fort Henry, 1862

Andrew Foote

USA

Navy Rear

Admiral

Battles—Fort

Henry, Fort

Donelson

Victor-USA

Fort Henry

Victor-USA

Grant’s troops faced

Confederate forces

led by Gideon Pillow

and John Floyd.

This was another

joint land-water

mission led by Grant

and Foote.

Confederate

commanders’ failure

to coordinate use of

forces contributed to

their defeat.

Fort Donelson, 1862

Fort Donelson, 1862

Grant develops moniker “Unconditional Surrender”

Gunboats firing on Fort

Donelson on the

Cumberland River.

Grant develops moniker

“Unconditional Surrender.”

After taking both Forts

Henry and Donelson, the

USA’s efforts to gain control

of the Mississippi begins to

gain traction (the CSA

understands the importance

of Mississippi for their

survival so they are going to

do whatever they can to

maintain their supremacy).

Victories boost morale in

the USA.

Fort Donelson, 1862

The most famous

naval clashes

occurred off the

Virginia coast in

Hampton Roads.

The CSA raised

the USA’s sunken

Merrimack and

renamed it the

Virginia and then

launched an

attack on the

Cumberland.

The Virginia sinking the Cumberland

The USA responded

to the attack on the

Cumberland, by

launching the

Monitor to protect

other ships from the

Virginia/Merrimac.

After hours of

fighting, neither side

inflicted much

damage and both

sides agreed to a

draw.

Union forces added

more ironclads to

their fleet and the

USA’s naval control

would continue.

Clash of the Ironclads #7

Numerous representations of the clashes are inaccurate in scale and their depiction of the proximity of ships but this images provides a visual of maritime fighting.

George C. McClellan

USA

Commands—Dept

of the Ohio &

Army of the

Potomac

Battles—Peninsula

Campaign, Battle

of Antietam

Beloved by troops

but a thorn in

Lincoln’s side for

his hesitancy of

advancing his

troops in the face

of battle.

Ulysses S. Grant

Served in the

Mexican War.

His prowess at the

Battles of Vicksburg

and Chattanooga and

in the Overland

campaign lead to his

elevation in

command, eventually

up General of the

Army, and his prestige

among the troops.

He will oversee Lee’s

surrender at

Appomattox after the

siege at Petersburg.

CSAArmy of MississippiAlbert Johnston &

PGT Beauregard44,699 menCasualties 1o,699

1,728 killed8,012 wounded959

captured/missing

Army of the Tennessee & Army of the Ohio

Ulysses Grant and Don Carlos Buell

66,812 menCasualties 13,047

1,754 killed8,408 wounded2,885 captured/missing

Victor--USA

Shiloh April 1862

USA

Inexperience of Union

volunteers revealed in

surprising Confederate

attack which allowed them

to occupy Union camps while

chaos raged.

Grant rallied his troops after

Confederates failed to back

up Beauregard. He received

reinforcements from Buell

and Wallace.

Union controls western

Tennessee.

Ended beliefs that the war

would be short.

Map covers last day of

battle.

Battle of Shiloh

Don Carlos Buell

USA

Commanded—

Army of the Ohio

Battles—Shiloh,

Corinth,

Perryville

Henry W. Halleck

USA

Commanded—

Western Theater

& Dept of the

Missouri

Battles—Shiloh

and Corinth

John Pope

USA

Commanded—

Army of the

Mississippi and

Army of Virginia

Albert Sidney Johnston

CSA

Commanded—

Army of

Mississippi

Battles—Shiloh

Fatally wounded

Leonidas Polk

CSA

Commanded—

Army of

Tennessee and

Army of

Mississippi

Battles—Shiloh,

Perryville, Stones

River,

Chickamauga,

and Atlanta

New Orleans was strategically value to the CSA, which made it a target of the USA.

Union forces alone could not attack the city by land. Naval forces could not do the job alone either, with thousands of troops, two strong forts, and a CSA fleet of steamers and ironclads.

The Union decided to coordinate the army’s (under Benjamin Butler) and navy’s operations (under David Farragut) and by the end of April, the USA occupied the CSA’s largest and richest city. Farragut moved north on the Mississippi to take Baton Rouge and Natchez but he could not take Vicksburg because of the strength of CSA forces there.

The Capture of New Orleans

Union forces

increasingly

realized the

value of joint

land-sea

operations.

USA Captures New Orleans

George C. McClellan

USA

Although beloved by

troops, McClellan

and Lincoln battled

for authority as

Lincoln commanded

McClellan to launch

a direct advance on

Confederate forces

at Manassas and he

chose to attack

Richmond.

McClellan prepared

for a siege.

In 1862, the CSA

Congress passed

a law that

declared that all

males between 18

and 35 could be

subjected to

conscription.

CSA officials tried

to get men to

avoid

conscription by

encouraging them

to volunteer.

Confederate Conscription

A year later, the CSA Congress would exempt 1 male for every 20 enslaved people on a plantation and permit substitutions.

Both policies favored wealthy men.

Many historians argue that Confederate conscription exposed a flaw in their ideology. The states seceded to chart their own destinies and to avoid centralized authority. But to fight and win a war for their independence, they would need to cede some authority to the government. Many slaveholding Confederates, even the fire-breathers, were having none of it and resisted at every turn the CSA’s efforts to centralize authority to win the war.

Confederate Conscription

By Spring 1862, the USA had defeated the CSA in the bloody campaign of Shiloh, which it followed by capturing Corinth, temporarily taking control of the western campaign.

This success would be followed by delays and setbacks and then victories in Vicksburg and Chattanooga.

Western Campaign, I

Richmond and Washington, D.C., the capitols of the CSA and the USA were the primary targets of both sides. In 1862, both sides tried to foment chaos in the other side’s capitol.

The USA’s McClellan wanted to launch his attack from the peninsula between the York and James rivers and then fight his way to Richmond. The cautious general refused to storm the CSA capitol and Lincoln removed him from supreme command.

Meanwhile, the CSA’s Stonewall Jackson stopped the USA’s forces from reinforcing McClellan and taking Richmond by waging a raiding campaign up and down the Shenandoah Valley. Jackson eventually collaborates with Lee, the master tactician who became well known for his aggressive frontal assaults.

Peninsula Campaign

Thomas “Stonewall Jackson”

CSA

Army of Northern

Virginia

Favored waging

an aggressive and

destructive war.

Battles—1st Bull

Run,

Shenandoah,

Seven Days,

Northern

Virginia,

Maryland,

Fredericksburg,

Chancellorsville.

Lee and Jackson’s combined forces met McClellan for a week long series of battles.Mechanicsville (Beaver Dam Creek)Gaines’ MillSavage’s StationFrayer’s FarmMalvern’s Hill

The campaign, especially the one at Malvern’s Hill, became known for the high casualty & fatality rates. For the Union, there was the disappointment that despite the loss of life, McClellan still did not advance to take Richmond. Lincoln brought in John Pope to lead the Union’s forces in Virginia but the Confederates defeated him at the 2nd Battle of Bull Run.

Seven Days’ Campaign

This image

depicts

Confederate

forces fleeing

Mechanicsville

on the second

day of the Seven

Days’ campaign

of 1862.

Mechanicsville

CSAArmy of Northern

VirginiaRobert E. Lee92,000 menCasualties 20,204

3,494 killed15,758 wounded952

missing/captured

Army of the PotomacGeorge McClellan104,100 menCasualties 15,855

1,734 killed8,066 wounded6,055

missing/captured

Seven Days’ Campaign, 1862

USA

As the war continues with no real end in sight, Lincoln and Congress start to use the CSA’s dependency on the institution against them.

Congress abolished slavery in Washington, D.C. (1862).General Hunter declared free enslaved people in SC, FL,

and GA.Lincoln rescinded the order.

Congress passed Second Confiscation Act, which mandated that all enslaved people whose owners were engaged in the rebellion (and not simply those whose labor was being used in the war) were freed.

Note: although history has given Lincoln all of the credit for abolishing slavery, the actions of the generals in the field and the Republican members of Congress deserve their share of the credit.

Slavery and the War, 1862

CSARobert E. Lee50,000 menCasualties

1,300 killed7,000 wounded

Victor--CSA

John Pope62,000 menCasualties

10,000 killed and wounded

Second Bull Run, 1862

USA

Ruins of Stone

Bridge at Bull

Run Creek,

Manassas, VA,

1862

Second Bull Run

CSARobert E. LeeArmy of Northern

Virginia38,000 menCasualties 10,316

1,546 killed7,752 wounded1,018

captured/missing

George McClellanArmy of the Potomac75,000 menCasualties 12,401

2,108 killed 9,540 wounded753 captured/missing

Inconclusive battle but Union has strategic edge.

Antietam, 1862

USA

Single bloodiest dayLincoln uses the occasion of the Union’s

victory to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation

Antietam

Kurz and Allison’s depiction of Battle of Antietam at Burnside’s Bridge

Lincoln issues declaration that on January 1, 1863, the slaves of masters who were still in rebellion would be “forever free.” He wants to give Confederates 100 days to stop fighting with the

promise that they can keep their slaves.This document reiterated Lincoln’s support for the

colonization of freed blacks to some place outside the U.S.White northerners were divided.

Abolitionists favored it as did people who thought attacking slavery would help to end the bloody war.

Northern Democrats thought it was unconstitutional and an abuse of power.

Although they were exempted, Union supporting slaveholders in the Border States worried that they would lose their slaves too.

White southerners were outraged.Free and enslaved African Americans rejoiced but they were

opposed to colonization.

Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation

The USA wants European countries to stay out of the war and to accept its argument that the CSA was not an independent country but a group of rebels.

The CSA wants European countries to recognize it as new country.

Most European countries remain on the fence (they were internally divided on the issues relating to the war). They withhold formal support for either side until they have an angle on the outcome.They will, however, do what is necessary to maintain

access to certain goods and even supply the CSA with warships.

Issue of European Recognition

Cotton Diplomacy

The CSA hopes that

they can use their

production of

European required

goods, namely

cotton, to elicit

diplomatic

recognition.

The plan fails largely

because of the

blockade, limited

cotton production,

Europeans acquiring

cotton from other

countries & being

more dependent on

northern goods than

they were on

southern cotton.

Threat of European intervention heats up when Confederate commissioners board an outbound British ship, the Trent, and the ship is intercepted by the USA.

British and Confederates are outraged at the seizure and the case opens the possibility that the British will recognize the CSA.

The release of the commissioners eventually contributes to the British standing down some of their support for recognizing the CSA.

In the end, Europeans remain withhold diplomatic recognition of the CSA.

Issue of European Recognition

Trent Affair

Secretary of State

William Seward

holds out his hand,

releasing the

Confederate

commissioners who

were seized from the

British ship.

Britain’s Lord

Russell (left) is

satisfied.

Jefferson Davis

(right) is outraged

over the outcome as

Britain refuses to

grant the CSA

recognition as an

independent country.

Although Lincoln won the 1860 election, secession changed the political landscape of the USA.

Republicans switched from the minority party to the majority party and Democrats occupied the minority party once the majority of its southern members seceded.The Republican party was still split by factions over such

issues as the way to wage war, slavery, and equal rights for free blacks.

Union Democrats styled themselves as rejecting secession while maintaining their support for small government.They opposed Lincoln’s and congressional Republicans’

expansion of federal powers during the war, their willingness to try to use the war to end slavery, and some Republicans’ discussions of establishing equal rights.

The Union’s Political Landscape

In the 1862 election, the temporarily depleted Democrats begin clawing their way back to political power in their support for the Union but their opposition to Lincoln’s managing of the war and to the Congress’s. Democrats win more seats in Congress and

governorships in New York and New Jersey.In 1863, Democrats dig in on their opposition

to Lincoln’s expansion of federal powers during the war, including the draft and the Emancipation Proclamation.

The Union’s Political Landscape

By the end of the year:There was still no clear end in sight because although each

side achieved some victories, few were decisive enough to end the war.

Although Confederates continued to display their mettle on the battlefield, the casualties they suffered will start to pile up and make it difficult for them to wage war as effectively against the much larger Union forces. As Stephanie McCurry and other shows, the CSA will also have to contend with growing revolts among their civilian population, namely “solders’ wives” and enslaved people.

On the Union side, there is great frustration with Lincoln’s handling of the war, the military’s failure to win enough decisive victories to end the war quickly, the uncertainty caused by the looming preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.

1862 Balance Sheet

Great Snake: http://www.loc.gov/shop/index.php?action=cCatalog.showItemImage&cid=14&scid=235&iid=3271

Bull Run Map: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run Bull Run: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run. Joseph E. Johnston:

http://www.civilwar.org/education/contests-quizzes/quizzes/vicksburg-campaign/vicksburg-campaign-quiz-answers.html.

PGT Beuregard: Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard. William T. Sherman: http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/sherman.htm. Ulysses Grant:

http://www.civilwar.org/education/contests-quizzes/quizzes/vicksburg-campaign/vicksburg-campaign-quiz-answers.html.

Irvin McDowell: Image: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/15/hh15c.htm. Thomas Jackson: http://www.nps.gov/hafe/historyculture/thomas-j-jackson.htm. George McClellan: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_B._McClellan Fort Henry: Image: http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=928 Andrew Foote: Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Foote. Fort Henry: http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=928. Fort Donelson: http://thisweekinthecivilwar.com/?p=928 Fort Donelson: http://www.oceansbridge.com/oil-paintings/product/60469/generalgrantatfortdonelson. Gunboats at Fort Donelson:

http://civilwar150th.blogspot.com/2012/02/battle-of-fort-donelson-bombardment.html Clash of the Ironclads #7: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Ironclads_battle_7.jpg Virginia sinking the Cumberland:

http://www.usgwarchives.net/va/portsmouth/shipyard/sinkingcumberlandcopy.jpg

Images accessed June 2012

Shiloh Map: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh Shiloh: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh Don Carlos Buell: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell. Henry Halleck: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Halleck. John Pope: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer) Albert S. Johnston: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston Leonidas Polk: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonidas_Polk. George McClellan Battle of Corinth: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_orleans_1862.jpg. New Orleans: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_orleans_1862.jpg. Stone Bridge Ruins: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Bull_Run. Battle of Antietam: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Antietam.png. Mechanicsville:

http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/22/where-was-stonewall/?ref=opinion.

King Cotton Bound: http://emergingcivilwar.com/2012/02/26/a-world-on-fire-part-iii-king-cotton-and-confederate-foreign-relations-with-great-britain/.

Trent affair: http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/grimsley1/h582/2001/trent.htm.

Images accessed June 2012

The path to emancipation and black military enlistment.

The Emancipation Proclamation.Union conscription & the Draft Riots.Battles of Chancellorsville, Gettysburg,

Vicksburg, Chattanooga, the Wilderness.“Total War”

Sheridan’s Valley Campaign.Sherman’s Campaign.

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