copyright 2005 - 2009: hi tech criminal justice, raymond e. foster police technology police...
TRANSCRIPT
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Police Technology Police Technology Chapter Six Chapter Six
A Brief History of Police A Brief History of Police Technology Technology
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
Explore the development of police Explore the development of police technology against the backgrounds technology against the backgrounds of the policing models – of the policing models – politicalpolitical, , professionalprofessional, and , and community based community based modelsmodels
Expand understanding of Expand understanding of tacticaltactical and and strategicstrategic information by looking at information by looking at how technology changed the nature how technology changed the nature of fingerprint evidenceof fingerprint evidence
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
Understand the difference between Understand the difference between policypolicy and and procedureprocedure and look at and look at how technology may impact policy how technology may impact policy and procedureand procedure
Further explore Further explore fragmentationfragmentation and and the market-place.the market-place.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
IntroductionIntroduction
Look at history of technology two ways: Look at history of technology two ways: What happened and consequences of new technologiesWhat happened and consequences of new technologies Following a specific piece ofFollowing a specific piece of
information that has been information that has been
critical to solving crimes forcritical to solving crimes for
more than one hundred yearsmore than one hundred years
(fingerprinting)(fingerprinting)
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Police Technology in TimePolice Technology in Time
Most CJ scholars divide the history Most CJ scholars divide the history of of
American policing into three eras: American policing into three eras: PoliticalPolitical ProfessionalProfessional Community OrientedCommunity Oriented
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Political Policing EraPolitical Policing EraMost police forcesMost police forces
established in the late established in the late
1919thth century consisted or century consisted or
men who had beenmen who had been
appointed for limited terms appointed for limited terms
by local Politicians. by local Politicians. Patronage – an officer’s Patronage – an officer’s
primary source of primary source of information came from information came from the people who lived in the people who lived in the community or their the community or their beatbeat
Photograph provided by Cultural Tourism DC.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Professional PolicingProfessional Policing Government and Government and
policing evolved out of policing evolved out of the patronage system the patronage system into a civil service into a civil service system. system.
Prized hierarchy, Prized hierarchy, centralization rules, centralization rules, and standards became and standards became the professional the professional policing model. policing model.
Control of day-to-day Control of day-to-day operations from politics operations from politics to professional police to professional police managers. managers.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Technology impacting the modelTechnology impacting the model
Through the 1950s and 1960s, the idea thatThrough the 1950s and 1960s, the idea that
police supervisors and managers shouldpolice supervisors and managers should
control the production of service began tocontrol the production of service began to
take hold. take hold. Supervisors and managers began to count Supervisors and managers began to count
the numbers of calls for service an officer the numbers of calls for service an officer handledhandled
Timed how fast he arrived at the scene of Timed how fast he arrived at the scene of a calla call
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
““You get what you count. . .”You get what you count. . .”
Officer were not walking the Officer were not walking the community any longercommunity any longer
They were evaluated on the number They were evaluated on the number of calls they handled and of calls they handled and
How fast they got to the call. How fast they got to the call.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing Through the 1970s Through the 1970s
there continued to be a there continued to be a reliance on what was to reliance on what was to be seen as be seen as incident-incident-driven policingdriven policing. .
The advent of the The advent of the computer made it computer made it possible to organize possible to organize and review this and review this information on information on incidents and response. incidents and response.
The development of 9-The development of 9-1-1 only added to the 1-1 only added to the police ability to handle police ability to handle incidents. incidents.
Photograph provided by Gary Allen, 9-1-1 Dispatch Magazine
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing As officers judged on the As officers judged on the
number of calls they number of calls they handled rose through handled rose through the ranks, the concept of the ranks, the concept of professionalism professionalism increased. increased.
police managers did police managers did notnot rely on community inputrely on community input
The idea that the police The idea that the police were the professionals were the professionals who knew best, who knew best, responded quickly, and responded quickly, and handled incidents handled incidents became organizationally became organizationally entrenched. entrenched.
Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency ServicesServices
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
The professional model and the The professional model and the technology changed the relationship technology changed the relationship between the police and the between the police and the community community
This introduced a new problem of the This introduced a new problem of the growing distance between police growing distance between police officers and the communities they officers and the communities they served. served.
Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Community Oriented PolicingCommunity Oriented Policing
Founded on two social science theories: Founded on two social science theories: Normative Sponsorship TheoryNormative Sponsorship Theory – Most – Most
people are good. People will work people are good. People will work together if the goal is within the normal together if the goal is within the normal standards of the community. standards of the community.
Critical Social TheoryCritical Social Theory – Looks at the – Looks at the way the community comes together to way the community comes together to analyze a problem that is preventing analyze a problem that is preventing the attainment of their goals or needs. the attainment of their goals or needs.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Problem Oriented PolicingProblem Oriented Policing
Shares many of the same Shares many of the same characteristics of community-oriented characteristics of community-oriented policing. policing.
Concentrates on situational crime Concentrates on situational crime prevention. prevention.
Looks at the community of the problem. Looks at the community of the problem. The Definition of “community” would The Definition of “community” would shift as problems were solved (versus shift as problems were solved (versus static geographic communities). static geographic communities).
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Technology’s Impact on Policing Technology’s Impact on Policing StyleStyle
Political Model
Professional Model
Incident DrivenTechnology
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Changing the Value of Changing the Value of InformationInformation
The increasing ability The increasing ability to obtain, organize, to obtain, organize, analyze and recall analyze and recall information has information has increased its valueincreased its value
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Changing the Value of Changing the Value of InformationInformation
One of the earliest applications of One of the earliest applications of science to criminal investigation is science to criminal investigation is fingerprintfingerprint classification. classification. Visible – left by touching a substance Visible – left by touching a substance
before touching a surface (e.g., blood on before touching a surface (e.g., blood on a counter)a counter)
LatentLatent – hidden fingerprints left behind – hidden fingerprints left behind by the natural oils from our hands. (Best by the natural oils from our hands. (Best obtained when surface is clean, dry, obtained when surface is clean, dry, smooth and non-porous.) smooth and non-porous.)
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Changing the Value of Changing the Value of InformationInformation
At the beginning of At the beginning of the 20the 20thth Century Century fingerprints were fingerprints were routinely taken routinely taken from offenders and from offenders and the cards stored.the cards stored.
At this time, for a At this time, for a match each print match each print must be compared must be compared against millions of against millions of cardscards
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Changing the Value of Changing the Value of InformationInformation
At first, systems of classification At first, systems of classification enable fingerprint specialist to narrow enable fingerprint specialist to narrow the search from millions of cards to the search from millions of cards to thousands – but still a hand search thousands – but still a hand search and analysisand analysis
The computer enabled the automation The computer enabled the automation ofof
the process.the process.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Automated Fingerprint Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemIdentification System
The process of analyzing fingerprints is The process of analyzing fingerprints is dactylography.dactylography.
Software used sophisticated and Software used sophisticated and complex algorithms to recognize and complex algorithms to recognize and compare compare minutiaeminutiae. . HoweverHowever;;
Computer processing speeds were slowComputer processing speeds were slow Hardware and software to store the Hardware and software to store the
information had not yet been developedinformation had not yet been developed
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
National Crime Information National Crime Information CenterCenter
NCICNCIC organized in 1967 by the FBI to organized in 1967 by the FBI to handle fingerprints cards and handle fingerprints cards and requests for comparison. requests for comparison.
Began to incorporate criminal Began to incorporate criminal histories and correlate them to histories and correlate them to offender fingerprint cards on file. offender fingerprint cards on file.
Medium of transmission was U.S. Medium of transmission was U.S. mail and eventually fax. mail and eventually fax.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Local agencies forged ahead Local agencies forged ahead developing their own applications developing their own applications similar to NCIC creating fragmentationsimilar to NCIC creating fragmentation
AFISAFIS technology began to be used technology began to be used routinely especially in the routinely especially in the investigation of cold cases. investigation of cold cases.
1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and 1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and made available nationwide the made available nationwide the fingerprints of 33 million criminals. fingerprints of 33 million criminals.
Automated Fingerprint Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemIdentification System
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Automated Fingerprint Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemIdentification System
Digital scanning – obtains Digital scanning – obtains
an image on the fingerprint, an image on the fingerprint,
examines and compares. examines and compares. Capacitance scanningCapacitance scanning – –
uses a charged coupled uses a charged coupled device (CCD)device (CCD)
Optical ScanningOptical Scanning – light – light source illuminates the source illuminates the suspect’s fingertipssuspect’s fingertips
Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Differences are important for two Differences are important for two
reasons: reasons: Capacitance scanner does not Capacitance scanner does not
contain the CCD and is more readily contain the CCD and is more readily miniaturizedminiaturized
Capacitance scanner is actually Capacitance scanner is actually taking measurements and is not taking measurements and is not easily fooled. easily fooled.
Automated Fingerprint Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemIdentification System
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
NCIC 200NCIC 200
NCIC 2000 promises NCIC 2000 promises to take fingerprint to take fingerprint technology into the technology into the fieldfield
Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Policy and ProcedurePolicy and Procedure
ProceduresProcedures are a set of instructions are a set of instructions on how to do something. on how to do something.
PolicyPolicy is a broad statement on how is a broad statement on how things should be done – how we things should be done – how we want human beings to exercise want human beings to exercise judgment. judgment.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
FragmentationFragmentation
The nature of United States Law enforcement has caused policies, procedures and technology to develop different from agency to agency.
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
FragmentationFragmentation
17,000 state and local law 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies. enforcement agencies.
Different community expectations Different community expectations and standards and standards
Difference equipment acquisitions Difference equipment acquisitions according to size of budgetaccording to size of budget
Expertise develops at different ratesExpertise develops at different rates
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
FragmentationFragmentation
Fragmentation – Fragmentation – policy, procedure policy, procedure and technology – and technology – causes problems causes problems whenever agencies whenever agencies must or should must or should work togetherwork togetherPhotograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency
ServicesServices
Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster
Police Technology Police Technology
Explore Military Books atExplore Military Books at
www.military-writers.com www.military-writers.com