The Conventions of DramaThe Rise of American Drama

Have you ever acted in a school play or been spellbound by an award-winning film? If so, then you’ve already experienced the thrill of dramatic performances. Drama is a form of literature that is written to be performed for an audience, whether on stage or in front of cameras. The two main types of drama are tragedy and comedy; a tragedy unveils the downfall of a main character, and a comedy is light and often humorous in tone. Many dramas combine elements of both tragedy and comedy.

Drama was one of the last of the literary genres to develop in the United States. The Puritans in New England regarded theatrical performances as frivolous, so few plays were staged in the 1600s. During the 18th and 19th centuries, drama gradually became an accepted form of entertainment. However, most of the plays performed in the United States were imported from Europe or were adapted from novels.

In 1920 the Broadway production of Eugene O’Neill’s Beyond the Horizon marked a turning point. This important play used a realistic setting to present true-to-life characters who were struggling to understand their lives. Building on O’Neill’s achievement, American playwrights Thornton Wilder, Lillian Hellman, Tennessee Williams, and Arthur Miller created dramas in the 1930s and 1940s that met with critical and popular success. Following World War II, American dramatists Edward Albee and Lorraine Hansberry made significant contributions to the theater. Today, hit plays by contemporary playwrights, including Sam Shepard, David Mamet, August Wilson, Wendy Wasserstein, and Tony Kushner, are performed in theaters across the country. Drama has become a thriving art form in the United States.

Conventions of Drama

Most dramas follow similar conventions, or rules, in how they are presented. An understanding of basic dramatic conventions can help you imagine the staging of the performance as you read. You may recognize that drama and fiction share a common set of elements: plot, setting, character, and theme.

Acts and ScenesDramatic plots are divided into acts and scenes, with each scene establishing a different time or place. As in fiction, the plot in a drama introduces interactions that produce a conflict, or struggle, between opposing forces. The action intensifies, reaches a peak, and is eventually resolved. The elements of plot in drama—exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution—parallel those in fiction.

The Cast of CharactersA play lists the cast of characters in the beginning, before the action starts. Many of the same types of characters that populate fiction are also found in drama. The protagonist is the central character of the play. This character is at the center of the conflict and often undergoes radical changes during the course of the play. The antagonist is the character who opposes the main character. Some plays also include a foil, a minor character whose traits contrast sharply with those of the main character. The interplay among these characters heightens the dramatic tension as the play develops.

Stage DirectionsThe italicized instructions in a play are written by the playwright, or author, and are called stage directions. Stage directions describe the setting of the play and suggest the use of props, lighting, scenery, sound effects, and costumes. Stage directions also

describe the entrances and the exits of characters, and how the characters look, speak, and react to events or to others.

Speech DevicesIn drama, the playwright develops the story line through the characters’ actions and dialogue. Dialogue, or conversation between characters, is the lifeblood of drama. Virtually everything of consequence—from the plot details to the character revelations—flows from dialogue. Other speech devices used by playwrights, in addition to dialogue, include

the monologue: a long speech spoken by a single character to himself or herself, or to the audience

the soliloquy: a monologue in which a character speaks his or her private thoughts aloud and appears to be unaware of the audience

the aside: a short speech or comment that is delivered by a character to the audience, but that is beyond the hearing of other characters who are present

Strategies for Reading Drama1. Review the cast of characters and read the opening stage

directions carefully. Remember that the opening scene usually introduces the main conflict.

2. Try to picture the characters and the action as if you were watching the play being performed. Use stage directions to help you “see” the setting and characters, and use dialogue to help you “hear” how characters speak.

3. Follow the dialogue to keep track of the plot and to learn more about the characters.

4. Analyze how the characters interact. What motivates their actions and speech?

5. First read the play silently; then read parts of it aloud to yourself or with others.

6. Monitor your reading strategies and modify them when your understanding breaks down. Remember to use your Strategies for Active Reading: predict, visualize, connect, question, clarify, and evaluate.