copyright by tokuroh arimitsu 1982

B..1 T"**!,.

Copyright by

TOKUROH ARIMITSU

1982

THE SUZUKI METHOD OF INSTRUCTION APPLIED TO

ART EDUCATION FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN AMERICA

by

TOKUROH ARIMITSU, B.A., M.A.

A DISSERTATION

IN

FINE ARTS (ART)

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

May, 1982

/?'- , :-> ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The completion of a doctoral study is not an individ

ual effort, and I am deeply indebted to those who gave of

their time and knowledge to help bring this study to a

conclusion. I regret that I cannot mention the names of all

persons, both in Japan and in the United States, who made

possible its culmination.

A debt of gratitude is due particularly to Professor

Marvin Moon, whose invaluable guidance and counseling

contributed to the preparation and completion of this study.

As chairman of my dissertation committee, he gave generously

of his wisdom, scholarly advice, and moral support.

I am equally indebted to Dr. Marvin Flatten for pro

viding financial support through the Departn ient of Education

at Texas Tech University. He inspired me to consider the

organization of the dissertation's complex design and pro

vided me with a variety of resources during the initial

phases of the dissertation. His belief in the potential of

the development and implementation of this study caused T;e

to expand my perceptions of the new method's potential

usefulness for American art education.

The advice and assistance of the other mem/cers of :.y

committee, Professors Clarence Kincaid, Reid Hastie, Billy

Lockhart, and James Barber have also made this i: ss-3rtation

a meaningful and rewarding experience.

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My gratitude must also be extended to the two Japanese

scholars who acted as advisers and providers of m.anuscripts

essential to the completion of this study, Mr. Yoshio Tamano

and Dr. Masaaki Honda.

I owe a special word of appreciation to Professor Betty

Street for her continuous support and encouragement.

Special appreciation is extended to administrators and

teachers at St. John Neumann School and First Christian

Church School, who participated in the study.

Appreciation is herewith extended to: Barbara Barber,

Director of the Suzuki Program at Texas Tech University, and

my colleagues who participated in the study, Fran Scott, Dan

Wood, Matalie Wham, Sara Summers, and V/innell Young.

Above all, I am most thankful to my wife. Sue Ellen,

who has sacrificed much and has given me encouragement from

the outset of my project to the completion of this study.

Without the love, support and strength of my wife and child

ren, Yumi, Vincent, and Miki, this doctoral dissertation was

not possible.

Ill

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Study 1

The Poverty of Art Education 1

The Suzuki/Tamano Method 6

Statement of the Problem 7

The Hypotheses 9

Hypothesis One 9

Hypothesis Two 9

Hypothesis Three 9

Hypothesis Four 9

Hypothesis Five 10

Hypothesis Six 10

Assumptions of the Study 10

Limitations of the Study 11

Definition of Terms 12

Summary 1^

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 15

The Comparative Study of Creative Thinking In Japan and the United States 16

The Philosophic Backgrounds of Curricul^ar. Development in the United States and Japan 2 0

1 V

Background of Curriculum Development in the United States 21

Background of Curriculum Development

in Japan 2G

The Suzuki Method 30

Concepts of the Suzuki Method . . . . 30

The Tamano Method 3^

Concepts of the Tamano Method . . . . 35

The Interface with Early Childhood Education 36

Summary 4l

CHAPTER III THE ADAPTED SUZUKI/TAMANO TREATMENT +3

Stage One: Utilizing Suzuki Concepts . . . ^3

Rote Teaching ^^

Parent Involvement ^5

Listening Program ^7

Stage Two: Synthesizing the Suzioki and Tamano Methods . . . ^9

Stage Three: Modifying the Instructional Situation 50

Summary 51

CHAPTER IV THE EXPERIMENT 52

The Population 52

The Setting 52

St. John Neumann School 53

First Christian Church School . . 5 '

Selection of the Experiment and Control Groups 55

V

Method of Selection 55

Design of the Study 5^

The Research Design 5"]

The Instruments G^

The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC) GOi

Specifications of Instrument . . . 60

Administration and Scoring Procedures 62

The Goodenough-Harris Drav/ing Test

(GHDT) 63



The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS ) GG

Specifications of Instrument . . . GG


Parent Evaluation 70 Specifications of Instrument . . . 70


Public Opinion Survey 72


Administration and Scoring

Procedures 73

The Method of Treatment 7-

Teaching Procedures 7^

The Statistical Analysis 80 Summary 8C

vi

CHAPTER V FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS 82

Preliminary Findings 83

t-Tests 83

Principal Findings 85

The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts . . . 85

The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test . . 91

The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale . . . . 93

Parent Evaluation 96

Scores by Items 96

Scores by Respondents 98

The Public Opinion Survey 98

Interpretation of the Data 100

Hypotheses 100

Hypothesis One lOQ

Hypothesis Two 100

Hypothesis Three 101

Hypothesis Four 101

Hypothesis Five 101

Hypothesis Six 102

The Surveys 102


Public Opinion Survey I03

Summary 10-

CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMT/IENDATIONS IO6

VI1

Summary of the Experiment 106

Primary Investigation 107

Hypothesis One IO9

Hypothesis Two IO9

Hypothesis Three IO9

Hypothesis Four IO9

Hypothesis Five IO9

Hypothesis Six 110

Secondary Investigation 110


Public Opinion Survey Ill

Conclusions and Implications 112

Recommendations for Further Study 115

SELECTED REFERENCES 120

APPENDIX 126

A. TORRANCE'S SIXTEEN INDICATIONS OF

CREATIVITY 126

B. PARENTAL PLEDGE OF COOPERATION . . . . 129

C. ADAPTED TAMANO METHOD: SELECTED LESSONS 131

D. PROCESS EVALUATION: OBSERVATIONAL DATA 158

E. PARENT EVALUATION l62

F. PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY I68 G. SCORING SHEET AND STANDARDS:

GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST . . . I7I H. SCORING SHEET: BROUCH TMPERA

RATING SCALE 177

viii

I. INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY 179

J. PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY: NUMBER OF RESPONSES 181

IX

LIST OF TABLES

I. Ethnic Distribution of Experimental and Control Groups 5G

II. Pretest: t-Test Comparisons Between

Two Groups on Five Variables 8^

III. Steps to Determine Difference in Age . . . . 86

IV. Posttest: t-Test Comparisons Between Two Groups on Five Variables 87

V. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Boehm Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 88

VI. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups' Boehm Test of Basic Concepts Scores 90

VII. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Goodenough-Harris Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 92

VIII. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups'' Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test Scores 9^

IX. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Brouch Tempera Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 95

X. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups' Brouch Tempera Rating Scale Scores 9?

XI. Results of Public Opinion Survey ?9

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The Poverty of Art Education

The field of art education in present day America

places great emphasis on the creative/expressive. Little

attention is given to teaching artistic technique, as it is

maintained that the rules of art are to be discovered, not

imposed. Little emphasis has been placed on actual tech

nical learning in art education since child development

concepts broke through the formalistic method (i.e., the

prescribed drawing lessons ) of the late nineteenth and early

twentieth century. Artistic responses, it has been postu

lated by Viktor Lowenfeld, come easily and naturally to the

young child in a reasonably well-defined and orderly sequence

(Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1982). Minimally the contribution

of the teacher is to refrain from obstructing this process;

maximally it is to anticipate and nurture the developing

sequence of behaviors with appropriate materials and experi

ences. Consequently, research in art education has tended

to be primarily descriptive in order to establish the proper

sequences, and only secondarily experimental in order to

determine the most efficacious materials and methods (Harris,

1971).

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As early as the 1960s, the traditional goal of self-

discovery through art has been challenged in various

studies. The conclusions of these studies agree that if

work in art is mainly self-projective and does not include

some form of artistic search, analysis, expression, and

evaluation; little interactive learning can take place. In

setting specific or general goals, the teacher must always

remember that artistic behavior, indeed, all behavior, is

developed through environmental interaction as well as

through subjective experience (Eisner, 1966; Wilson, I966).

Therefore, it would seem that curriculum planning,

which involves the orderly study of education in light of

stated objectives, is as important to art educators as the

study of art as a discipline. Harnack (I968) defines 5 r a

curriculum planning more specifically when he refers to it \^

as a four-fold process: (1) attacking an instructional

problem through group effort, in which members of the group

mutually respect one another and resolve their differences

rationally; (2) soliciting expert opinion from all available

sources and its use after intelligent consideration of its

applicability to a specific local situation; (3) putting

plans into practice; and ( ) continuous reevaluating and

refining these plans after they become operational (pp. ^ 8-

55).

Due to the general lack of interest in art education

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among school administrators and the public as compared to

other subjects such as reading or mathematics, children

commonly lack exposure to art. Empirical data gathered

by Downey (I96O) and by Dressel and his associates (1959)

indicates that the public still does not assign the arts

high priority among school subjects. Downey conducted an

extensive survey to determine educational priorities of

various reference groups in which he asked people from

differing parts of the coujitry to rank in order of import

ance, sixteen tasks typically undertaken by the school.

Aesthetic education as the development of artistic capac

ities and skills was ranked fourteenth by lay people and

twelfth by educators. Although the value assigned to t

aesthetic education increased with the amount of education * r t

individuals had, in no group did it break into the upper {

half of the ranking. In a survey of college faculty

members regarding the importance of the arts in higher edu

cation, Dressel and others (1959) found that approximately

thirteen per cent thought that involvement in the arts

should be required of ail students in college. Although

the status of the visual arts in public education appears

to be low, there is some evidence to suggest that greater

concern for education in the arts was beginning to emerge

in the 1970s as the result of the federally-funded prograii s

in the arts. Yet, complaints concerning general apathy

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toward art education are raised time and again by art

teachers and sometimes in professional literature as v/ell.

For example, Vincent Lanier asks why research has not had

a noticeable effect on educational practice, and Arthur

Efland questions why art occupies such a low status in cur

schools (Lanier, 1974, pp. 12-15; Efland, 1976, pp. 37-^^).

Clearly there is a need to improve the status of art in

our society.

Therefore, it would seem that community based art

education would be of substantial value if it involved the

whole or part of a community for the purpose of providing

children with more exposure to art outside the public

educational systems and gains public awareness and support

for the values of art. A community oriented arts education

has two advantages: (1) it can involve parents directly

in their children's art education; and (2) it allows the

participation of preschool children with emphasis placed

upon developing the child's visual perception at a young age.

Since parents are the first educators of their child,

it seems appropriate that any form of education for the

child should stem from the family. In 1515 Sir Thomas More

wrote in his "Utopia" that the basis of perfect existence

must be provided by the family. More recently the home

environment has been regarded as a crucial factor in the

development of the child's creativity. In view of research

by Bloom (196^), Dave (I963), Hunt (I96I), and Wolf (196^),

5

the home environment appears to be most important in foster

ing or hampering a disposition toward creativity during the

crucial early years of the child's development. The later

one begins to foster or nurture creativity, it seems, the

more difficult it is for the child to develop this quality

(Brittain, 1979, pp. 183-184). How then can one go about

the task of providing the child with opportunity to develop

creativity?

Charles Wieder in an article reviewing research in

child art concludes:

The intelligent application of research methods and the integration of findings from within and outside of the field of art education is a formidable endeavor. Instructional application of this research to the education of children is equally demanding. Both are essential functions of art education; and confusion concerning children's artistic development. (1977, p. 10)

These are the primary concerns in curriculum planning, and

yet in this reference Wieder never uses the word "curric

ulum ."

During recent years the art education-related journals

have included articles regarding the various aspects of

instruction such as pupil-teacher planning, learning

theories, and creativity. Yet, little effort has been

expended to synthesize these articles into a comprehensive

theory of instruction. Methods books have continued to

focus on general directions for the aims of art education

rather than focusing on specific directions for presenting

specific materials. Anderson Macklin has expressed concern

over this kind of situation pointing out that:

. . .Students in art education courses are taught don'ts in classroom instruction in art: Don't give the children perspective or any kind of technical instruction until they are ready; don't employ coloring books or workbooks; avoid competition; don't introduce watercolor during the schematic stage of development. Moreover, art educators agree that the nature of art expression precludes rigid, planned teaching objectives or lesson plans. (1978, p. 11)

Macklin then attacks the over-reliance on self-discovery

as the focus of a school's art program since the turn of

this century and concludes that:

The Suzuki Method adapted for instruction of drawing and design principles should be introduced : into the school program. Drawing and Design are ( suggested, since they are other areas of art studio. If children at the age of three can be taught to j reproduce notes on a violin with aural instruction, ' then children at the age of three should be able to reproduce harmonious arrangements of lines, forms, i. and color with visual instruction. Definitions in art are unimportant at this level of instruction. They are unimportant for the same reason that they are unimportant in music. They only inhibit the learning of fundamentals. Definitions can come later. (1978, p. 12)

The Suzuki/Tamano Method

The Suzuki Talent Education Method, popularly kno\\Ti

as the Suzuki Method, has enjoyed considerable success

throughout the world since its im^plementation shortly after

World War II. At present a great number of children in

sixteen different countries are taking music lessons by

the Method, including some 100,000 children in Anerica and

25,000 children in Japan (Ukai, 198O). The effectiveness

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of this method of teaching music was quickly appreciated

in the United States by such professional music schools

as the New England Conservatory, the Eastman School of

Music, and the College Conservatory in Boston, all of

which instituted Suzuki Type Programs ("Invasion from the

Orient," I967).

Masaaki Honda is the current director of the Suzuki

Talent Education Institute, the organization that operates

the Suzuki Method Program in Japan and abroad. Yoshio

Tamano is head of the Arts Education Research Institute

which provides the Suzuki Method Program v;ith visual arts

emphasis. As this dissertation involved a study in early

childhood arts education adapted from the Suzuki Method

using the Tamano curriculum and instruction, both of these

men have expressed interest and have discussed the possi- f.

bility with the writer of utilizing the Suzuki organization

as a means of expanding and implementing such a program if

it appears feasible (Honda & Tamano, 1980a, 1980b).

Statement of the Problem

The problem of this study was to adapt for American

children and to the visual arts the mother-tongue method

of Shinichi Suzuki; to apply it to a group of subjects

utilizing a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest nonequiv-

alent control group design for the experiment; and to

evaluate its success utilizing measures of art quality,

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ability to form basic concepts, and cognition.

The curriculum materials employed were translated

and adapted from an existing series of arts education

materials recently developed by Yoshio Tamano (1979a)

for the purpose of determining if it could be successfully

adapted to the visual arts in America as the Suzuki Method

has been adapted to music education. If this were to be

feasible, it might also determine the direction the program

should take in the future. To assess this, the study

addressed this concern:

What effects will participation in the activities

in the pilot study have on the children in term.s of f

the quality of their art work and of their cognitive

development? '

The study also addressed the following secondary question: i.

Will a pilot arts education program using the Suzuki/

Tamano Method generate sufficient interest to warrant

a continuation and expansion of the program in the

United States?

In summary, the study was intended to determine the

feasibility of using curriculum materials and methods of

instruction designed for use in the Japanese early child

hood arts education program, i.e., the Suzuki/Tamano Method,

in an American version of that same program.

9

The Hypotheses

From the statement of the problem, six research

hypotheses were formulated and tested with two groups of

children, an experimental group and a control group. The

hypotheses are:

Hypothesis One

The experimental group will score significantly

higher than the control group at the end of the experiment

on a standardized measure of their abilities to form basic

concepts (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts).

Hypothesis Two

The experimental group will score significantly higher

on the posttest measure of their abilities to form basic

concepts than on the pretest, using the same measure for

both (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts). The control group

will not.

Hypothesis Three



on a standardized measure of cognition (the Goodenough-

Harris Drawing Test).

Hypothesis Four


higher on the posttest measure of their cognition than on

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the pretest, using the same measure for both (the Goode

nough-Harris Drawing Test). The control group will not.

Hypothesis Five



on a measure of the quality of their art works (the Brouch

Tempera Rating Scale).

Hypothesis Six


higher on the posttest measure of the quality of their art

works than on the pretest, using the same measure for both

(the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale). The control group

will not.

Assumptions of the Study

For this study several assumptions were made:

(1) The Suzuki/Tamano Method assumes that a close

relationship exists between a parent and child, and that

this relationship in early learning experiences enable the

child to learn more effectively during his school years.

Thus, it would follow that a program which combined early

learning experience and the development of closer parent-

child ties would have a salutary effect upon the development

of the young child. This assumption is supported by a

quantity of research studies which deal with multiple

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aspects of child growth.

(2) It also is assumed by the Method that every

child has potential of his/her own, in varying degrees,

and that it can best be brought out by following the natural

process by which a mother teaches her child to speak, i.e.,

the mother-tongue method.

(3) The Method assumes that children need time to

develop, to test, to explore, to repeat, to reinforce, to

acquire, to learn through the structure of a content area.

Several such areas, e.g., those exemplified by the Physical

Science Study Committee (PSSC), the Chemical Bond Approach

(CBA), and the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), have

been undertaken in this regard. Such studies were first

begun in mathematics and science but have gradually spread '

to all subject areas (Eraser, 1962).

Limitations of the Study

In order to achieve the specific purpose of this

study, certain limitations were necessary in order to

circumscribe and confine the problem.

(1) The selection of participants was limited to

children who were enrolled in the pre-first grade in private

schools of Lubbock, Texas. Although the original Suzuki

Method in Japan involved children as young as the age of

two, the pre-first grade in Lubbock generally consists 01

three- to six-year-old children, so the study was confined

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to this grade level. Also, as the schools involved were

private schools and charge approximately eighty dollars

per month tuition, the students are essentially middle

class children.

(2) The participants in this study were limited to

children who possessed certain physical characteristics

necessary for successful performance of the art activities.

Characteristics considered to be essential were good general

health, and normal vision and hearing ability. Medical

records of the school nurse were consulted for these

conditions.

(3) The subjects in the study were limited also by

the willingness of a parent to participate with the child

for the full four weeks of treatment.

(4) It was necessary to draw the data from these

intact groups rather than a randomly sampled group of

subjects. The data was gathered from the respondents,

especially the children, over a relatively short period of

time (four weeks).

As a consequence of these limitations, extrapolations

or projections of the data beyond the groups and the popula

tions sampled should be made with care.

Definition of Terms

The following are terms used in the study and are

defined in relation to their application to this research.

13

(1) Arts education: For the purpose of this study,

arts education is defined as being inclusive of the visual

arts as well as music, poetry, dance, drama, storytelling,

etc. Within this study, special emphasis is placed on the

visual arts.

(2) Early childhood: For the purpose of this study,

the term will apply with particular focus on three- to

six-year-old preschool children.

(3) Mother-Tongue approach: The term refers to a

method by which young children learn in a manner similar

to that by which they learn language. As in the learning

of language, this method utilizes the parent at the first

teacher, and the relationship of child to parent is the

vital ingredient in the child's progress. •

(4) The Suzuki Method; The Suzuki Talent Education f

Method for violin instruction has been employed for many

years in Japan and more recently in the United States and

sixteen different countries. Children as young as two

years of age are taught through this mother-tongue method

to play compositions which are, technically and musically,

quite demanding. The children learn to play the instruments

through the process of imitation and repetition.

(5) The Suzuki/Tamano Method: For the purpose of

the study, this term will be utilized to designate the

writer's adaptation and extension for American children of

Tamano's application of Suzuki's concepts for the visual artL-.

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Summary

This study explores the possibility of developing

and implementing an early childhood arts education program

based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method to three- to six-year-

old children. It is undertaken for the purpose of deter

mining the feasibility of adapting the Japanese program

for American children and the advisability of continuing

and expanding such a program. To assess this, the study

focuses on effects on the participating children in terms

of the quality of art work and their cognitive development.

The problem is deemed significant since, to the writer's

knowledge the study is the first effort in the United p I

States to develop and implement a Tamano early childhood

arts education program based on the Suzuki concepts. r

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter contains a discussion of the literature

relating to this study. Presented first is a brief summary

of Paul Torrance's comparative study on the nature of

creative thinking of the Japanese as compared to their

American counterparts. By stating its findings, the writer

hopes to shed light upon the basic difference between the

two countries' educational philosophies. This section is

followed by a discussion of the philosophical basis for *.. rr I

the curriculum development of both countries emphasizing ^

art education. Then the Suzuki concept as a representative »;

of Japanese curriculum is explored. This is of particular J

importance since it is used throughout for purposes of -i

this study. This chapter then contains a brief summary

of the Tamano early childhood arts education method which

is an adaptation from the Suzuki concept and is used for

the outcome of this study in analyzing instructional events,

and the problems and limitations involved. The last topic

discussed is concerned with an interface showing evidence

of support for the Suzuki/Tamano Method in the literature

of early childhood education.

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The Comparative Study of Creative Thinking In Japan and the United States

Paul Torrance, Alumni Foundation Distinguished

Professor of Creativity at University of Georgia, was one

of the first educators to research and evaluate cross-

cultural creativity achievements. In 1978 he spent three

months in Japan under the auspices of the Japan Society

for the Promotion of Science. While in Japan, he recog

nized a number of creative achievements of Japanese society

which people had come to the forefront of world creativity,

while conversely, the United States had developed a national

problem of underachievement. To support this view, Torrance rr

cites such evidence as the fact that: |

In 1978, patents issued to residents of the United States declined to the lowest point in 15 years (Michaels, 1979), the trade deficit of the ; United States rose to $28 million, and productivity t; in the United States dropped. At the same time, -^ Japan emerged as "Number 1" in many areas of creative achievement (Seward, 1977; Vogel, 1979). The following are examples of such achievements: number of inventions and patents, number of novels published each year, student achievement on international tests in science and mathematics, percentage of students completing high school, literacy, life expectancy, pollution techniques and standards, elimination of poverty and unemployment, wages to workers, transportation and communication systems, shipbuilding, textile exports, transistor exports, and the like. In addition, Japan's crime rate is the lowest of any country in the world and the percentage of criminals detected is the highest. (Torrance & Sato, 1979a, pp. 145-146)

Torrance became fascinated by evidence he received

while in Japan that indicated that Japanese children and

adults made up a nation of over-achievers by pointing

17

out that:

In the 15 preschools that I visited, the physical skills in musical performance, art products, dramatic enactments, and skills of group cooperation were beyond what I thought was developmentally possible. They were accompanied by a quality of creative expressiveness and also of problem solving that I had thought beyond the capability of children 3-6. Many people believe that emphasis on these skills accounts for the fact that there are not only no reading problems in Japanese schools but also an almost total lack of illiteracy. (Torrance, 1980, p. 30)

In order to answer the numerous questions, Torrance

in conjunction with Saburo Sato, Professor of American

Education and Dean of the Faculty of Letters at Osaka City

University of Japan, set out to compare and contrast

differences in Japanese and American styles of creative

thinking. Two investigative studies were conducted; in r r

each study the subjects were 200 Japanese and 200 American \ \-

randomly-chosen college students. The first investigation ^ ,«

attempted to study possible differences in cerebral

specialization (Torrance & Sato, 1979a). The instrument

used in the study. Your Style of Learning and Thinking,

Form A, is a thirty-six item questionnaire which yields

scores for: (a) left cerebral hemisphere functions (logical,

rational, objective, verbal thinking); (b) right cerebral

hemisphere functions (spacial, perceptual, intuitive, crea

tive, subjective thinking); and (c) integrated functions

(Torrance, Reynolds, Riegel, & Ball, 1977). The results of

this questionnaire were not an indication that American

utilize one cerebral hemisphere either more or less exten-

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sively than do Japanese students; however, it determined

that Japanese scored significantly higher than American

students on both right and left hemispheres and lower on

the integrative scale. These results indicate that the

Japanese have capacities to switch from one mode of thinking

to the other based on needs. Moreover, Torrance found

significant difference in three areas: (1) he found that

more Japanese students showed a preference for an intuitive

approach to problem solving, while American preferred a «

logical approach; (2) Japanese students were inclined toward

planning and precision in problem solving while American

students preferred spontaneity and open-endedness; and (3)

Japanese students placed more importance on verbal modes of

learning, teaching and communication than did American

students (Torrance & Sato, 1979a).

Torrance concludes that recent Japanese dominance in

creative areas seems to stem from the Japanese preference

for verbal exactitude and for planning and precision combined

with the strong cultural preferences for creative and

intuitive thinking. He feels these are a "winning combina

tion" (Torrance & Sato, 1979a, p. 150).

In a second study Torrance and Sato delved further into

a comparisons of Japanese and American students, this time

in the area of figural creative thinking abilities. Again,

200 American and 200 Japanese college students were the

subjects of the study. The instrument used was the Torrance

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Test of Creative Thinking. In this test subjects are asked

to complete incomplete figures. The completed figures were

scored for sixteen indications of creativity. (See Appendix

A.) Of the sixteen characteristics measured, Japanese

students scored significantly higher than the American

subjects on twelve of the indicators: flexibility in using

the repeated figures, originality, elaboration, resistance

to premature closure, breaking boundaries, unusual visual

perspective, internal visual perspective, rich colorful

imagery, humor, feeling and emotion, fantasy, and movement.

American students excelled on only one indicator--that of

fluency. There were no significant differences on three of

the indicators: flexibility in content, synthesis, and

articulateness in telling story. Torrance concludes that

contrary to the popular belief that the Japanese are adapters

and imitators; Japanese are indeed, more creative than their

American counterparts (Torrance & Sato, 1979b, pp. 216-221).

Upon reviewing the findings of the tv/o studies,

Torrance makes the following suggestions to American educators:

(1) We should attempt to establish a climate more favorable to the expression of giftedness and creativity - one in which the creativity of each individual is valued and one in the entire society assumes responsibility for stimulating to the fullest the potential of our children.

(2) We should provide a great many more experience to children (especially 3-6) in developing physical, visual art, music, drama, dance, and team skills, and we should regard such skills as basic in education.

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(3) We should find many new ways to reward a great variety of creative achievements among children as well as among adults.

(4) We should assign great importance to persistence training and to taking "the long look"-giving considerable time in the curriculum to helping students get a broader, richer, more accurate image of the future.

(5) We should provide conditions which will facilitate the development of the abilities, skills, and motivations needed for self-directed learning.

(6) We should give more opportunities for group learning and problem solving and should make skills of cooperation in groups in meaningful activities a goal of education.

(7) We should encourage respect for rules along with the development of skills for using the freedoms allowed under the rules. (Torrance, I98O, p. 32)

Torrance has expressed his primary concerns in curriculum

planning, yet in this reference, he has not used the word

"curriculum." Although he suggests the basic difference

in curriculum approaches taken by each country, a more

complete discussion of the various differences which

delineate the over-all structure of curriculum development

is included in the following sections.

The Philosophic Backgrounds of Curriculum Development in the United States

and Japan

A number of interesting questions about Japanese

curriculum development are raised by Torrance's findings.

These prompted the writer to pursue two objectives: first,

to describe the brief background of curriculum develop

ment of both the United States and Japan and second, to

present a summary of those differences having significant

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hearing on problems in the field.

Background of Curriculum Development in the United States

Curriculum in the schools in the United States during

the 1870s generally was defined as courses of study and

lists of subjects and courses offered by the school. Since

1870, this concept of curriculum has broadened to include

"all the experiences which are offered to learners under the

auspices or direction of the school" (Doll, I966, p. 15).

This change has occurred largely as a result of psychological

theories which suggest that if the whole child comes to

school, then teachers must structure learning activities

involving all dimensions of his being. Curriculum plarjiers

have reasoned that if students' experiences were to improve,

teachers must be re-educated. If the re-education of teach- f

ers were to be accomplished, teachers of teachers, i.e.,

administrators, professors, would need to be re-educated as

a means of identifying and satisfying the needs of teachers.

This is the basis for the curriculum planner's belief in

cooperative effort as the means of improving the educative

process, and is one of the many forces which has led to the

tremendous rise in educational research (Doll, I966).

The period between 1917 and 1947, when curriculum

development as we know it today was just becoming estab

lished, often referred to as the Era of Progressive

Education. According to Miller three distinct phases are

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identifiable in this period. The first he refers to as

the Science of Education Movement, the second as the

Child-Centered School, and the third as the Social Recon-

structionist Position (Miller, I966, pp. 3-l6).

The Science of Education Movement began as an attempt

to apply the scientific method to education. Achievement

and aptitude testing appeared at this time and their

impact was such that even more attention was devoted to

the accumulation of factual information (Miller, I966,

pp. 3-16). Logan, commenting on this movement in relation

to art education, states that the rational psychologists,

the Hegelians, set upon educating children up to a standard

of adult values in art, literature, craftsmanship, and

citizenship (Logan, 1955, p. 103). »

A violent reaction against this educational philo- (:.

Sophy resulted in the Child-Centered School which was a

scientific approach relying heavily on experimentation in

the psychology of human development. The primary goal of

the Child-Centered School was the development of individ

uality through creative self-expression. This movement

affected curriculum development in all areas, leading to

expanded programs which had their basis in the new philo

sophy. Logan states:

. . .The art curriculum was expanded in the elementary and high schools and into additional thousands of schools during the most vigorous decade of the child-centered program, the 1920's. Creative self-expression was the meaning of this movement. . . (1955, p. 53)

I »•

23

The final phase in the Progressive Movement was the

Social Reconstructionist Position which had as its goals;

social, political, and economic democracy in and through

education. Miller states this philosophy:

. . .education was not for life--it was life. The reduction of the dualism between education and life became a primary concern of the social reconstruc-tionists. Concomitantly, they advanced the dissemination of music and art as a contribution to a richer fuller life for all individuals within the refined democracy. (Miller, I966, p. I6)

It is from the Social Reconstructionist Position that the

slogan of the National Art Education Association, "Art for

every child, and every child for art," can be traced. The

Social Reconstructionist Position also is the basis of

the philosophy of curriculum development with its belief

in democracy and the right of all children to an education

geared to their individual abilities. The Progressive Era ,

reinforced the curriculum planner's belief in cooperative

effort between all people involved in education. It expanded

the belief in research to include not only measurement of

learner aptitude and achievement but psychological/socio

logical research as a means of making curriculum more

relevant to students. This research not only was applied

to the learner, but to teachers, administrators, and other

personnel involved in the total educative process. Social

reconstructionism is the source of the curriculum planner's

belief that the curriculum should be "concrete," i.e.,

meaningful to students in terms of their past and ongoing

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experiences (Miller, I966).

In the 1950s and 1960s, those responsible for curric

ulum development became increasingly aware of the complexity

of their task. Large numbers of people to be educated,

economic problems, racial strife, the rapid knowledge

explosion, and the implementation of psychology and sociology

have forced upon us the need for continuous evaluation and

redirection of the curriculum (Miller, I966).

Much of today's curriculum research and theory arise

from concern for making the curriculum comprehensive as

well as cooperative, concrete and continuous. The reports

published by the National Education Association's Project

on Instruction have encouraged such research by recommending

that all school systems allocate funds for research and

become involved in the establishment of regional curriculum

and instruction centers (Sand, I963). The Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development has stimulated

interest in the comprehensive study of curriculum by publish

ing a variety of pamphlets based on professional meetings

and reports of various commissions established by the organ

ization. The Commission on Instructional Theory has

produced a pamphlet in which terms such as theory, model,

instruction, and teaching are defined in an attempt to improve

the lines of communication (Gordon, I968, pp. 1--4).

A theory of instruction is defined by this group as

a ". , .set of statements, based on sound replicable research

which would permit one to predict how particular changes in

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the educational environment (classroom setting) would affect

pupil learning" (Gordon, I968, p. 3). Such theories may

include primitive terms (such as "felt needs") which concern

matters that are experienced intuitively; key terms (such

as "reinforcement" ) which can be operationally defined; and

theoretical terms (such as "attitude") which cannot be

defined directly by pointing to specific events but which

can be defined through their relationship to other terms

which are operationally defined (Gordon, I968, pp. 1-44).

Jerome Bruner in his book. Toward a Theory of Instruc

tion, discusses levels of learning experiences in what he

calls the mode of representation. If the learning experi

ence involves a set of actions appropriate for achieving a

certain result, he titles it "enactive representation;" if

it involves a set of summary images or graphics that stand ^

for a concept without defining it fully he refers to it as

"iconic representation;" if the experience calls it "symbolic

system that is governed by rules or laws for forming and

transforming propositions," he calls it "symbolic represen

tation" (Bruner, I966, p. 45). The added dimension v/hich

Bruner provides is that he views enactive, iconic, and

symbolic learning experiences as forming a hierarchial order

for determining sequence and as a means of insuring a variety

of experiences (Bruner, I966, pp. 44-54).

Although curriculum specialists in the past decade have

devoted considerable effort to constructing models on

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content-subject centered learning in art education in order

to insure a variety of experiences, actual teaching situa

tions seem to focus on the Child-Centered School Era of the

1920s. This appears not to have changed greatly since that

time.

Background of Curriculum Development in Japan

After nearly three hundred years of Tokugawa feudalism,

Japanese modernization began in the last half of the nine

teenth century. Educational reforms were introduced.

Modeled after French, American, and German practices, these

reforms represented comprehensive and revolutionary changes.

Such changes had been foreseen and even urged by Meiji-Era

leaders (I868-I9II), who were strongly concerned with the

unification and modernization of Japanese society on the one

hand and its ability to cope with the intruding political

and social pressures of the West on the other. Those leaders

considered education as a means of helping the new nation-

state modernize and meet the West on equal terms. Under

this philosophy, comprehensive educational reforms were

conducted in the 1870s, a time in which some art schools

were established by selected Japanese artists who had crossed

the ocean to study the arts of the West, particularly in

Europe. Such education was expanding rapidly by the time

six years of universal schooling became the norm in I907

(Nagano, 1966, pp. 335-338).

27

Lacking any antecedent Japanese curriculum models for

the type of education that could fulfill these political

and economic functions, the Meiji leaders urgently looked

to the West for curriculum models to emulate, in hopes of

fostering technological, economic, and political improvement.

Thus, their eagerness for, and concentration upon, educational

reforms led to the introduction of new curriculum developments

into Japan. The reforms involved copying fundamental curricu-

lar practices from the West, practices that were entirely

foreign to the Japanese. As the Japanese were not willing

to accept alien orientations, attempts to implement the

reforms were doomed to failure, and, as a consequence,

Japanese curriculum development became intertwined with

Western educational practices to produce a new system of c

curriculum acceptable to Japanese society. In short, insti- i.

tutional curricular changes in education were made on the

basis of Western models, but the success of these educational

reforms required that Japanese cultural orientations be the

framework in which such reforms could take place. It is

relevant to note that the educational reforms after the

World War II followed the same route (Nagano, I966).

The postwar reform, initiated by the United States

Education Mission in 1946 and headed by George Stoddard, was

a revolutionary innovation and was as comprehensive as the

Meiji reforms. The initial report of the Mission addressed

six categories: the aims and content of Japanese education;

I.

28

language reform; administration of education at the primary

and secondary levels; teaching and the education of teachers;

adult education; and higher education. Recommendations of

this report were later to result in promotion of art educa

tion programs. Undoubtedly these recommendations were based

on American conceptions of democratic education which

emphasize progressivism, decentralized control of education,

and the development of individuality. Experimentalism, as

John Dewey's philosophy was generally referred to, became

the most influential underlying curriculum development of

the new art education in Japan that time. Teaching methods

and curriculum practice in the late 1940s were definitely

influenced by progressive education. While the Western core

curriculum, i.e., mathematics, language, etc., was studied

and attempted rather extensively, the educational process

also emphasized problem solving and the child's self-

activity, interest, freedom, and self-expression. Until the

early 1950s, the Japanese attempted to implement this reform,

but a major problem confronted by progressive college

professors and other leaders in the postwar education was

the extreme difficulty of translating experimentalism matrix

of Japanese culture (Nagano, 1966, pp. 335-338).

By 1952 educators realized the essential incompati

bility of American and Japanese cultural orientations.

Japanese independence, coupled with the Korean War (which

had a significant impact upon the Japanese economy and

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politics) served as a turning point in the development of

postwar Japanese curriculum and led to the "Japanization"

of the American educational system as it had been trans

planted in Japanese soil. That is, the major structural

features of the curriculum have remained unchanged to the

present time, but its underlying orientation gave way in

the 1950s to an orientation compatible with Japanese culture

(Yomiuri, 1976, p. 99).

Various reforms which occurred between 1952 and i960

marked a definite departure and shift from the early postwar,

experience-centered art education to a more traditional,

subject-centered one with focus on the continuity of Japan

ese culture, structured instruction, and transmission of a

body of abstract knowledge (Kawai, 1963, PP. 319-335). ' r

Methodologically, the uniformity of the cognitive and J • •

motivational orientations of the students (and of the

teachers) began to be stressed again, and teachers employed

bahavioristic conditioning to impart skills, knowledge, and

attitude. Thus, during the course of the 1950s, the original

curricular practices of early pos'fcv/ar art education disap

peared from most schools as the Japanese curriculum quickly

adapted to the demands of the political, economic, and social

institutions central to the foundations of Japanese culture.

This fundamental curriculum of Japanese art education has

remained essentially the same since that time (Yomiuri, 1976).

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The Suzuki Method

The sudden rise to popularity in the United States was

not a new experience for the Suzuki concept of music curric

ulum and instruction. John Kendall of Southern Illinois

University states that:

American interest in Suzuki can be traced back from his 1964 visit several years to the Spring of 1958 when, during a regional meeting of the American String Teachers Association at Oberlin College in Ohio, a group of string specialists incredulously watched and listened to a motion picture of ']50 Japanese children playing the Bach Concerto for Two Violins at the Sports Palace in Tokyo. The phenomenal results achieved by these youngsters aroused a great deal of interest, enthusiasm, and discussion. (1978, p. 3)

The Suzuki Talent Education Movement, known as the Suzuki

Method, represents a major breakthrough in curriculum

development since it is one of the more recent empirically

based and comprehensive presentations of an instructional

methodology. A unique aspect of Suzuki's concept of

curriculum design is that the same format applies at vary

ing levels of specificity and can therefore be applied not

only to music but also to art education (Honda, I98O).

Suzuki's concept explains the process of instruction,

and this process is the basis for the development and

implementation of the Suzuki/Tamano Method in this study.

Concepts of the Suzuki Method

Shinich Suzuki has developed an approach based on the

proposition that since every infants learn to speak their

mother tongue before they learn to read or write, they also

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can be taught to play music before they learn to read musical

notations. As Suzuki points out, the children's speaking

achievement is not gained by using formal, written language

but through the natural and obvious method of imitating

their mother and other members of their family.

By applying the concepts used in teaching young child

ren to speak their language to teaching them to play the

violin, Suzuki has proved that much of what we have assumed

to be inborn genius in young prodigies on the violin has

actually been a rather common ability which has been stimu

lated and developed by a favorable environment from a

formative age. In describing the learning process, Masaaki

Honda (I98O) stated: I

Suzuki's instruction scheme follows the six basic steps of language learning. In learning a I language, a child is surrounded by adults who are T-continually talking: (1) exposure. Next, he tries -• to copy these sounds and attempts his first word: (2) imitation. The parents praise him and urge him to say the word again: (3) repetition. One word leads to another: (4) addition. Through constant repetition of the first word, subsequent words come more easily: (5) improvement and (6) refinement.

These six steps to learning the mother tongue are system

atically applied in Suzuki's method. It should be noted

here that the success of the child's learning is dependent

upon the unique role of the parents. The parent is the

model. Therefore, in order to teach their child by the

mother-tongue method, the parent must first be able to play

the violin. In Japan, each mother receives about three nonths

of violin instruction before the child begins to study. V/hen

32

the child has begun formal instruction with a competent

teacher, emphasis is placed upon exposure during all phases

of the learning experience.

Suzuki (1973) posits five conditions for the first

step exposure:

(1) Educate as early as possible.

(2) Give as much training as possible.

(3) Create as favorable an environment as possible.

(4) Have as good teachers as possible.

(5) Adopt as good an educational method as possible.

In addition to the above conditions, much stress is

placed on hearing and seeing. By giving the child an oppor

tunity to hear recordings of music being studied, he is offer

ed a perfect example to emulate. Learning by seeing is a

natural function of the normal child, and it is for this

reason that such emphasis is placed upon first teaching the

mother to play the violin. She becomes the model from whom

the child is able to learn by observation. All mothers can

not be expected to play the violin without flaws or v;eakness

in execution, however, so the trained teacher is constantly

alert and strives to correct such flaws and weaknesses as

soon as they become apparent. This is a serious matter of

concern to the teacher because of children's natural tendency

is to imitate as well as to repeat what they see and hear

whether the model is good or poor.

Learning by imitation and repetition is stressed during

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all phases of the child's experience. Suzuki maintains thus

an insistence upon precision beginning at the earliest stages

of learning greatly accelerates the child's progress.

Exercises, corrective studies, and entire pieces are imitated

and repeated until precision is achieved. Learning by this

method imitation and repetition are considered a natural way

of learning especially for three- to six-year-old children

and do not interfere in any way with the child's later

abilities (Kendall, 1978, p. 4). The objective is memory

development, and memory development is a natural by-product

of the Suzuki Method because it is basically a rote method.

As children learn to speak the mother tongue before they read,

so do they learn to play the violin before being introduced

to musical notation. Most children who begin at the age of

two or three develop a keen sense of hearing and accumulate

an extraordinary repertoire of music. When they finally be

gin to study musical notation, it has been established that

their progress is greatly accelerated compared with children

who begin instruction at a later age by the generally accept

ed practices of instrumental teaching (Garson, I968, p. 6).

Addition in the Method leads to accumulation of experi

ence toward a mastery of the work being studied. These

outcomes are attributed to the satisfying sense of achieve

ment derived from each new accomplishment.

The last two of the five points upon which the Suzuki

Method is based are improvement and refinement. These are

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closely allied to synthesization and develop out of the

natural sense of accomplishment that comes from the first

three stages of learning. Understanding becomes the by

product, and it leads to appreciation and enjoyment of the

work being studied. The emotional response of the child

is also expressed, beginning with a narrow range responses

that grow and develop as the child learns more about music.

These affective responses subsequently are nurtured through

the listening to the music of Bach, Mozart, Vivaldi, and

other great composers. This becomes a vary meaningful devel

opment because it exemplifies one of the major goals of music

education: to enrich the aesthetic experiences of children.

Concerning the importance of our conceptions regarding

children's artistic development, Suzuki states:

. . .Abilities are born and developed by the working of the vital forces of the organism as it strives to live and to adapt to its environment right in the beginning. Therefore, the only superior quality a child can have at birth is the ability to adapt itself with more speed and sensitivity to its environment. (1969. pp. 23-24)

Referring to the results of his work with the mother-tongue

method, Suzuki said, ". . .it made me realize that any child

is able to display highly superior abilities if only the

correct methods are used in training" (1969, p. 9)-

The Tamano Method

Recently, there appears to be a growing interest in

the United States and Japan for the adaptation of the Suzuki

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Method to the other arts, particularly to the visual arts.

John Kendall, an exponent of the Suzuki Method in the United

States, and Barbara Barber, director of the Suzuki Program

at Texas Tech University, are two educators who have become

aware of an increasing desire on the part of parents and

educators for such visual arts program (Kendall, I98O; Barber,

I98O). In Japan, Yoshio Tamano has epitom.ized this interest

by publishing a series of books (in Japanese) dealing with

teaching children, in conjunction with their parents, the

visual arts through the use of rhythm and movement. These

materials recently served as guides for the development of

visual arts programs in Japan, Brazil, and Canada, in the

framework of the Suzuki Method (Tamano, 1979t>). The Kiri

Kiri Boshien School directed by Masaaki Honda is an example

of such a program and involves both music and the visual arts. f.

It serves as a model for program development throughout the

world (Honda, I98O).

Concepts of the Tamano Method

The Tamano concepts follow closely those of the Suzuki

Method as his art activities are planned and sequenced. (See

Appendix C. ) The Method emphasizes the rhythmic features

of music with words to which the children listen while

engaging in art activities. Content and activities to foster

the child's development include music, storytelling, dance,

drama, etc., as supporting elements to enhance the art activ

ities (Tamano, I98O). The details of the Tamano curriculiun

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and instruction are presented in Chapter IV.

The goals and outcomes of the Tamano Method encompass

skills basic to traditional Japanese education--perceptual

awareness, decision-making, creative thinking and doing,

critical analysis and judgment, and valuing of one's own

choices. All are set in the context of the arts, a human

endeavor that the Tamano Method values intrinsically for

its- own sake. Tamano feels it is important that all students,

not only the talented few for whom music lessons and studio

art lessons are indeed essentials, have the opportunity to

know about the arts and to value them. He continues to state

that all students can and should gain awareness of the

aesthetic dimensions of our world; be prepared to analyze,

judge, and value objects and situations that affect them;

and to make informed choices about themselves and their world

based upon the aesthetic as well as economic criteria (Tamano,

1980).

The Interface with Early Childhood Education

There appears to be some support in the literature for

the Suzuki concept as well as for the Tamano approach as they

apply to art education at an early age; in that visual imagery

concept development, influence of the home environment and

the relationship of art and culture are applicable to early

childhood education.

Perhaps the strongest support in the literature of

American art education can be found in the research and

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37

writing of Rhoda Kellogg (1970). Lowenfeld indicates that

young children do not design, at least not consciously

(19^7, p. 284), but Kellogg feels that it is precisely

through design that children learn to draw (and to write).

Children learn the twenty basic scribbles by the age of two,

i.e., the dot, the vertical line, the horizontal line, etc.,

and these scribbles become increasingly more sophisticated

as they modify and combine them to form placement patterns,

combines, aggregates, and finally pictorials. These same

elements persist and mature eventually to comprise adult

art (Kellogg, 1970). It is upon these elements that the

Suzuki/Tamano Method concentrates.

Jean Piaget's theory of intelligence defines the period »* r:

from roughly two to seven years as the preoperational stage

during which the child's thinking is limited. However, l'. ,*

according to Piaget, as early as the age of eighteen months,

the child begins to have mental images. These images

originate as imitative actions that grow increasingly

internalized. The child becomes able to replicate past

events and objects that are not before him at the moment.

This ability is prerequisite for symbolic thought (Percy &

Berlyne, 1950). Sigel believes that after age two, children

use mental imagery to free themselves from the actual

presence of objects in order to bring them into mind.

Effective facilitation of this process allows children to

become more independent and their thinking to be more

38

abstract (Sigel, 1970). According to Bruner, children

construct a model of their world through cognitive develop

ment which is a result of their interaction with the external

world (Bruner, I966). Oxford found that exercises in mental

imagery, in which the drawing of objects play an important

role, appear to have a positive influence on achievement

of typical concepts, concepts which are a part of the

expected learning outcomes at the kindergarten level. She

concludes that early concept attainment, enhanced by such

experiences in early mental imagery is a crucial factor

in the development of learning skills for the child's life

time (Oxford, 1978). Eisner (1978) points out that images

are named and then made. Suzanne Langer (I970) calls this

process "Symbolic Transformation." Eisner states that two

stages are employed in this process: (1) the child forms ;

a visual concept of the object perceived, and then, (2)

he invents a visual graphic image whose properties are in

some way related to the visual concept he wishes to symbolize.

Thus, Eisner concludes, when a very young child creates art,

he learns that the images he creates can function as symbols,

a basic means of communication (Eisner, I978). Wilson and

Wilson (1977) postulate that the images created by children

to symbolize their world are not as readily influenced by

prevailing drawing devices and formulae as they are influ

enced by the visual signs of others, principally older

siblings and older friends. "The act of mark-making is

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modelled by children as particular sound-makir^g is modelled

by children—the mark by watching people write and draw

and the sound through listening to speech and song" (Wilson

& Wilson, 1977, p. 32).

The influence of the home environment is of utmost

importance in fostering a disposition toward creativity

during the crucial early years of the child's development.

Some research studies and theoretical papers deal v/ith

multiple aspects of child growth. In these studies a closer

parent-child tie is considered a highly important factor

involving the child's perceptual development, cognitive

development, and meaningful interpersonal relationships

(Eisner, I969, p. 82).

Extensive research on the child's early stage of

perceptual development has been conducted by Piaget and ?;

Hooper. In these studies, some of the characteristics of

the home environment relate to and influence the perceptual

development of the child (Piaget & Inhelder, 1967; Hooper,

1977).

Relating to the child's cognitive development. Bloom

states:

These types of research reveal. . .It is the adults in the home who serve to stimulate the child's intellectual development, and it is the adults in the home who determine the basic preparation of the child for later learning in the school. (I98I, p. 77)

Since the late 1970s, studies dealing with the child's

interpersonal relationships, such as the Who Am I in the

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Lives of Children?; An Introduction to Teaching Young

Children by Feeney and Christensen (I98I), have been under

taken by various groups. These and other research and

development programs are beginning to put more emphasis

on the child's meaningful interpersonal relationships,

especially with his parents.

In the relationship of art and culture, McFee recog

nizes that, in a larger sense, it is a people's culture

that is transmitted from one generation to the next by what

she calls a major language system; art. Art symbolizes

and maintains a people's system of values and beliefs as

well as their social, economic, and architectural structures

(McFee, 1970). Even our emotions are cultural products,

Geertz (1973) tells us. Therefore, ". . .(art) should be

a central factor rather than a peripheral part of the educa

tion of every child" (McFee and Degge, 1977, p. 383).

Yet, Eisner (I972) points out that perceptual skills

are not an automatic consequence of maturation; they must

be consciously and purposely developed through systematic

art instruction. According to Ferro (I969), the earlier

this training begins, the better. A child's degree of suc

cess is perceptual-conceptual learning depends on his

earlier visual and motor learning. "His capacities as a

scholar will rest upon the earlier development of his whole

being" (Ferro, I969, p. 34). In other studies the basic

concepts of a subject area, sequentially planned, are

41

specified in a manner thought to be within the conceptual

grasp of children (Ferro, I969).

As for art instruction, the first "content-context

approach" was published in I962 by Barkan under the auspices

of his article in School Review; "The Visual Art in Second

ary Education." He urged the focus of activity be shifted

from characteristics of children to those of art--a content

emphasis which art teachers have long neglected. He empha

sized an eclectic art education philosophy of selecting

scholarly organized content offerings relating to the pro

duction, criticism, and history of art in relation to the

contextual limits of the total school learning environment

(Barkan, I962). r

V

^ Summary %'^

The chapter begins by presenting Paul Torrance's

comparative studies on the nature of creative thinking of

the Japanese as compared to their American counterparts.

The field of art education for cross-cultural and compar

ative studies conducted by both Torrance and Sato revealed

these findings: (1) the Japanese subjects scored signifi

cantly higher than American subjects on both right and left

hemispheres, and lower on the integrative scale in Your

Style of Learning and Thinking Measure, Form A, and (2)

the American subjects excelled on only one indicator out

of sixteen indications of creativity over their Japanese

42

counterparts. Based on these findings, Torrance makes

seven suggestions directed to American educators.

After the basic difference between the two countries'

educational philosophies documented by Torrance, the parallel

development of curriculum development and art education

are traced in terms of their philosophic background between

the United States and Japan, revealing these basic philo

sophic differences between the United States and Japan:

(1) the American educational process emphasized problem

solving and the child's self-activity, interest, freedom,

and self-expression; and (2) the Japanese process employed

behavioristic conditioning to impart skills, knowledge,

and attitude.

Aside from investigations of a difference between the

two countries, Suzuki's concept of curriculum design is t.

explored in detail. This is then interpreted and related

to the Tamano Method which is used for the outcome of this

study in the analysis of instructional events, and the

problems and limitations involved. Finally, an interface

with an early childhood education and the Suzuki/Tamano

Method is discussed in support of this study.

I

43

CHAPTER III

THE ADAPTED SUZUKI/TAMANO TREATMENT

The problem of this study was to examine the effects

of the Suzuki/Tamano Method on the three- to six-year-old

children in terms of art quality, ability to form basic

concepts, and their cognition. The treatment selected for

accomplishing this objective is an adaptation of the Tamano

Method, i.e., it is an adaptation of an adaptation. Tamano

had modified the Suzuki Method for the purpose of teach

ing the visual arts to Japanese children with planned and

sequenced art activities. The Tamano Method, furthermore, ^

did not include parental involvement. Therefore, some ^

modifications were necessary in order to make the treatment \

more suitable to the goals of the Suzuki Method which were i

described in the preceding chapter. In this chapter the

development of the adapted Suzuki/Tamano Method is discussed

in three stages.

Stage One: Utilizing Suzuki Concepts

The adaptation of the Tamano Method developed by this

writer consists of three parts and is based upon and modified

by Suzuki principles. Three Suzuki concepts were employed

within the framework of Tamano curriculum and instruction.

These were: " • •<

/y (1) Use of rote teaching was employed.

44 \ i j

(2) Parents were assigned a teaching role during i

the home practice session of the children. |

(3) Implementation of a comprehensive listening

program was used as an integral part of the learning expe-

rience (Suzuki, I969). ,

Rote Teaching

The writer and an assistant performed in their roles

of teachers whom the children emulated during class sessions.

Since rote learning is a process by v/hich the child imitates

the teacher, it was necessary for the writer to demonstrate

the exercises adapted from the Tamano Method, exercises

which the children were expected to learn. Qualifications u

of the writer to assume such responsibility include nine 5

years of experience in the teaching of art and an adequate ^

degree of proficiency in visual art production and inter- Ii

disciplinary fine arts concepts.

Rote procedures were directed toward an understanding

of all functions of the basic design elements before intro

ducing their application to the children. They were made

aware of varying thicknesses and length of lines. This

provided the basis for making various shapes and forms exact

ly to the "names" given to lines of specific forms, e.g.,

"up," "down," "slide," etc., but no demand was made for their

memorization. It was expected that the frequency of these

references would develop a familiarity with these "names"

and would eventually result in subconscious memorization.

45

The development of an awareness of shapes and forms

as the product of lines was approached in a similar manner.

As new shapes appeared in the text, a series of various

lines to make shapes was taught by having the children

listen to exercises recorded on a tape for this study.

They were asked to identify the shapes and to make the

shapes in the air with their hands. After successfully

identifying the shapes and producing them in the air with

their hands, the children drew the shapes on paper as they

were demonstrated by the teacher. Comparable procedures

were used to develop an understanding of the use of colors,

with special attention given to mixing them.

Im.itative teaching/learning was used for the entire

duration of this experiment (four weeks). The fundamental

purpose of teaching by rote was to develop a sound founda

tion of basic skills before the children were taught to

express themselves freely in visual images.

Parent Involvement

An integral part of this study was the aspect cf jsing

the parent as teacher for home exercises, sc the parents

(exclusively mothers in this study) were asked to provide

their full cooperation in compliance with the rules and reg

ulations necessary to the proper control of this experimenu.

Thus a pledge of cooperation specifying these rules and reg

ulations was signed by each participating parent of the

experimental group. (Appendix B. ) Since the development of

r.

,*

46

certain prescribed responsibilities of the mother is perti

nent to the success or failure of this study, an account of

these procedures is described below.

As described previously, the Suzuki Method requires

the mother to learn to play the violin and subsequently to

serve as a home teacher. For the purposes of this study,

the Suzuki procedure was adapted in art by assigning certain

r *

9-

»-•

prescribed responsibilities to the mothers as teachers at

home although only two were professionally qualified as

teachers.

The main function of the mother was related directly

to the assigned exercises of the child, including the reviews

of the previous sessions. Each mother was expected to attend

every session with her child and learn to become a teacher

in the Method in order to supplement and reinforce the ;

instruction of the writer. She was to spend a minimum of

twenty minutes (and not more than thirty minutes) daily with

her child for the assigned home exercises and reviews and

keep a daily log regarding the child's progress and reactions.

A cassette tape player containing the listening program was

utilized during the child's home practice sessions.

To insure the maximum effectiveness of the mother, meet

ings for parents with the writer were scheduled at the begin

ning of each session while the children were given separate

instruction by the assistant. The parents' meetings included

the following:

47

(1) A review was made of the learning experiences

which had taken place during the lessons preceding each

meeting.

(2) The mothers' daily logs were discussed and eval

uated.

(3) A detailed description of the basic techniques

to be taught in succeeding lessons was explained by the

writer.

(4) An explanation of intended accomplishments for

each assignment was given by the writer.

This meeting was used as a continuing opportunity to

stress the importance of all procedures pertinent to this

study. Exchanges of dialogue between the writer and the

parents were confined largely to anecdotes demonstrating

their own enthusiasm and the enthusiasm of their children

for the project. The primary value of these meetings was

the opportunity to reiterate the vital importance of rigid

control to protect the integrity of this study.

Listening Program

The listening program served a dual function in this

study. The first was to supplement class instruction by

recording the selected portions of the exercises in the

sequential order similar to that which appeared in the Ja

anese version of the Tamano Method cassette tape (Tamano,

1979c )• The recordings were performed by a competent profe

sional singer and a pianist, both of whom v/ere candidates

tj—

48

in the PhD in Fine Arts program in the Department of Music,

Texas Tech University.

These original recordings, along with exclusive rights

to their use, were made available to the writer by Tamano.

The original songs with the piano accompaniment were written

entirely in the Japanese language and were translated and

modified for this study. Of all the exercises on the orig

inal Tamano tapes, seventeen basics (lines and shapes) and

eight subjects (e.g., giraffe, fish, etc.) were used at the

suggestion of Tamano. (Appendix C.)

A brief statement of instruction was included with

each recorded exercise to help the child to recognize a break

between the exercises, and each complete set was reproduced

on one ninety-minute cassette tape. Each child in the

experimental group was provided with his/her own cassette ?-';

for home use.

The purpose of the recording was to serve as a home

substitute for the teacher in the rote experiences of the

child. Assignments were made at each class lesson for home

practice and were based on exercises already learned in class.

At home the children listened to those exercises and replayed

them as necessary. If they encountered difficulty with an

exercise, they had an opportunity to listen to it as many

times as necessary and were able to make drawings or paint

ings with the recording until the confidence was developed.

A secondary purpose of the recordings was to permit

i;

0'

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49

the child to listen to exercises which were to be learned

during the next lesson. Based on material already learned,

the writer predetermined the exercises to be taught in the

next lesson and assigned specific exercises for listening

only. The purpose of this procedure was to facilitate the

learning of a new material to be studied through a familiar

ity with the music.

Stage Two: Synthesizing the Suzuki and Tamano Methods

The second part of the development allowed the writer

to synthesize the two methods (Suzuki and Tamano). Attempts

were made to adjust these methods to the experimental group. r^

This included the translation of both the Suzuki and Tamano ?' V

original manuscripts written in Japanese to English. I

Personal communication between the writer and those who are -•

involved in the methods had to be integrated into the study.

In the process the writer evaluated the contents of Japanese

material in terms of his personal judgments, opinions, and/

or reasons for developing it as "suitable for the experimen

tal group." The writer's adequate proficiency in the lan

guages involved (English and Japanese), experience in teach

ing art, and knowledge of music contributed to the proper

evaluation of the materials. Through this evaluation the

writer attempted to get at some of the beliefs, values, and

attitudes which the children might have about learning,

teachers, society, and their perception of the "good life."

50

stage Three: Modifying the Instructional Situation

In the final (third) part of the development, a modi

fication had to be made in the instructional situation. A

more relaxed regimen of skill development was employed due

to the shorter attention span of children aged three to

six as opposed to the more structured regimentation of the

Tamano curriculum and instruction (intended for kindergarten

children). The more relaxed instructional situation empha

sized child-centeredness, flexibility, and an orientation

toward self-discovery.

To maximize the effectiveness of the adaptation, two

professional observers were asked to record specific L

incidents of behavior, ones deemed effective and ones deemed T

ineffective. These incidents are reported in Appendix D. r

These incidents were to be specific, indicating such factors

as the actions of the teacher, the children, and the mothers

and the results of those actions. Based on these observations,

the writer made further revisions in the program during the

experiment. The observers utilized were knowledgeable about

early childhood art education and are career art teachers,

and, as such, they have knowledge and understanding of the

aims and goals of an instructional situation in art. There

fore their judgments about appropriate observations may be

considered expert.

51

Summary

A discussion of the development of the adapted Suzuki/

Tamano Method and the appropriateness of these modifications

for the study is presented in three stages. Stage one was

concerned with utilizing Suzuki concepts; stage two involved

synthesizing the Suzuki and Tamano Methods; stage three

addressed the necessities for modifying the instructional

situation.

Stage one is devoted to the writer's adaptation of

three Suzuki concepts, i.e., the use of rote teaching, the

parent involvement, and the use of the listening program.

In stage two the writer synthesized the Suzuki and Tamano

Methods by a process that involved the translation of both

the original Suzuki and Tamano manuscripts from Japanese into

English. Finally, the modification of the instructional ?'.

situation in the third stage involved the use of two

observers who aided the writer in pinpointing effective and

ineffective behavioral incidents during the experiment. The

writer used these reported incidents to modify the treatment.

ff

52

CHAPTER IV

THE EXPERIMENT

I r

The Population

The Setting

Lubbock, Texas is the largest city of the Texas South

Plains with a population of approximately 180,000 people.

Located at the center of a prosperous agricultural region,

the city derives much of its income from agriculture and

agriculture-related industries, particularly from the cotton

industry. In addition to this, several large plants employ

a sizable number of its residents. ^

In regard to public school population, of 29,276 stu- :'»

dents enrolled at the end of first six weeks of the year in

October, 1981, Anglo-American students were in the majority,

representing 54.44 per cent (15,937 students); Mexican-

American students accounted for 31.25 per cent (9,149 students);

and Black students represented 13.42 per cent (3,930 students)

of the student population. Other races, predominantly Amer

ican Indian, accounted for 0.89 per cent (260 students).

At the present time, the public school system, which,

due to a racially imbalanced housing patterns, has been

accused of de_ facto segregation. It is attempting to remedy

this situation by busing students from predominately Anglo

53

schools to predominately minority schools and by busing

minority students to predom.inately Anglo schools. Busing

is, in Lubbock as in many areas of the country, a controver

sial issue and some parents have enrolled their children in

private schools rather than comply with the court-ordered

busing. The resultant situation is that a number of the

private schools in Lubbock are populated predominately by

middle and upper-middle class Anglo students. However, the

parochial school which cooperated in this study is not one

which is ethnically unbalanced. Thirty-eight per cent of

its population is made up of minority students, most of

whom are Mexican-American. According to the principal of

the school, scholarships are offered and ethnic minorities

are actively recruited by St. John Neumann School.

0'

r. St. John Neumann School. The experimental group for J*

this study was drawn from St. John Neumann School because

it offers an extensive preschool program involving children

from three years to six years of age. As the public schools

in Lubbock do not provide for the education of children at

this age (except for in a few programs for exceptional or

disadvantaged children), it was necessary to recruit young

sters and their parents from the ranks of the private schools.

The preschool at St. John Neumann is a highly struc

tured one of sixty-five students which encompasses three

levels. There are separate classes for three year olds, four

year olds (pre-kindergarten), and five year olds (kinder-

54

garten). Since this study was undertaken toward the end of

the school year, many of the children in the kindergarten

had already attained their sixth birthday, and all children

were older than three and one-half years of age. Art is a

daily part of the curriculum at all three levels of educa

tion, and the children receive instruction and practice in

various media such as crayon, tempera, clay, etc.

The school as a whole is geared to academic achievement.

Standardized tests (Science Research Associates) are given

each year to all children from kindergarten through eighth

grade and considerable pride is taken by the administrators,

teachers, and parents in the high scores (85th percentile)

the school as a whole receives. The writer, in observing —

the pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children during class 1

time, was impressed with the degree of orderliness and self- ?•;

discipline exhibited by the children.

First Christian Church School. Although this study

is primarily a pilot study and a quasi-experimental one, it

was decided to utilize a comparable group of children as a

control group and to administer the same pre- and posttest

measures to this group as were to be administered to the

St. John Neumann group. For this purpose, children enrolled

at First Christian Church preschool and kindergarten were

chosen. More information as to determining the relative

equality of the First Christian group to the St. John ::euna:in

group will be given in the next paragraphs.

55

Selection of the Experimental and Control Groups

I ir

The experimental group was selected from three- to six-

year-old preschool children from St. John Neumann School in

Lubbock, Texas. First Christian Church School was chosen

as a control group. A total of fifty-four children (twenty-

seven in the experimental group and twenty-seven in the

control group) began the program. All completed the program.

Method of selection. The children at St. John Neumann

School were chosen as the experimental group for this study

for a number of reasons. In order to include children of

the desired ages (three to six years old), it was necessary

to select a private school which had a large enough pre

school population to ensure a suitable number of subject for

the sample. Finding an involved and enthusiastic parental ?'.

group was also of importance. The potential success of the

pilot study depended on not only obtaining a sample size of

around twenty-five, but also on recruiting parents who were

interested in children's arts and who would be motivated to

attend the classes and to supervise their children's practice

at home. Finally, in speaking with administrators, teachers,

and parents at the school, the writer found that St. John

Neumann School was equipped with excellent facilities, and

these facilities were generously offered for the writer's

use.

As a control group, the writer judged the children at

0'

5^

First Christian Church School (FCCS) preschool and kinder

garten to be an adequate match with the children of the

St. John Neumann (SJN) group. Both schools had a sim.ilar

number of three to six year old children (sixty-five in

SJN preschool and sixty-two in FCCS preschool). The

population of both the experimental and control groups were

ethnically similar as indicated in Table I.

TABLE I

ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION OF EXPERIMENTAL

AND CONTROL GROUPS

School

Anglo Mexican American American Other

No. % No. % No. %

I

Experimental \ Group (SJN) 18 GG,^ 6 22.2 3 H-l •;

Control Group (FCCS) 19 70-4 5 18.5 3 11.1

In order to ascertain whether these two groups were

indeed similar and that no significant differences exist

between the two groups, the three measurements used as a

pretest for this purpose were carried out. The results of

these tests will be reported in Chapter V.

No investigations were made as to the socio-econoniic

status of the children involved in either group, but as both

schools are private church-related institutions whose rate

57

of tuition were similar ($82 per month for SJN and $84 per

month for FCCS); it was assumed that there were no great

socio-economic differences between the groups.

In order to recruit interested subjects for the pilot

study, a letter explaining the purpose, goals and require

ments of the proposed program was sent to the parents of

both St. John Neumann School and First Christian Church

preschool, pre-kendergarten, and kindergarten. This letter

asked parents to indicate their interest in the program and

their desire to participate in the proposed program. The

response to this letter was very positive: from the total

of one hundred eleven letters given to the parents, eighty-

six parents indicated interest in the program. Of these,

fifty-seven asked to participate in the study. Of those who

indicated that they could not participate in the program at «;

the time indicated, many (twenty-nine) requested that another

class be formed at a time other than the one offered.

Design of the Study

The Research Design

The research design for this study is quasi-experimen

tal in nature in that intact groups were used rather than

being randomly chosen. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent

Control Group Design was utilized (Campbell & Stanley, 19c3)-

That is, two groups were used: (l) an experimental group

at St. John Neumann School and (2) a control group at First

ft

58

Christian Church School.

Using a notation similar to that suggested by Campbell

and Stanley (I963), coupled with the writer's notation, the

design of this study appears below.

THE TREATMENT GROUP

0. 0, 0,

PRETESTS

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

St. John Neumann School

n = 27

O4 ^5 ^6

-> POSTTESTS

THE NONTREATMENT GROUP

0. 0. 0,

PRETESTS — >

CONTROL GROUP

First Christian Church School

n = 27

% O5 ^6

•> POSTTESTS

Fig. 1. Design of the Experiment

ff

i. • •

Each pretest and posttest (denoted by 0) implemented

each of the following three measures:

- The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts, Form A

- The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test

- The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale

0. = Post-BTBC - Same as Pre-BTBC, Form B

0^ = Pre-BTBC

O2 = Pre-GHDT

0-. = Pre-BTRS

0^ « Post-GHDT - Same as Pre-GHDT

0/ = Post-BTRS - Same as Pre-BTRS

X = TREATMENT

59

Each group was administered three measures as pretests:

(1) the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts; (2) the Goodenough-

Harris Drawing Test; and (3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale

(Boehm, 1971; Harris, 1963; Brouch, 1970). After the treat

ment of the experimental group implementing the adapted

Suzuki/Tamano Method, both groups again were administered

the same measures as posttests. Form A and B of the Boehm

Test of Basic Concepts were used for the pre- and posttests

respectively. Identical forms of the Goodenough-Harris

Drawing Test and of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale were used

for both the pre- and posttests.

At the conclusion of the treatment, all parents (n =

21) of the children in the experimental group were asked to • - •

evaluate their experience of the Suzuki/Tamano Method by -c

responding to a questionnaire. (See instrument in Appendix E. ) f

In a task not directly related to the actual experiment,

the experimenter contacted parents of children, ages three

to six, in thirteen private schools and nurseries in Lubbock.

These parents responded to a survey instrument devised by

the writer probing their possible interest in the Suzuki/

Tamano Method for their children. (See instrument in Appen

dix F.) The thirteen schools and nurseries involved were

randomly selected from the Southwestern Bell Telephone Direc

tory's yellow pages which listed thirty-nine such establish

ments. The writer co'ntacted and surveyed parents in these

thirteen schools and nurseries by attending regularly schedule:

60

meetings of parents at these institutions, addressing the

parents on the matter, and asking them to respond at the

meeting to the survey form.

The Instruments

The study used the following instruments for the

purposes of this study. To examine the effects of the Suzuki/

Tamano Method upon three to six year old children in terms

of their art work and their cognitive development, three

instruments were used. These were: (1) the Boehm Test of

Basic Concepts, (2) the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and

(3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale. In order to determine

the suitability of a Japanese early childhood arts education

program based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method in an American

school, it was necessary to evaluate its curricular offerings f ,

in regard to its effect upon students and parents. Therefore

the writer decided also to use a Parent Evaluation instrument.

If the effect of these programs upon students and their

parents was to be considered for continuation and expansion

of the program in the United States, it was necessary to

obtain information from such data concerning the existence

of sufficient interest. To obtain reliable data from local

sources, a Public Opinion Survey was constructed and used.

The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC)

Specifications of instrument. The BTBC is designed to

measure children's mastery of concepts which are considered

c

61

essential for various levels of achievement especially in

the first years of school. The test is read aloud by the

teacher, and is suitable for use with children ages three

to six. The BTBC results were used in this study to

compare the differences in conceptual progress between the

experimental and control groups.

There are two equivalent forms (A and B) of the BTBC,

each containing the same number of exercises, exercises of

comparable difficulty. Form A was published in I969.

Form B, which yields a total raw score equivalent to that

of Form A, was released in 1971 by A. B. Boehm. For the

purpose of this study, Forms A and B were used as the pre

test and posttest respectively. Each form consists of fifty

pictorial, multiple-choice items using such basic concepts

as top, through, away from, up, down, in, out, as well as f.

colors, numbers, and names of familiar objects. This test

has been used frequently in early childhood education

research (Seefeldt, 1979).

The reliability of the BTBC was expressed in split-

half reliability coefficients and was computed for both

Form A and B, based on the scores of the pupils participat

ing in the testing sessions of the equivalent study. The

reliability coefficient may range from zero through 1.00 with

the higher values indicating greater reliability. Of the

2,647 cases tested, the split-half reliability coefficients,

based on the correlation of scores on odd-numbered items with

I r.

62

scores on even-numbered items, corrected by the Spearman-

Brown formula, were .90 for Form A and .84 for Form B (at

the kindergarten level).

An essential aspect of the validity of a test is how

well the test performs its intended work. For the BTBC,

like any other test of educational achievement or mastery,

validity is primarily a matter of the relevance of the test

content to the school curriculum. This type of validity is

usually called content validity. As an example, a test of

typewriting speed and accuracy would have high content

validity if used at the start of an intermediate typewriting

course. In the case of this study, the basic concept items

mentioned earlier were used within relevant curriculum

materials and were presented to the children as basic to

understanding directions and other oral communications from C.

teachers and mothers for the duration of this experiment.

Therefore, the writer believed that the concept achievement

of the experimental group and the control group whose instruc

tional experiences and home-study were controlled, might be

measured with confidence with the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts.

Administration and scoring procedures. Form A of the

Boehm Test of Basic Concepts was administered on April 27,

1981 as a pretest and Form B on May 29, I98I as a posttest

to both the experimental and control groups. Each form

consists of two booklets, each containing three sample

questions followed by twenty-five test questions. The ques-

63

tions are comprised of fifty pictorial items arranged in

approximate order of increasing difficulty and divided evenly

between the two. Each item consists of a set of pictures,

about which statements are read aloud to the children by the

writer. The statements briefly describe the pictures and

instruct the children to mark the one which illustrates the

concept being tested. Each of the Forms required approxi

mately forty minutes.

Tabulation of the BTBC was preceded by an inspection

of the answer sheets to determine whether more than one

response had been marked for any item. Where multiple mark

ings occurred, the item had to be omitted from the scoring.

The class record form served as both a scoring key and an

interpretive aid to the writer who scored the tests. The

number of correct responses were counted for each test and

were recorded as the raw score.

The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT)

Specifications of instrument. In addition to the BTBC,

the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test was employed to measure

differences in cognitive development, although Harris has

produced considerable evidence documenting its validity as

an indicator of mental maturity (Harris, 1963). The Harris

test is based on an earlier one developed by Florence Goode-

nough entitled "Draw a Man Test" (Goodenough, 1926). Goode-

nough believed that concept development and cognition were

strongly responsible for the graphic configurations that

I r,

• •

I

64

children make (Lansing, I969). Over the years since it was

first developed in I926, the Drawing-a-Man Test has been

shown to measure conceptual or intellectual factors more

than it has measured aesthetic or personality factors. Harris

affirms Goodenough and concludes that concepts (and cognition)

have a more profound influence than do other factors on the

nature of children's drawings (Harris, I963). Therefore,

Harris reevaluated Goodenough's method, extended it to older

groups, and developed an "alternate form" of the test by

adding to drawing of the self (I963, p. 1). The Drawing

Test permits consideration of children's concepts of the hu

man figure as an index or sample of their concepts generally.

Harris believes that the children's intellectual activity

requires: (1) the ability to perceive, i.e., to discriminate

likenesses and differences; (2) the ability to abstract, i.e., f!.

to classify objects according to such likeness and differences;

and (3) the ability to generalize, i.e., to assign an object

newly experienced to a correct class, according to discrimi

nated features, properties, or attributes (I963, p. 5). For

this reason, each of the children was asked to produce two

drawings: a man, and a woman, to see whether they could

discriminate such likeness and differences. The children

indicated their responses on a specially designed drawing

paper which was scored by the writer. These two tests used

as a pretest measure in this study, were administered sepa

rately, but consecutively to measure different aspects of

p'

65

drawing ability. Procedures for the administration of tests

were rigidly controlled as recommended in the manual of

instruction.

A total of seventy-three features of a human figure,

such items as the presentation of a head, a neck, eyes, eye

details, etc., comprise the test on the man drawing as

scoring standards. In the test for the woman drawing,

seventy-one criteria were presented and exactly the same

procedure described for the man drawing was applied to the

drawing of a woman. (See Appendix G for the scoring stan

dards of a man and woman drawing.)

The reliability of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test

was estimated by means of the internal consistency coeffi

cients based on a number of studies. Intercorrelations

between different scorings ran^e from the low .80s to as

high as .96. Values commonly exceed .90. In the manual of

instructions, there are references to several independent

studies in which the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Tests were

favorably correlated with external criteria which were

typically reliable estimates of the extent of cognitive

achievement (Harris, I963, pp. 90-99).

Administration and scoring procedures. The tests of

a man and a woman were administered on April 28 and May 30,

1981 for the pretest and posttest respectively to both the

experimental and control groups. There was no time limit

for the test, but the entire process took approximately

66

thirty minutes each for the two drawings for the experimen

tal and control group children. Because subjective judgment

was required to score some items, perfect agreement between

two scorings could not be accom.plished or expected. There

fore, to minimize the "random error" in scoring, an attempt

was made to develop certain standards by the writer. Accord

ing to the results for inter-scorer studies, once a scorer

follows instructions painstakingly and gains both in speed

and accuracy, agreement is conceived to be high (Harris,

1963, p- 242). It was this instruction that the writer

carefully followed when scoring the tests. In hopes of

eliminating the personal bias against two sets of data ob

tained from the experimental and control groups, an assis

tant was used to assign coded numbers to the tests and then

mix them to conceal their identities. Subsequently all of

the tests were scored by the writer.

The Brouch Tem.pera Rating Scale (BTRS)

Specifications of instrument. For the purpose of

assessing the quality of art work, the Brouch Tempera Rating

Scale was chosen as the principal instrument (Brouch, 1970).

This scale was developed by Virginia M. Brouch in 1970 to

analyze the effects of synchronized, slide-tape art learning

experiences on the tempera paintings of randomly selected,

normal third and fourth grade children. In 1973 both Taylor

and Trujillo used the scale to test the aesthetic quality

of art products of four-year-old children. Their study

r..

67

revealed that significant gains in the overall aesthetic

quality of the art products of the experimental group were

observed through the use of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale.

Because of the younger group of subjects used by Taylor and

Trujillo, they added the schema categories with the permis

sion of Brouch (Taylor & Trujillo, 1973, pp. 57-66).

Appendix H shows this revised version of "Tempera Use Rating

Scale" which the writer used in this study. As a result of

this change, the scale became a six-item multiple choice in

a simple check sheet designed to rate tempera paintings.

Points are assigned for schema, use of color, shape, line,

surface quality, and composition. The sum of these points

becomes the tempera use score for each subject. The possible

scores range from zero to twenty-four. The higher the score,

the greater the level of aesthetic quality of art work. \,

The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale was used by a team of

three experts who judged the quality of art v/ork produced

by both the experimental and control groups. The anonymity

of the pretest-posttest tempera paintings was assured by the

use of a coded number for each pair of art products. Only

the writer had a record of the identity of the pre- and post-

test data.

Criteria used for the selection of the experts were

as follows:

(1) The experts were required to be certified teachers

of art with minimums of five years of teaching experience

68

in the public schools or as teachers of art-related curric

ulum in institutions of higher learning.

(2) They must have earned at least a master's degree

in art or art education.

(3) They must be an art education specialist who has

studied children's art with a competent instructor for a

minimum of three years and whose major area of concentration

during their graduate studies were in art education.

The subjects selected for tempera paintings in the study

were restricted to eight. They were comprised of a giraffe,

a fish, a sail boat, a person, a turtle, a lion, an Indian,

and a cow. They were delimited to a maximum of thirty minutes

of daily home exercise to be studied for the period of four

weeks. This was controlled by instructions given to all

mothers to enforce the delimitation. Because of the extra- i'.

ordinary cooperation of mothers throughout this study, the

writer was confident of compliance.

There have been no reported studies dealing with the

test-retest reliabilities of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale.

However, Taylor and Trujillo (1973, p. 59) reported that the

intraclass correlation for the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale

judgments was .50. Reliability is the ratio of true variance

to total variance. This figure was considered to be accept

able though not high.

Administration and scoring procedures. The Brouch

Tempera Rating Scale (pre- and posttests) were administerei

^a

I-r..

69

on the same day when the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts was

given to the experimental and control groups.

The BTRS was scored from a set of the tempera paint

ings (pre- and posttests) of all subjects in this study.

Three judges used a separate scoring sheet and recorded

their scores independently of the others. Thus, there were

three evaluations of each tempera painting. In order to

exact a more precise evaluation, the major elements, such

as schema, etc., were subdivided into more specific catego

ries. Each judge placed a check mark on any one of these

categories which he/she considered a proper evaluation of

the data being scored.

Three evaluation sheets were prepared for each tempera

painting, as indicated above. The three scores recorded

for each category were averaged. The sum of these averages f.

constituted the raw score for each subject.

In order to assess the amount of agreement (inter-judge

reliability) between the judges on the BTRS items, the

Pearson r correlation was used to compare each judge with

each other one. The scores on each item of the BTRS by the

various judges were compared in all possible combinations

with the other judges involved. There were all together

twelve combinations on both the experimental group pretest-

posttest, and the control group pretest-posttest. The

correlations ranged from -.05 to +.96, with the average being

+.40. These correlations were quite low; however, upon

70

inspection of the three judges' scores used in this study,

it was noted that one judge's scores were quite different

from the other two judges. Appendix I shows the results

of the Pearson r correlation for twelve possible combina

tions. It should be noted that the amount of agreement

involving the Judge #2 on eight items are very low ranging

between -.05 to +.60, with the average being +.22?.

Consequently the correlations would have been higher had

these scores been eliminated. Nevertheless, these correla

tions were considered adequate to be used as a standard

against which to measure the difference of the pre- and

posttest scores of the BTRS.

Parent Evaluation

Specifications of instrument. Combining closed-form

and structured responses, the writer formulated a parent

evaluation instrument for the purpose of obtaining data

pertaining to the procedural success or failure of the pro

gram. Parent evaluations were specially designed for the

mothers of the experimental group who participated in the

program. It was not intended to be an operational instrument,

rather to be used for the recommendations for further study

of Chapter VI.

Following closely to an approach devised by Van Dalen

(1973), this closed-fonn questionnaires consisted of a

prepared list of twenty-five concrete questions and five

numerical values constituted a choice of possible answers.

r..

^a

71

Twenty-one mothers of the experimental group became the

respondents and were asked to rank a series of statements

in the order of importance (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). In addition,

they were asked to insert brief statements on empty lines.

Appendix E indicates the contents of a parent evaluation.

Administration and scoring procedures. This question

naire was administered to the twenty-one mothers of the

experimental group on May 27, I98I as a group. Individual

items on the questionnaire were structured for clear and

efficient tabulation by hand.

To assess the program rating from a specific mother,

a score was derived by summing up the numerical values of

twenty-five individual questions and then was averaged. To

assess the rating of an individual question, the numerical

values of a specific question given by the twenty-one

mothers were added and averaged.

The writer formulated a guide for the objective trans

lation of an average score (based on scores both per item

and per respondent) as follows:

4.5 to 5.0 . . . . Excellent Quality

3.7 to 4.5 . . . . Good Quality

2.8 to 3.6 . . . . Average Quality

1.9 to 2.7 . . . . Below Average Quality

1.0 to 1.8 . . . . Poor Quality

r. • •

72

Public Opinion Survey

Specifications of instrument. This simple questionnaire

was devised by the writer for the purpose of determining the

extent of interest in this study by the Lubbock area

population. To obtain necessary data, the writer cast ques

tions in a closed form based upon the background, philosophy,

contents, and requirements of the program, and simply asked

the respondents to check their reactions from a choice of

answers: yes, no, and undecided. Since the closed form

questionnaire is limited and does not reveal the respondent's

motives for their answers, it does not always yield informa

tion of sufficient scope or depth. To avoid biasing the

results, the writer inserted a third choice ("undecided") •-•

in addition to yes-no questions.

As the writer was well aware of the fact that informa- ^ \ .••

tion that was elicited from a readily available group would

not always reflect the opinion of the total population, the

attempts were made to minimize this limitation by randomizing

the surveys. There are approximately thirty-nine local

nursery and preschools in Lubbock of which thirteen were

selected for this study. The procedures for this selection

included plotting all thirty-nine schools on a map, and

randomizing the thirteen in an attempt to attain a represen

tative sampling of the various areas. The public opinion

survey form is shown in Appendix F.

! • :

73

Administration and scoring procedures. In order to

assure an adequate return, the writer arranged to administer

the public opinion survey form at the respective nurseries

and preschools during regularly scheduled parent meetings

during the April, May and June of I98I.

The data was collected by the writer on the following

schools in Lubbock, Texas:

(1) Busy Bee Nursery School

(2) Christ The King Catholic Church School

(3) First Christian Church School

(4) Kersey-McCham School

(5) Kinder Care Learning Center (School No. 130)

(6) Lubbockview Children's Academy

(7) Montessori School of the Plains

(8) Oakwood United Methodist Church School

(9) Second Baptist Church School

(10) St. John Neumann School

(11) St. Luke's United Methodist Church School

(12) Texas Migrant Council Headstart Nursery School

(13) Westminster Young Children's School

All respondents were parents who had one or more three-

to six-year-old children. Completion of the form required

approximately fifteen minutes.

Appendix J indicates the distribution of respondents

from thirteen schools. The writer summarizes its results

as follows: the total number of responses from the thirteen

r .

74

nurseries and preschools was 376 out of a possible 646,

a total response of 58 per cent. Considering the total

number of responses against the total number of opinion

survey forms distributed, 78.5 per cent of parents who had

children between the ages of three to six responded and

returned the form to the writer.

The scoring was accomplished by counting each of three

answers (yes, no, undecided) that the parents marked on the

survey form. Its sum became the raw score for further

interpretation.

The Method of Treatment

Teaching Procedures

The sequence of skills to be developed and materials

to be studied were presented to the experimental group. The

primary difference in the learning experiences of the experi

mental and control groups was the manner in which the

treatment was given only to the experimental group and not

to the control group. The control group was taught by a

widely accepted method of early childhood art education (this

term for the purpose of this study was defined as that which

emphasized art as a means of self-expression through the

use of various art media).

In the initial stages of the study (the first two weekly

lessons), the experimental group received the instruction

II

r.

75

relating to the care of the materials and equipment: handl

ing the brushes, mixing the paints to produce a desired

color, holding the crayons in multiple numbers, and all

other understanding which precede the actual execution with

materials on the drawing or painting surface. Similarity

of instruction was controlled by using the same procedures

for teaching each function, presenting these problems in the

same sequence, and devoting an equal amount of time to their

presentation (two weekly lessons). While m.aintaining the

successful accomplishment of these preliminary functions,

the experimental group received instruction with adaptations

of the Tamano Method based on Suzuki approaches.

The procedures of instruction for the experimental

group were described earlier in Chapter III. The control

group did not participate in any way in the educational r. a

program developed by the writer, but received only the art

education normally offered by the school. For the experi

mental group, the teaching procedure followed a basic pattern

as indicated based on the Suzuki concepts:

Suzuki Concepts Pilot Study Basic Pattern

(1) Exposure Describe or demonstrate (or both) to the children and their mothers the way to solve a specific problem.

(2) Imitation Allow both children and mothers to try it until they show a clear understanding of its solution.

76

(3) Imitation/ Assign home exercises to Repetition the mothers which are designed

to develop artistic proficiency of children through the mothers as teachers.

(4) Addition/ Review previously assigned Improvement/ exercises for evidence of Refinement satisfactory achievement or

need for further exercises.

The detailed concepts of the Suzuki Method are shown in

Chapter II.

Because of individual differences among children and

their mothers, specific procedures vary. However, these

four steps generally are accepted as the framework for teach

ing a child to gain artistic knowledge or skills. It is this

framework which the writer followed in teaching the Suzuki/

Tamano Method to the experimental group.

There appears to be mutual agreement between the Suzuki i',

and Tamano Methods concerning the sequence of skills to be

taught. Furthermore, it is generally agreed that certain

artistic skills can be developed when a certain environment

is provided. There are two principles regarded as most

important:

(1) The child must be helped to develop an eye for art.

(2) From the very beginning, every step of art-making

must be thoroughly mastered.

Therefore, instructional methodology in this study focused

on building on the basics by providing every child with visual

environment. To produce such an environment, the study sought

77

to create an apparatus to experiment within this framework

of ideas. The physiological extension of peripheral vision

was considered, and the creation of visual form in drawing,

and tempera painting, the color slides of subjects studied

and recording of worded tape music were constructed and

simultaneously used. The classroom was equipped with screens

for projection, a lighting system that could be flexibly

controlled, projection machines, a phonograph, a cassette

tape player, self-standing panels, and a broad floor space

facing the circular seating arrangement on v/hich drawing

boards were placed theatre-style.

During the duration of this study, the classes were

held in two ways: (1) with the group of parents being taught

by the writer in one room and the children being taught by

an assistant in another separate room; and (2) with the f. .. •

mother and child working together while being taught by the

writer. The purpose of separating into two groups was to

familialize the mothers with lessons which were used to teach

their children at home.

After the initial sessions of introducing the use of

materials and quipments were accomplished, the emphasis is

was shifted toward the development of the basics in design.

The children started with dots, then made lines, shapes, space,

color, and texture as the generally accepted ingredients of

design. These elements were taught by telling the child and

mother to draw or paint each succeeding element in the air

78

with their hands before actual execution on paper.

The cassette tapes were designed through both music

and words to explain specific procedures for the child/

mother to make long or short, hard or soft, quick or slow,

soft to loud movements in making lines and forms. The tape

also deals to some extent with the development of manual

dexterity to deal with unaccustomed hand movement. For

instance, it teaches the making of lines down to up, or left

to right, as opposed to usual up to down or right to left

construction of lines.

As the Tamano Method of art curriculum and instruction

places an importance on artmaking by the rhythm of musical

sounds and words recorded in the tape, both the mother and

the child were asked to sing along with the tape. This

enforces the memorization of exact sequences of procedures f.

in the hope of imbuing them with kinesthetic movement. While

listening to the tape, the mother and the child were encour

aged to express their feelings through dance and play.

As soon as the fundamental design principles had been

introduced and applied successfully, these learners were

introduced immediately to eight-step drawing or painting of

the following subjects in five variations. They started with

a simple graphic respresentation of a giraffe, followed by

a fish, a sail boat, people, a turtle, a lion, an Indian,

and finally a cow. This variety of subject matter provided

the children with an insight into the transformation of -p

79

simple angle to more complex views that can also be related

to those found in giraffes, fish, etc. By so doing, the

writer hoped that the children would learn to create new

combined figures of their own within the five various views

of the same subject.

The procedures described in the preceding paragraphs

constitute the guide for practices at home for both the

mother and the child. In this case, the mother becomes a

teacher. These are the practices which the mother used for

teaching their children at home daily for a minimum of twenty

minutes and a maximum of thirty minutes. The number of tech

niques taught in each succeeding lesson was determined by

the degree of understanding and achievement of every child

in the class. The guideline which governed the nujnber of

new problems to be introduced was the successful achievement V.

of each technique by all members of the class before the

next sequential step was presented.

Differences in the rate of progress of individual child

ren became apparent in their weekly lessons due to the age

differences as well as differences in the mothers' devotion

at home. Whenever possible, the writer visited the homes

of participants in the study and provided extra private

sessions in order to help the students to reach a level with

the rest of the group. This enabled both the writer and the

assistant to set a pace more suitable to the ability of the

experimental group. To recognize the slower learners, the

80

mothers were asked to submit their home exercise materials

and daily logs to the writer periodically in order for him

to identify them.

The Statistical Analysis

Data collected from all three measures were analyzed

by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and paired t-tests. In

this study, since random sampling techniques were not possi

ble and intact group procedures were used, statistical

analysis employed analysis of covariance with the pretest

measures as the covariates. Campbell and Stanley (I963)

states that the weakness of the nonequivalent control design

which does not have pre-experimental sampling equivalence

can be overcome by the use of covariance statistics (p. 50).

To determine the significance of difference favoring the

experimental group over the control group between two

groups' scores as a result of pre- and posttesting, paired

t-tests were employed. According to Cornett and Beckner

(1975), since two measures (pre- and posttest scores) have

been taken from the same individuals, the data are considered

correlated. Thus, when these kinds of data are to be analyzed,

the correlated data technique (paired t-test) must be used.

Summary

Twenty-seven preschool children ages three to six,

enrolled at St. John Neumann School, Lubbock, Texas, comprisei

the population of the experimental group. A like nur.ber c:

I i * '

81

children and like age at First Christian Church School was

selected for the control group. The duration of this study

was limited to a period of four weeks of instruction with

two sessions per week during the April and May of 198I.

This study was designed as being quasi-experim.ental

using intact groups rather than randomly selected groups as

random selection of two groups was not possible. Utilizing

the pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design, the

study employed three instruments in order to test the hypoth

eses set forth in Chapter I. These instruments were: (1)

the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts to measure the child's

mastery of concepts, (2) the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test

to measure cognition, and (3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale

to assess the quality of art work. In a task not directly

related to the main purpose of this study, the study utilized

two other instruments. These were parent evaluation to

determine the feasibility of the Suzuki/Tamano Method and

public opinion survey to gain an insight into a possible

indication of public acceptance for the program locally.

The specifications, administration and scoring procedures

of these instruments were also explored in this chapter.

This was followed by an outline of the method of treat

ment for the experimental group in which the mothers partici

pated with the children at school and as the teacher at home.

Finally, the statistical techniques used to analyze

data were given toward the conclusion of this chapter.

I .

82

CHAPTER V

FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The posttests of scores of the Boehm Test of Basic

Concepts, the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and the Brouch

Tempera Rating Scale were analyzed by analysis of covariance

(ANCOVA) with the pretest for each of the post measures

serving as covariate. Upon completion of data collection,

test scores of these three measures were place on IBM cards

and used with the Statistical Package for the Social Science

(SPSS)(Nie, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975). The means,

standard deviations, standard error, F values, t values, and

multiple Rs, were obtained from the multiple regression

computer system at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas.

The .05 level of probability was used by the writer. -i

Parent Evaluation and Public Opinion Survey were

analyzed by hand. The findings on these two measures are

considered in a somewhat less formal manner in which their

mean scores are considered.

The present chapter reports the preliminary findings

of the independent t-tests on the pretest scores of three

measures. This is followed by the principal findings show

ing the results of analysis of covariance of these three

measures. In conjunction with ANCOVA, significant results

obtained from the independent t-tests and paired t-tests

will be reported.

» .

83

The results of Parent Evaluation and Piablic Opinion

Survey will also be included in the principal findings.

Finally the findings of each measure will be grouped and

interpreted.

Preliminary Findings

This section includes the pretest scores on the depen

dent variables because they have a bearing on interpreting

the principal findings.

t ests

Because complete randomization of subjects was not

possible in either the experimental or control groups of this r!

study, an analysis of pretest data was made to determine if

there were statistically significant differences on the '•_

dependent variables between the groups prior to the administ

ration of the treatment. The five separate independent

t-tests were performed between the two groups on the Boehm

Test of Basic Concepts, the Goodenough-Harris Drav/ing Test,

and the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale. (See Table II.)

The results revealed that only the pretest scores of

the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale indicated a statistically

significant difference between the experimental and control

groups. The pooled variance estimate produced a two-tailed

probability of less than .05 level.

Further t-test analysis of age differences between the

84

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85

experimental and control groups yielded no significant

difference at the .05 level. (The steps to determine the

results of the t-test of age are given in Table III.)

Since the age differences between the experimental and

control groups were not contributed to a significant differ-

rence revealed by the pretest scores of the Brouch Tempera

Rating Scale (see Table II), the differences between groups

on this factor might be attributable to scoring inconsis

tencies as well as to initial differences in painting abil

ities of groups.

The writer hypothesizes that scoring inconsistencies

may be attributed to some bias and/or low inter-judge relia

bility. (See Appendix I.) The significant difference

favoring the experimental group children on the whole

may have had a little more previous experience in painting,

or the "Hawthorne Effect" may be in evidence. On the basis

of this analysis, any conclusion concerning the Brouch Tem

pera Rating Scale must be viewed with caution and reservation

Principal Findings

This section will report the results of the paired and

independent t-tests, and the results of the analysis of

covariance (ANCOVA). For the purpose of reporting the test

ing of each research hypothesis, they will be restated in

null form.

The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC)

Findings in Table II, IV, and V refer to children's

86

TABLE III

STEPS TO DETERMINE DIFFERENCE IN AGE

Control Group

^ x^ = 99,845

(I x)^ = 2,735,716

X = 61.76, n = 27

s^^ « 56.83

F =

Experimental Group

X x^ = 88,476

(X x)^ = 2,280,100

X = 55.93, n = 27 r.2 _ '2 = -154.91

-154.91 56.83

= -2.726 (p --.01)

Therefore, the F ratio of the two variances are

significant. Therefore, a separate variance t-test must

be used to determine if the difference in age between the

experimental and control groups is significant.

t = ^1 ^2 = 1.90 (t = .10.05)

r. • »

Therefore, age differences between the two groups

are not significant at least at the .05 level of probability.

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89

mastery of concepts as measured by the BTBC. Table IV

indicates that an independent t-test yielded no significant

difference at the .05 level of probability in post-BTBC

scores between the experimental and control groups.

However, Table II reports that the BTBC pretest means

are significantly different in favor of the control group.

The writer attributed this difference to the control group's

slightly older average age (5 l/3 months) and therefore

their initial advantage in identifying the various objects

given in the BTBC. The t-test analysis of the BTBC scores

given in Table IV, however, indicates that not only did

the younger experimental group students catch up with the

other group in this measure to assess children's knowledge

of basic concepts, they even surpassed them slightly. Although

the means were not significantly different in the t-test

analysis, ANCOVA of the posttest BTBC, scores reported in

Table V, controlling for pretest BTBC scores reveals that,

compared with the control group, experimental group gains

were highly significant, F(l, 49) = 26.702, p<.001.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant

differences in the posttest scores of the Boehm Test of Basic

Concepts between the experimental and control group scores

is rejected.

The results of the paired t-test of pre- and post-3IBC

scores are given in Table VI. The paired t-test resulted

in a significant difference between the pre- and post-BTBC

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91

scores of subjects in the experimental group, t(26) = 9.564,

p < .001. No significant difference was found in the control

group's pre- and post-BTBC scores, t(26) = I.595, p > .10.


differences between the pre- and post-BTBC scores of the

experimental group is rejected, and that of the control group

is not rejected.

The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT)

The t-test analysis of posttest-GHDT scores as reported

in Table IV reveal highly significant differences favoring

the experimental group in all three of the measures: the

Man Scale, t(52) = 11.27, P < .001; the Woman Scale, t(52) = [^

10.86, p <.001; and the Average Scale, t(52) = 11.58, p<.001. Vz

To determine if these difference were significant in terms

of the pretest-GHDT scores of both groups, analysis of -i

covariance was performed on only the Average Scale; the writer

reasoned that analysis of this scale was sufficient since

the t values in all three scales were essentially congruent.

ANCOVA of the GHDT Average Scale scores controlling for the

pretest scores as shown in Table VII reveals a highly

significant difference between the two groups, F(l, 50) =

120.998, p < .001. The experimental group children, accord

ing to this analysis, far surpassed the control group in

this measure of concept development and cognition.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant differ-

r.

92

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93

ences in the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test between the

experimental and control group scores is rejected.

The results of the paired t-test between the pre- and

post-GHDT scores for both the experimental and control

groups are shown in Table VIII. The paired t-test analysis

yielded a highly significant difference between the pre-

and post-GHDT scores for the experimental group, t(26) =

16.735, P < .001. The paired t-test for the control group

resulted in no significant differences between the pre-

and posttest GHDT scores, t(26) = 2.02?, p > .05.


differences between the pre- and post-GHDT scores of the

experimental group is rejected, and that of the control

group is not rejected.

The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS)

Although the t-test analysis of pretest-BTRS scores

produced a significant difference favoring the experimental

group as seen in Table II, the t-test analysis of posttest

scores (see Table IV) revealed a much wider margin for this

same group of children. The difference between the means

of the BTRS for each group increased by 33.26 points. Analysis

of covariance of the BTRS posttest scores with the pretest

scores serving as covariates which is reported in Table IX,

revealed a significant difference in favor of the experimental

group, F(l, 50) = 71.^71, P <.001.

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The decision to reject the null hypothesis was some

what tempered by the significant difference in pretest BTRS

means. However, a paired t-test analysis of the gain of

BTRS control group means from pre- to posttest proved to

be not significant, t(26) = I.89, p >.05, as shown in

Table X. On the other hand, a paired t-test analysis of

BTRS experimental group means from pre- to posttest revealed

a significant difference, t(26) = 7.28, p <.001.

Therefore, the results of these two t-tests together

with the highly significant differences found in ANCOVA of

BTRS posttest scores, first, the null hypothesis of no

significant difference in the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale \ '

between the experimental and control group scores is rejected.

And secondly, the null hypothesis of no significant differ

ence between the pre- and post-BTRS scores of the experimental

group is rejected, and that of the control group is not

rejected.

Parent Evaluation

Each of the twenty-five items on the forms returned by

the twenty-one mothers who participated in the experimental

group was scored on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest).

(See Appendix E for the form and breakdowns on the scoring

on the various items and by the individual respondents.)

Scores by items. The mean score for all twenty-five

items scored by the twenty-one mothers was 4.02. 2y pre-

I f * ' <• t

97

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98

established criteria, this constitutes an overall response

of "good" in the expectations of the writer.

Eight individual items (items 2, 5, 7, 11, 12, 16,

17, and 18) scored above 4.5, the "excellent" range. Eleven

(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 13, 19, 20, 22, and 25) scored between

3.7 and 4.5, the "good" range. Five (10, 14, 21, 23, and

24) scored between 2.5 and 3-6, the "average" range. Only

one (item 15) scored between I.9 and 2.?, the "below

average quality" range.

Scores by respondents. On average rating on twenty-

five items by an individual respondent breaks down somewhat

differently. Eighteen mothers scored these form with an

average rating between 3-7 and 4.5, the "good" range. ;r

Only three scored in the "average quality" range, 2.8 to

3.6. No mothers scored in the "excellent," the "below *,

average quality," or the "poor quality" ranges.

The Public Opinion Survey

The findings in Table XI are concerned with public

interest in the study as evidenced by the Public Opinion

Survey form distributed to thirteen randomly selected

nurseries and preschools in Lubbock, Texas.

These findings are summarized as follows: Of 376

responses collected, 274 indicated a strong interest in the

study by answering "yes, 72.88 per cent. A "yes" response

indicated an interest in actually participating in a future

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100

program based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method if "one were to

be offered in my area at a reasonable price and at a conven

ient time." A total of 102 responses (51 for "undecided"

and 51 "no" ) indicated either not si re or not interested in

the pilot study. Consequently, there appears to be strong

public interest and support of the program.

Interpretation of the Data

This section of the study will be devoted to the inter

pretation of the data in relationship to the hypotheses as

they are stated in Chapter I. A brief statement of the

interpretation of the surveys will also be covered.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis One. The null hypothesis based upon hypoth

esis one was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis one is accepted:

A group of subjects who have undergone treatment with the

Suzuki/Tamano Method would score significantly higher than

a control group on a posttest measure of their abilities to

form basic concepts as measured by the Boehm Test of Basic

Concepts.

Hypothesis Two. The null hypothesis based upon hypoth

esis two was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis two is accepted:

The experimental group scores on the posttest would be signif

icantly higher than their pretest scores on a measure of

their abilities to form basic concepts as measured by the

101

Boehm Test of Basic Concepts. The hypothesis two also

hypothesized that as the control group experienced no

treatment, a significant difference would not be found

between their post and pretest-BTBC scores.

Hypothesis Three. The null hypothesis based upon

hypothesis three was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis three

is accepted: The hypothesis three was concerned with how

the Tamano/Suzuki Method treatment might affect the

cognitive development of the experimental group children.

Specifically, it was hypothesized that children having receiv

ed sequentially-based instruction would have scored

significantly higher on the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test

at the end of the treatment than those who did not receive

treatment.

Hypothesis Four. The null hypothesis based upon i;'.

hypothesis four was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis four

is accepted: Similar to the hypothesis two, this hypothesis

was formulated that the experimental group scores on the

posttest Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test would be significantly

higher than their pretest scores on a same measure of their

abilities in cognition. It also hypothesized that the control

group would not score significantly higher on their posttest

GHDT scores than their pretest scores as they would not receive

treatment.

Hypothesis Five. The null hypothesis based upon

hypothesis five was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis five

102

is accepted; The hypothesis five predicted that there v/ould

be significant difference in the posttest Brouch Tempera

Rating Scale scores between the children in the Suzuki/

Tamano Method treatment group and the children not treated

by the same Method.on a measure of the quality of their art

works.

Hypothesis Six. The null hypothesis based upon

hypothesis six was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis six is

accepted: As with hypothesis two and four, hypothesis six

stated that the experimental group would score significantly

higher on the posttest measure of the quality of their art

works than on the pretest, using the Brouch Tempera Rating

Scale. It also hypothesized that the control group would :• *

not score significantly higher on the posttest score of ^ \

the same measure than on the pretest. :.

The Surveys

Parent evaluation. Based on the ratings of twenty-five

individual question items provided by the mothers of the

treatment group, the writer made the following interpretations

based upon the items as they were scored by the respondents:

(1) The parents felt that the writer explained and

accomplished the stated objectives of the Suzuki/Tamano

Method.

(2) The children enjoyed listening the taped music

of the Method.

103

(4) The Method demonstrated a concern for developing

the child's early learning habits.

(5) The Method demonstrated an active concern for

strengthening parent-child ties.

(6) The parents worked with their children with daily

practice of twenty to thirty minutes as requested although

some occasionally skipped.

(7) The parents did not keep regularly a daily log

stating the nature of practice sessions at home as requested

by the writer.

(8) The parents felt that it was an excellent idea

to provide their children with good education starting an

early age. [

(9) The parents liked the Method and expressed their ' CI

desire to recommend it to someone else. F

(10) The parents expressed that they saw some improve

ment in their children's artistic abilities and the quality

their art work.

Public opinion survey. Of 376 responses collected from

thirteen nurseries and preschools, 274 (72.88 per cent)

expressed interest in participating in a future program based

upon the Suzuki/Tamano Method. Thus, the data indicate

potential support for expansion of the program in the United

States.

'. a

104

Summary

For the purposes of this study, the analysis of the

collected data was made in two stages. The first stage is

the key and most important part of the study in that the

six research hypotheses were tested. The data from the Boehm

Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC), the Goodenough-Harris Drawing

Test (GHDT), and the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS) were

tested statistically through the uses of t-tests and analysis

of covariance. Significant differences (p<.05 or less)

were found on the posttest BTBC, GHDT, and BTRS scores when

controlling for each of the pretest scores between the experi

mental and control groups. It was also discovered that the

paired t-test comparisons of all three measures' pretest

and posttest scores for the experimental group produced a

highly significant effect (p<.05 or less), and those for

the control group did not. Thus, all six research hypotheses

set forth in Chapter I were accepted.

While the findings of the second stage were not central

to the study, they provided additional information about the

acceptance, potential and feasibility of the program for

further implementation and expansion.

Both the parent evaluation and the public opinion surveys

yielded supportive results. The mean scores of Parent Eval

uation revealed that eighteen mothers (86 per cent cf mothers

who were directly involved in the study) rated the pilot study

105

with "good quality" and three (14 per cent) with "average

quality." The overall rating was "good quality." In the

case of Public Opinion Survey based on the 376 responses from

thirteen local nurseries and preschools, seven out of ten

responses indicated the strong interest and support for the

program as it is currently structured, and fewer than three

out of ten responses revealed their answers as either "no"

or "undecided."

The present study sought to look closely to examine

the effects of the Suzuki/Tamano Method in terms of children's

cognitive development and the quality of their art works,

but it was also concerned with the potential for expansion

of the program in the future. The overwhelming findings

included the acceptance of all six hypotheses set forth in

Chapter I and very positive results on the survey forms.

These finding are very encouraging because they suggest that

the Suzuki-type art education program can be expected to have

a positive impact upon American children ages three to six.

106

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter reports and discusses a general review

of the study, followed by the results of the findings as

they relate to the six hypotheses and the primary research

questions. Also discussed in this chapter are the writer's

conclusions and the implications of the study. Recommenda

tions for future research are given at the conclusion of

the chapter.

Summary of the Experiment

The main purpose of this study was to adapt for Amer

ican children the Suzuki Method using the Tamano curriculum

for mother-tongue instruction in early childhood art educa

tion; apply it utilizing a quasi-experimental pretest/post

test nonequivalent control group design; and to evaluate

its success in terms of hypothesized improvements in the

quality of the children's art works, abilities to form basic

concepts, and cognition. As a secondary purpose, this study

was undertaken to test the feasibility of introducing this

adapted Japanese early childhood arts education program

(herein termed the Suzuki/Tamano Method) on a larger scale

in America by examining interest and acceptance at this local

level.

F .

107

Primary Investigation

Subjects for the study were fifty-four preschool child

ren between the ages of three to six in intact classes.

Twenty-seven children at St. John Neumann School, Lubbock,

Texas were selected as the experimental group and received

the treatment. The assignment of subjects to the experi

mental group was determined by the willingness of the

mothers to accept certain prescribed responsibilities

essential to the implementation of the pilot study. Those

who agreed to comply with these prescribed responsibilities

affirmed their willingness by signing a pledge of coopera

tion in which their duties and the necessary controls were

clearly defined. Twenty-seven children at First Christian

Church School, Lubbock, were included in the control group

and did not receive the treatment. They received whatever

kind of art instruction they would have normally received.

The treatment consisted of the subjects' participation

in the early childhood art education techniques which the

writer developed by adapting the Suzuki-based Tamano curric

ulum and instruction but by applying some aspects of the

Suzuki Method more directly than did Tamano, e.g., parental

involvement. The treatment was given to the experimental

group in eight one-hour sessions held twice a week over a

one month period during April and May of I98I. The classes

were taught by the writer and an assistant teacher.

The uniqueness of the treatment given to subjects of

108

the experimental group was characterized by three procedures

not generally utilized in present practices. They were;

(1) Rote teaching was employed.

(2) Parents were assigned a teaching role during the

home practice sessions of the children.

(3) A comprehensive listening program was used as an

integral part of the learning experience.

The research design for this study was quasi-experi

mental in nature in that intact groups (the experimental

and control groups ) were used rather than being randomly

chosen. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group

Design was utilized (Campbell & Stanley, I963).

Data for determining the results of this study were

obtained by the administration of three measures:

(1) A pre- and post-Boehm Test of Basic Concepts

(BTBC, Formi A and B) were used to measure children's m.astery

of concepts which are considered essential to achievement

in the first years of school.

(2) The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT) was used

as the pre- and posttest to measure differences in children's

cognitive development.

(3) The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS) was util

ized as the pre- and posttest to assess the quality of

children's art work.

Data collected from all three measures were analyzed

by the independent or paired t-tests and analysis of covari-

109

ance controlling for the pretests. Data collected from

fifty-four subjects, twenty-seven in the experimental group

and twenty-seven in the control group, were included in

the analyses.

A total of six research hypotheses were examined, two

for each measure. All six hypotheses were retained at the

.05 level of probability.

Hypothesis One. The experimental group will score

significantly higher than the control group at the end of

the experiment on a standardized measure of their abilities

to form basic concepts (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts).

Hypothesis Two. Tl e experimental group will score

significantly higher on the posttest measure of their

abilities to form basic concepts than on the pretest, using

the same measure for both (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts)

The control group will not.

Hypothesis Three. The experimental group will score


the experiment on a standardized measure of cognition (the

Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test).

Hypothesis Four. The experimental group will score

significantly higher on the posttest measure of their cogni

tion than on the pretest, using the same measure for both

(the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test). The control group

will not.

Hypothesis Five. The experimental group will score

110


the experiment on a measure of the quality of their art

works (the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale).

Hypothesis Six. The experimental group v/ill score

significantly higher on the posttest measure of the quality

of their art works than on the pretest, using the same

measure for both (the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale). The

control group will not.

Secondary Investigation

The study was also undertaken for the purpose of deter

mining if a modification of the Suzuki Method using the Tamano

curriculum and instruction could be as adapted successfully

to the visual arts as it has been to music education in

America and to determine the direction for which the program

should take in the future. To achieve this objective the

study focused on answering the following two questions:

(1) Was it feasible to use curriculum materials and

methods of instruction designed for use in the Japanese early

childhood art education Suzuki Method program in an American

version of the same program?

(2) Would a pilot art education program using the

aspects of the Suzuki Method be able to generate sufficient

interest from local sources to warrant a continuation and

expansion of the program in the United States?

Parent Evaluation. Combining closed-form and structured

responses, the writer designed a questionnaire instrument

Ill

based on Van Dalen. The purpose of this instrument was to

obtain data pertaining to the procedural success or failure

of the study. The instrument consisted of a prepared list

of twenty-five concrete questions, each with five numerical

values which constituted the choice of possible answers.

Twenty-one parents of the experimental group who

participated in the study became the respondents and the

questionnaire was administered on May 27, I98I as a group.

The writer formulated a scale for the objective translation

of average scores, and data collected from twenty-one

mothers of the experimental group were analyzed. The pilot

study received a rating of "good quality" with a mean score

for all items of 4.02.

Public Opinion Survey. A simple questionnaire was

constructed to determine whether sufficient interest and

support exist for the study on the local level to warrant

possible expansion of the program in the future. A closed

form questionnaire consisted of an explanation of background,

philosophy, contents, and requirements of the program, and

simply asked the respondents to check one of three answers:

"yes," "no," or "undecided."

In order to assure a significant return, the writer

randomly selected thirteen nurseries and preschools and

arranged to administer the form at their regularly scheduled

parent meetings in the April, May and June of I98I. The

112

The respondents were all parents of one or more three to

six year old children.

The total number of responses from the thirteen schools

was 376 out of a possible 646, 58 per cent of the total

population. Considering the total number of forms distri

buted (478), however, 78.5 per cent of parents responded

and returned the form to the writer. Of 376 responses

collected, 274 indicated a strong support of the study by

answering "yes" (72.88 per cent), 51 were "undecided," and

51 voted "no." Therefore, there appears to be a strong

public interest in the program.

Conclusions and Implications

As a result of this study, three general conclusions

may be drawn, and these conclusions have strong implications

for the field of art education today and for the development

of future programs.

The first general conclusion is that the data obtained

from this study seem to offer strong statistical evidence

that results superior to those achieved by the generally

accepted method of early childhood art education may be

anticipated through the use of the Suzuki/Tamano Method.

This experiment has established the likelihood that in a

similar setting and under similar conditions of rigid control,

the use of Suzuki techniques using the Tamano curriculum and

113

instruction can be an effective means of improving three to

six year old children's conceptual and intellectual develop

ment as well as the quality of their art works.

Important implications may be drawn from this conclu

sion. That is that factors other than the teaching method

ologies may have contributed to the findings of the experi

mental group's significantly greater improvement in the

qualities measured: (1) the earliness of the training in

art appears to have played an important part, and (2) a

family environment in which the parents give serious atten

tion to their children's education also seemed to have been

an important factor. The results of the Parent Evaluation

support these implications.

The findings also might lend considerable support to

the notion that a major portion of what a child draws and

paints is cognitive in nature, an idea that should have

serious implications for those who advocate a bare bones

"back to basics" curriculum in which art has little or no

place. They also support Eisner's (1972) expressed view

that art educators might begin to question a prescription

which stems largely from the influence of Viktor Lowenfeld

and has been followed for more than thirty years: "Never

let a child copy " (Lowenfeld, 1947, p. ^ ) . Pariser (19 ?)

also had challenged Lowenfeld's view when he concluded from

his research that the act of copying need not hinder artisti.

and creative growth. The results of this study support his

114

findings as well. The highly imitative, repetitive, and

directed nature of the treatment used in this study, in

which children did indeed "copy," did not seem to stifle

their artistic expression.

A second general conclusion is that the Suzuki/Tamano

Method generated interest and potentially active support

locally. Sufficient interest was found in favor of the

study by the Public Opinion Survey.

However, this survey which produced 376 Lubbock area

respondents a valid indicator of interest in the overall

population of the state, or even of the area. If continua

tion and expansion of the program in the United States is

to be seriously considered, then some means of program support

assessment must extend beyond this locally-based evaluation.

A third and final conclusion is that, considering

the success of this experiment, it appears to be feasible

to use curriculum materials and methods of instruction de

signed for use in Japanese early childhood art education in

an American version of the same program (i.e., the Suzuki/

Tamano Method). Also the experimental group mothers rated

the program on their Parent Evaluations as being of "good

quality." This indicates that these mothers formed positive

attitudes toward a Japanese curriculum of instruction, a

highly structured pedagogical experience. The implication

of this runs counter to the commonly held position that

greater freedom on the part of the student, accompanied by

less pedagogical structure, will lead to the development of

115

positive attitude toward art.

The writer feels, however, that these conclusions are

somewhat tentative and in need of further investigation.

Recommendations for Further Study

Based on the findings from this investigation, the

following recommendations are suggested as areas for further

study.

(1) While the extent to which the role of the parent

contributed to the progress of the child could not be

precisely measured by this study, it seems logical to assume

that a favorable effect did accrue. Furthermore, the

prescribed listening assignments were unique to the experi

ences of the children in the experimental group, but there

is no evidence to establish precisely which experiences

contributed or contributed more to the children's superior

achievement. The degree of influence of the parent and/or

the actual contributory effect of the listening program must

be determined by further research specifically designed for

this purpose.

(2) There should be replication studies, using differ

ent groups of randomized students and parents. Because of

the small intact sampling used in this study, (27 subjects

in the experimental group, 27 subjects in the control group),

at least two fundamental questions remain unanswered: (1)

to what extent would similar results be achieved in a large-

116

scale randomized application of Suzuki techniques using the

Tamano curriculum and instruction? and (2) to what extent

would parents from various socio-economic backgrounds be

willing to accept the responsibilities of a home teacher?

(3) If the Suzuki/Tamano Method is considered for

large scale implementation in the early childhood art

education of America, its merits must first be established

through research involving a large population of subjects

from a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. Such a study

need not be limited to the areas of drawing and painting

alone, but may include a variety of the art media currently

taught in the preschool and kindergarten. The writer

hypothesizes that the application of Suzuki techniques

using the Tamano Method would not be more effective with a

particular area of visual art fields and less effective with

others. Different and perhaps more complex procedural prob

lems would exist when used in other areas of art, but this

study strongly suggests that these other areas would benefit

as well from adaptation of the Suzuki/Tamano Method. That

is, similar results in other areas would be likely.

(4) The findings of this study appear to have some

implications for education in the visual arts. It has gener

ally been accepted in the field of art education that art

experiences lead to overall growth in creativity. This

position has not been addressed by this study, thus leaving

some questions which are important and worthy of further

117

investigation. The feeling of the writer is that art expe

riences in the Suzuki/Tamano Method do promote general

creativity as it can be measured by existing tests; there

fore, it should be thoroughly tested over an extended period

of time. Even though the eight lessons over a one month

period produced results in the areas of children's quality

of art work and cognition, further investigations for

creativity should be carried out over extended periods of

time in order to confirm or disconfirm this hypothesis.

(5) The development of an art program basic to the

general curriculum of instruction in the public schools is

another important concept with which art education is con

cerned today. In this study only two measures (the Goode

nough-Harris Drawing Test and the Boehm Test of Basic

Concepts) directly addressed this concern. A more intensive

study of the method's effect upon these cognitive areas

would constitute a valuable area for further investigation.

(6) As previously indicated, the degree to which the

listening program and the role of the parent contributed

to the achievement of the child is not known. Therefore,

it is recommended that a study be instituted to determine

the extent of their individual influences on the total

achievement of the child. For the sake of convenience and

greater uniformity, it would seem desirable to limit this

study to the teaching of the same art media to all subjects.

The choice of media should be determined by the researcher's

118

competence to teach it and by assurance of the availability

of a sufficient number of subjects to give confidence to

the findings.

Three groups of subjects are recommended for a study

of this nature. They could be designated as Groups One,

Two, and Three. Procedures should first be established to

match the subjects in each respective group with those in

the other two groups. This may be done by the administra

tion of a prognostic test of art talents to determine the

strengths and weaknesses of each subject. When the match

ing procedures have been completed, a program of study simi

lar to this writer's research should be developed utilizing

the Suzuki/Tamano Method but with the following qualifica

tions:

(a) Group One should receive instruction to include

the three major pedagogical techniques: rote instruction,

use of the parent as a home teacher, and a comprehensive

listening program.

(b) Group Two should be taught by the same techniques

as Group One except for the exclusion of the parent as a

home teacher.

(c) Group Three should be instructed by the same tech

niques as Group One without the inclusion of the listening

program.

The achievement of each group may then be tested at the

termination of a pre-determined period of instruction. The

119

data obtained by the researcher should enable him to deter

mine the extent to which parental participation and/or the

listening program influences the child's progress. Although

it is highly unlikely, it is conceivable that neither

activity contributes to the child's total achievement. If

this were found to be the case, its discovery would be an

invaluable contribution to future endeavors in the explora

tion of the effectiveness of Suzuki techniques.

120

SELECTED REFERENCES

Barber, B. Department of Music, Texas Tech University. Personal interview, July 3, 198O.

Barkan, M. The visual art in secondary education. School Review. I962.

Beatty, W. H. (Ed. ). Improving educational assessment and an inventory of measures of affective behavior. Washington, D- C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, I969.

Bersson, R. D. The use of participant observation in the evaluation of art program. Studies in Art Education, 1978, 12(2), 61-67.

Bloom, B. S. Stability and (Change in human characteristics. New Yorkl Wiley, 1964.

Bloom, B. S. All our children learning, a primer for parents, teachers, and other educators. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., I98I.

Boehm, A. E. Boehm test of basic concepts. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1971.

Brittain, W. L. Creativity, art, and the young child. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1979.

Brouch, V. M. An experimental study of the effect of synchrO' nized slide-tape art learning experiences on tempera paintings of third and fourth grade children. Doctor' al dissertation, Arizona State University, 1970.

Bruner, J. S. Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press, I966.

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally and College Pub. Co., 1963.

Cornett, J. D., & Beckner, W. Introductory statistics for the behavioral sciences. Columbus, Oh.: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1975.

Dave, R. H. The identification and measurement of environ-miental process variables that are related to educational achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Chicago, I963.

121

Doll, R. C. Curriculum improvement; Decision-making and process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1966.

Downey, L. The task of public education: The perceptions of people.Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, i960.

Dressel, P., & others. The liberal arts as viewed by facultv members in professional schools. Teacher's College, Columbia University, I959.

Eisner, E. W. The development of information and attitude toward art at the secondary and college levels. Sudies in Art Education. I966, 8(1), 43-58.

Eisner, E. W. Art education. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., I969, pp. 76-86.

Eisner, E. W. Toward a more adequate conception of evaluation in the arts. Art Education. 1974, 22(7),

Eisner, E. W. What do children learn when they paint? Art Education. March 1978, pp. 6-10.

Efland, A. The school art style: A functional analysis. Studies in Art Education. I976, 12(2), 37-44.

Feeney, S., & Christensen, D. Who am I in the lives of children?: An introduction to teaching young children. Columbus, Oh.: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., I98I.

Ferro, M. Why is early training necessary? In S. Suzuki, Nurtured by love. New York: Exposition Press, I969.

Eraser, D. M. Current curriculum studies in academic subjects . National Education Association, Project on Instruction, I962, pp. 6-4l.

Garson, A. Alfred Garson answers questions on the Suzuki teaching method. Montreal: South Shore Protestant Regional School Board, I968. (Mimeographed)

Geertz, C. The interpretation of culture. Nev/ York: Basic Books, 1973.

Goodenough, F. L. Measurement of intelligence by drawings. In L. M. Terman (Ed.), Measurement and Adjustment Series. New York: World Book Company, I926.

122

Goodenough, F. L., & Harris, D. B. The test manual; Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test. New York: Harcourt Brace & World, Inc., 1963.

Gordon, I. J. (Ed.). Theories of instruction. Washington, D. C : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1968.

Harnack, R. S. The teacher decision maker and curriculum planner. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook, I968.

Harris, D. B. Children's drawings as measures of intellectual maturity. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1963.

Harris, D. B. Scientific inquiry into artistic learning. In L. C. Deighton (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 1). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1971, PP. 119-331.

Honda, M. Personal interview, summer, I98O.

Honda, M. , & Tamano, Y. Personal interview, July 8, I98O. (a)

Honda, M., & Tamano, Y. Personal interview, August 15, I98O. (b)

Hooper, J. Children's drawings of a table and an adaptation of a Piagetian coordination of perspectives task. Unpublished master's thesis, Cornell University, 1977.

Hunt, J. V. Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald, 1961.

Invasion from the orient. Time Magazine, November 3, 1967, p. 46.

Kawai, A., & Yanai, H. Gendai nipponno kyoiku shiso. Tokyo: Reimei Shobo, 19 3" ^

Kellogg, R. Analyzing children's art. Palo Alto, Ca.: National Press Books, 1970.

Kendall, J. The Suzuki violin method in American m.usic education. Reston, Va.: Music Educators National Conference, 1978.

Kendall, J. Southern Illinois University. Personal interview, February I6, I98O.

Langer, S. K. Expressiveness. In G. Pappas (Ed.), ConceTots in art and education. London: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970, pp. 168-175-

ft

123

Lanier, V. A plague on all your houses: The tragedy of art education. Art Education. March 1974, pp. 12-15.

Lansing, K. M. Art, artists, and art education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I969.

Logan, F. M. Growth of art in American schools. New York: Harper & Row, 1955.

Lowenfeld, V. Creative and mental growth: A textbook on art education. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1947.

Lowenfeld, V., & Brittain, W. L. Creative and mental growth (7th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1982.

Macklin, A. D. Selling the art program: Tickling a sacred cow. Art Education. December 1978, pp. 10-13.

McFee, J. K. Preparation for art. Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1970.

McFee, J. K., & Degge, R. Art culture and environment: A catalyst for teaching. Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1977.

Michaels, G. E. The Georgia science and engineering fair. Georgia Jounal of Science, 1979, 22(2), 53-54. i

Miller, T. W. The influence of progressivism on music education, 1917-194?. Journal of Research in Music Education, Spring I966, pp. 3-16.

Nagano, R. Sengono Kyoiku. In Seiichi Miyazawa (Ed.), Kyoikushi. Tokyo: Tokyo Keizai Shinposha, I966.

Nie, N. H., Hull, C. H., Jenkins, J. G., Steinbrenner, K., & Bent, D. H. Statistical package for the social sciences (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.

Oxford, P. A. H. The effects of mental imagery activities on early concept acquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1978.

Pariser, D. A. Two methods of teaching drawing skills. Studies in Art Education, 1979, 20, 30--2.

12 ^

Percy, M., & Berlyne, D- E. (Eds. and trans.). Psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, Let., 1950.

Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (F. J. Langdon & J. Norton, I967.

The child's conception of space L. Lunzer, trans.). New York:

Sand, 0. (Director). Schools for the 60's (National Education Association/Project on Instruction). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., I963.

Seefeldt, C. The effects of a program designed to increase young children's perception of texture. Studies in Art Education. 1979, 20, 40-47.

Seward, J. The Japanese (7th ed.). Tokyo: Lotus Press, 1977

Sigel, I. E. Distancing hypothesis: A casual hypothesis for the acquisition of representational thought. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Effects of early experience. Coral Gables, Fl.: University of Miami Press, I970.

Suzuki, S. Nurtured by love: A new approach to education (W. Suzuki, trans. ). New York: Exposition Press, Inc., 1969.

Suzuki, T., Mills, E. , Ferro, M., Schreiber, M., Behrend, L., Jempelis, A., Kendall, J., Mills, H., Rowell, M., Tillson, D., & the American Suzuki Institute-West. In E. Mills 80 Sr. T. C Murphy (Eds.), the Suzuki concept: An introduction to a successful method for early music education. Berkeley, Ca.: Diablo Press, Inc., 1973.

Tamano, Y. Kashozokei to eno shido. Tokyo: Meiji Publishing Co., 1979. Til

Tamano, Y. Zokei ritomikku kyoiku no riron taikei. Tokyo: Hakubun Publishing Co., 1979- TbT

Tamano, Y. (Producer). Kashozokei to eno shido. Tokyo: Meiji Publishing Co., 1979. (Tape) Tc)

Tamano, Y. Personal interview, summer, I98O.

Taylor, A. P., & Trujillo, J. L. The effects of selected stimuli on the art products, concept formation, and aesthetic judgmental decisions of four-year-old children. Studies in Art Education, 1973, 1^, 57-66,

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125

Torrance, E. P., Reynolds, C. R., Riegel, T., & Ball, 0. E. Your style of learning and thinking. Forms A and E: Preliminary norms, technical notes, scoring keys and selected references. Gifted Child Quarterly, 1977, 21, 563-573.

Torrance, E. P., & Sato, S. Differences in Japanese and United States styles of thinking. The Creative Child and Adult Quarterly. Autumn 1979, pp. 145-isr: Til

Torrance, E. P., & Sato, S. Figural creative thinking abilities of United States and Japanese majors in education. The Creative Child"and Adult Quarterly, Winter 1979, pp. 216-221. (Tl

Torrance, E. P. Japanese attitudes on giftedness and creativity. The Education Digest, May 1980, pp. 29-33.

Ukai, N. Lightness in the dark. Asahi (Tokyo) Evening News. 29 March I98O, p. 6.

Van Dalen, D. B. Understanding educational research: An introduction (3rd ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.

Vogel, E. F. Japan as no. 1: Lessons for America. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press, 1979.

Wieder, C. G. Three decades of research on child art: A survey and a critique. Art Education, February 1977, pp. 5-10.

Wilson, B. G. An experimental study designed to alter fifth and sixth grade students' perception of painting. Studies in Art Education. I966, 8(1), 33-42.

Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. Response in iconoclasticism challenged: A correspondence on child art, by Wieder, C. G., Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. Art Education. February 1977, PP- 30-33.

Wolf, R. W. The identification and measurement of environ-mental^process variables related to intelligence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Chicago, 1964.

Yomiuri, S. (Ed. ). Taishu daigaku. Osaka: Yorniuri Shinbun, 1976, p. 99.

APPENDIX A

TORRANCE'S SIXTEEN INDICATIONS OF CREATIVITY

126

127

(1) Fluency: Number of relevant, recognizable

responses.

(2) Flexibility in Using Repeated Figures: Number

of different ways the triangles were used (e.g., two or

more connected, as background or foreground for another

object, encircling, as a part of an object, etc. ).

(3) Flexibility in Content: Ntimber of different

categories into which responses can be classified.

(4) Originality; Number of uncommon responses (based

on statistical infrequency, appearing in less than 2% of

records ).

(5) Elaboration: Number of details used in elaborat

ing drawings.

(6) Resistance to Premature Closure: Number of times

premature closure (easiest, simplest, most obvious) was

avoided in-the incomplete figures.

(7) Synthesis: Number of times two or more triangle

were joined together to make an object, scene, etc.

(8) Extending Boundaries; Number of times the bound

aries of the closed triangles were broken or extended.

(9) Unusual Visual Perspective: Number of times the

objects are presented in other than the accustomed perspec

tive (e.g., as seen from above, below, or at different angle).

(10) Internal Visual Perspective: Number of times

internal views of objects shown.

128

(11) Humor: Number of conceptual or perceptual

incongruities produced.

(12) Rich/Colorful Imagery: Number of times images

rated as strong, vivid, exciting, and/or colorful.

(13) Feelings and Emotions; Number of times drawings

expressed feelings and emotions (joy, sorrow, anger, etc.).

(14) Articulateness in Telling a Story: Number of

drawings in which context was added to give meaning and

action to a drawing.

(15) Fantasy; Number of drawings using fantasy (e.g.,

animals, people, plants, etc. given fantasy characteristics,

mythological characters, etc.).

(16) Movement: Number of drawings showing movement

(running, dancing, throwing, jumping, flying, fighting, etc. ).

(Torrance & Sato, 1979b, p- 217) ft

APPENDIX B

PARENTAL PLEDGE OF COOPERATION

129

130

I, the undersigned, do hereby grant permission for

my child to participate in the pilot program of early child

hood arts education to be organized and supervised by

Mr. Tokuroh Arimitsu. I also pledge my full and unqualified

cooperation in compliance with the rules and regulations

necessary to the proper control of this research. I agree

to the following conditions;

(1) That I will not engage a private instructor for

my child for the duration of this research,

(2) That I will guarantee a minimum of twenty minutes

and a maximum of thirty minutes of daily home exercise by

my child for the duration of this research,

(3) That I will fulfill all of the duties required

of me as a parent/teacher.

I further agree to accept any future conditions which may

be necessary to the successful completion of this research.

Signature of Parent of Guardian

APPENDIX C

ADAPTED TAMANO METHOD: SELECTED LESSONS

(The musical notations and illustrations unless otherwisely indicated are from "Kasho Zokei To Eno Shido" by Yoshio Tamano, 1979- Copyright 1979 by Yoshio Tamano. Reproduced by permission.)

131

132

Instruction

Home study for the first lesson of the early childhood arts education begins this week. Please follow the instruction when working with your child. Please keep the class notes as instructional procedures will be explained in detail during the class period, and these handouts are briefly structured.

Precaution when using the handouts

1. Only one set of handouts is provided. Parents are responsible for keeping these in place, for they will be used throughout our lessons.

2. A cassette tape must be played at all time when working with handouts.

3. Before using the handouts, the child should be exposed to music so that he/she remembers its rythm and words.

4. Let your child sing along with music.

5. Drawing or painting take place in the air before using the paper.

6. Soft, loud, big, small strokes of lines as well as directional changes of lines should be emphasized.

7. The child should be taught to feel the rythm of music as well as the lines he/she is making.

Use of crayon or brush '»

1. The crayons are easily broken. Let your child hold them close to the tip.

2. The instruction for handling the brush is provided in the next page. Let your child hold them correctly.

How to color with crayon and brush

1. Break the end of crayon about half an inch and take out the paper. Using the side of the crayon, child can color with broad strokes.

2. Make sure that your child is using the middle part of the brushes.

How to choose the color of crayon or tempera paint

1. Using the favored colors.

2. Using the unfavored colors.

3. Using the longest crayons.

4. Using the shortest crayons.

133

How to use your cassette tape

Contest. Your cassette tape contains: Side 1 (30 minutes). Side 2 (17 minutes), of recording based on the work handouts. Side 1 starts v/ith "Ton Ton Ton Ton (dots)" and ends with "Let's Draw A Turtle". Side 2 begins with "Let's Draw A Giraffe," and ends with "Let's Draw A Cow" in the middle of the tape.

Steps. (1) perceptual training through musical rhythm with words (e.g., "Ton Ton Ton Ton" becomes familiar to your child and understanding the words), (2) feeling through kinesthetic activities in the open air following musical rhythm (e.g., your child draws or paints in the air by his/her hands), and (3) bodily appreciation of the first two steps by turning them into visual imagery.

How to Hold Brushes n

by T. Arimitsu '82

134

1. Ton Ton Ton Ton

Learning Steps

(1) Choose any color and make dots freely, then change color and repeat.

(2) Using different crayons, make a rabbit, a television, a tree, and others.

(3) Make curved lines with dots. Change color and repeat.

(4) Let your child pick up his/her favored colors. Hold-at least two crayons, make dots.

l-x

^k; J J^i^/jjj iJ'lj fe T^ J~. J J ^ ^^ Wtd^^^maid'^ltt^da^mat

Ton I I n I t I , I I I I I I I I I I 11 Ton " " I I I I I I I I 11

1 ) • • • • . • . . • . . • : .• . ; . . . • * . • . . . . . . • . • . • * .

. • • • • • . . • . , « • ' *•

• ' _ •;. » '• . • • • • . . • . . .

* • • ' • • • •

• . . • • •. • . ' • • . . . * • . • . • • • . • . •

• • . . - . • • • ' . ' • . • • •

( 2 ) •:: . - g v ^ : . . : ; : ^ . ; ; . ; ' . ; • • • • : • • • • " •

• • • . . • > ' /:?' ; ' . • • • : - . t . • • . • • • • . • . .

. • . ' • ^ - . . - ^ . • . • • : . • • : • • . • . ; • . • • . . . • • . •

• • V" > . ' ' . ' . • • • ' > - . . , . • • • • . • . ' . . . . . . . . • • • • vV • . . . f - . . - - . - . - . r » - . * " , • • . . • . • • . • . . . • • •

• . • . . •.;:• / ,.;•-' Nf ^v-^j • • . . ' \ • • • • ' • ? / • •»>••• • > '•'•'-••'.

• • . • . • • : . • • • • • V ; v . •• • • . . •.•.'•'•^' • • : ' • * ? • • , - . ' • . , ••. • • .-. ..^...••

• . • • • . / • • > •<•:-. • • • • . • .

\ '• \ ' - . ( 3 )

• • * « . « *

> . . . . , t < * *

\ , , . • • • . • » •» \ . - '

> • » • , • '

» » » . . ' , » • * . • *'^ • • " ' »

• * - . • ' • . . . • . . • • • • .• • . ' « . *. *•• - v,^ : » •

• « •• . ,. * . » • • ' • • • 1 . • » .« * •

' , » " • > i ' » .» . • % 1

' . * • / , , '» .«

135

2. Horizontal Line, Vertical Line, and Diagonal Line

Three-Mi

i 3 ^ * t •=if=^ ^m One-Fa—

Two-Sol-

Three-La—

i 1? j ^ j j g J 't J J i

z± ^

^ E One-Ti-

Two-Do-

Three-Do

Four-T i —

(1)

(2)

V

Cuia— '• direGtion Learning Steps

(1) Straight (Horizontal): -Make long, short, soft, hard, lines. -Overlap lines with different colored crayons. -Make lines from left to right and vice versa.

(2) Up to Down (Vertical)/ Down to Up (Vertical): -Make lines top to bottom to top. -Overlap lines bottom to top and vice versa.

(3) Slide (Diagonal) -Practice as shown with different crayon

(4) Combination (Diagonal, Horizontal, and Vertical) -Combine diagonal lines with horizontal and vertical lines, using various colored crayons.

3. Swirl Swirl Color Color

136

Swirl Swirl Swirl Color Swirl

' Color

JJjJjJ-QljJjJ^JJ i j j j ^ ^ ^

Color

Learning Steps

(1) Make a diagonal zig zag.

(2) Make a zig-zag line around or inside particular shapes.

(3) Make a star with zig-zag.

(4) Combine zig-zag lines.

(1) Make a curved line.

(2) Make curved lines around or inside particular shapes.

(3) Using the different color proceed as (2 ).

(4) Using at least two crayons, make curved lines.

137

4. Wavy Wavy

Swirl Swirl Swirl Swirl

Note; Break the end of cray-yon about half an inch and take out the paper for coloring. Start using the brush.

i s :xi-

Swirl Swirl Swirl

Learning Steps

(1) Make waves left to right, or right to left. Make big, medium, and small waves.

(2) This time, vertically make waves same as (1).

(3) Make waves soft to loud, or loud to soft horizontally.

(4) Make waves same as (3) except vertically.

(5) Using at least two crayons or brushes, make waves.

w'

5. Zig Zag

138

Zig "^

Zig Zig ^

3 ^ I I I I

^

Zag Zag Zag

/VVNA/vWV

-^MA/VVI/

I I I I I I 11 I I I I I I I I

Learning Steps

(1) Make zig zags left to right, or right to left. Make big, medium, and small zig zags.

(2) This time, vertically make zig zags same as (1).

(3) Make zig zags soft to loud, or loud to soft horizontally.

(4) Make zig zags same as (3) except this time vertically.

(5) Using at least two crayons or brushes, make zig zags.

6. Stair Steps

139

. T ^ T ! 7"^ !^ f I

, 1 I i ' U I i " 1 1 ^ .C" 4-o •; -ir.C! 4-r, 4 -,« II II « •

l^x

i I f 1 t J -w StairStair

Step Step

Learning Steps

(1) Follow example right. Make regular and uniform stair steps bottom to to top as well as top to bottom.

(2) Starting at middle, make stair steps expanding all directions.

Stair,, „ I I I I I I I I

7 . Make I t Bumpy

i w E ¥ m =5= •tr

Make i t

Bumpy I I M

Learning Steps

(1) Follow examples right. Construct regular and irregular bumps based on the rhythm of music. Chage colors as often as possible.

(2) Same as (1) except this time, vertically.

Note; It is very difficult for your child to create uniform bumps; therefore, repeated exercises seem necessary.

11 M II II II 11 II II

140

8. Round and Round

I I 1 — r m i ^ > >i 1 1^=^ ^=^^=i=^ 2=^ x^;t ^

Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round

Learning Steps

(1) Draw a circle clockwise and counter-clockwise as shown left. Try with brushes using different colors.

(2) While considering directional changes, make elongated circles.

9. Round »

Round 7* Round Round Round Round Round

Learning Steps

(1)

(2)

Make circles cloci: //ise and counter-clockwise. Practice with speed using different colors.

This time, try with straight lines as shown left.

10. Square

141

t i u u J m One Two Three Four

Learning Steps

Steps (1) through (4) are assigned numerical numbers. All strokes must follow 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown right

Emphasis must be placed upon the thickness of lines.

One Two Three FcTdr

Note: Make your child aware of four sides and four corners in the square

11. Triangle

142

^ ? = ^

^ i One Two Th re

W

Learning Steps

Steps (1) through (4) are assigned numerical numbers. All strokes m.ust follow 1, 2, and 3 as shown right.

Emphasis must be place upon an exact sequence of strokes in making the triangle, and its variation.

143

12. Let's Make A Giraffe

Although your child's basic instruction ended last week, it must be continued to be practiced throughout next two weeks. Starting this week, we will begin to focus on various subjects such as Giraffe, Fish, Sail Boat, People, Turtle, Lion, Indian, and Cow. Please note that each subject is illustrated various views which must be learned thoroughly, but it must be considered as guides only. Our aim is not to copy but to increase the child's conceptual grasp of each subject so that he/she can unlock his/her creative potential. To accomplish this, we, parents, must show our children how to juxtapose various images.

Basic Learning Steps for Subject Drawing or Painting

(1) Sing along with music and learn its rhythm and words of a subject being studied.

(2) Talk about the subject by showing the photographs, pictures, illustrations, slides, etc.

(3) Show the child how the subject moves or walks. (4) Start with a simple 8-step drawing or painting,

then, move on to more complex views as provided in each lesson (5 variations).

i JsL

w m m f- n\,,n s H-H-~m J ar TT-ir - i # - * - ata

1. In this magic bottle, oh 2. Let's shoot an arrow what treasure, can we find? now and v/hat happens

then.

i ^ ^ s ^ a m 3. Bubbles come up to the top, 4. Hurry up, put on the

Bubble, Bubble, Bubble. cork to, keep them inside.

(^^ J #

• r ^ j j j j j Ii i==f S 32:

5. Nail it tight and make 6. Next add some leaver: sure, they can't come out Oh how funny nov; it

looks

i g>-i4j:-4A^ & :

m-m. zatjizd -i 1-

-4 , ^ ==r+ ratat i

7. ABRACA DEBRA 8. Mr. Giraffe Oh how funny now it looks How do you do.

12. Let's Make A Giraffe continued

144

145

13. Let's Make A Fish

; wp =

1. The magic ship is sail- 2. From behind I help it ing, sailing in the sea sail sailing in sea

5. first make a straight 6. Take a little sack put line and then one little it on our sail ship curve

iV^ii 3. at the top,. I guide its 4. and at the bottom so

way sailing in the sea, will we

7. Round & Round & Round & 8. Look here our fish is Round now we see his eye swimming in the sea.

12(4)

^ ^ OT'^I^JJJJ at

Our fish is swimming in the sea.

——--—rn ! ri ^ ,

1.

< ^ >

5.

O

2 .

<Z:^ 6.

^C^

3.

C3is k.

O 7. 1 8. 1

_ 1

.46

13. Let's Make A Fish continued

147

14. Let's Draw A Sail Boat

i mp'

^^3 ^ ^

-#-# J J I ci % ^

iS •

1. Up and down tossing witiiwav^a^^ ^^^^^'

2. To & fro rolling with the

3. This one little leaf 4. Falling down from the skv I look

* *< - ^ • — • > y 1 »-

6. One little sail righ there

5. One big sail right here.

^ c

J ,r =?^=^ :T=X i ^ * tf ±3C

7. Blowing in the wind 8. a sail boat is sailing a-long.

148

15. Let's Draw A Pers on

Learning Steps

Please make sure that your child draws the following feature:

1. Head 2. Neck 10- -^^s 3. Eyes with detail ^^' Shoulders 4. Nose 12. Legs 5. Mouth with lips }'?' ^iP 6. Hair 1 - Peet with detail 7. Ears 15. Trunk 8. Fingers (5 fingers each) } ^ ' Clothing 9 . Hands 1^ . Shoe

18 . Others /TV

^ ^

1. 2.

3.

^ T ^ T ^ 4.

=Pt=4 S:

P ^ --- - -r— S=x: Jt m ^-

6. 7.

rn r^ r=t-t J J J J w ^ y

8. " " m ^ •

15. Let's Draw A Person continued

149

150

16- Let's Draw A Turtle

I mp

^ r' ' r J" K^^^ ^ s

1. Big waves a-rolling and'little waves a-splash-ing, splashing, what do you see?

^ ^ ? 2. Something rolling 'round & 'round

i fcfc 5 "—•p

^ 1—r

JL 3 ^ irti m m I m-m-it ^ m m

^ 3 . Here's a white maustache in th i s corner; there i s another one in that corner

I J J J » J J A X ^ . ^ r U J J ^ f » » _ _ _ ^ .^ - • m . '

4. One more hanging over 5. and now it looks 1 here; a space ship

2£

ike

i^dc r^f r pii'' J- If ^ i" ' ; ! i ^ ^

6. Now a head pops & a tail shoots out ri/ - - - - . . . .

7. It's a turtle you see.. 8. Growling so slowly Mr. Turtle along.

l 6 . L e t ' s Drav/ A Tur t l e continued

151

152

17. Let's Draw A Lion

i 1. This is Africa

Great big continent 2. Let's pretend we're in

that land and & take a look around

& ^ ^JiUJ- 'JiJi J J j'ij es.

s 3. Here, lying on the gro

und, is a funny rock.

4. Bushes, Tree: Everywhere you walk

i SE

Old King Lion, yawning 6. He gets up to opens his eyes wide. take a stroll along the

countryside

5^ Jl '^ i^i^ i n - ij-*- ^ v^ ^ m 7. Slowly he struts around 8. Slowly he struts around

Back & forth and back & & swings his tail with

153

17. Let's Draw A Lion continued

154

18. Let's Draw An Indian

g>'; '•', pn^m ^ n n 1. First begin a box a

with a little box, little box 2. then add a little tent.

^ ^ ^ ^ = j . g . 5 - n - ; ^ p , , i p ^ :c=n

Make the 3. add a window to the 4. Draw a 3 the box a house to the house little house little

^ ^ m i

5. Now a crack is made

in the house =i

Draw a little

^ a^ t*: ^ i> im I—m m m \ m m * ^ ^ ^J5.î^^

window i\T „ T • • • 6. are these Now we see living m feathers ^row

now a snail who is our house iâ^êrs grow-m g from

7. growing from 8. Now we see our picture, this sillv little house It's an Indian chief.

1. 2.

^

3. 4.

5. 6. 7. ^

>

8.

155

18. Let's Draw An Indian continued

19. Let's Draw A Cow

156

^ ^ ^

i / ^

IJ ^H tf r,':'^ ^

1. t)ut in he west 2. Wr&e on the lone pra- open irLe where space

• ^a I

mp

3 3 f ^ P^ < <• r '4:^a^

ffij

idl

f5==Ci"^

^^^^^ I - #.J

=if= -w-^-m ti

•' .f JJ £ 0 1 J- J^j-3J. : i ^ ^

» ' • I • • » #'# J . I rj. : ^ ^ ^

d the 3 . f luf fy 4. with t h e i r h o l s t e r s louds up m the by t h e i r s i de ,

sky, Cowbovs you can s e e , an

c

i 9-g; I a:a«. s I s with ,a

:: 2 ft) 1 »ta

^ ^ ' * • • » • •

=5-.<J-1 W; ! !^. • * »0'm I W' i ^ ^ * ' * I d*^.

lir • I Id •P^m —p

1 . 2. 3. 4.

0 Of "^p. K

Q < !

! ^x

157

19. Let's Draw A Cow continued

5. horn on the right 6T then point 7. Throwing the & horn on the left tjiis ^y & that lesso for the •m • • — » . # - • • — 9 J F.W--.11 111 L I -1— 4 ^ 1 • i—I—1 1 ..— a—• ,.

%^ra ?w=rii: ^m * • 0'0-m-.

8. Driving the cattle to the green pasture.

APPENDIX D

PROCESS EVALUATION: OBSERVATIONAL DATA

158

159

The process evaluation was adapted from suggestions

found in Improving Educational Assessment and An Inventorv ^ I I I I I I I * •

of Measures of Affective Behavior by Beatty (I969); by

Bersson (1978); and by Eisner (1974). Unlike the three

instruments used in this study, which required experimental

design evaluation, the process evaluation did not require

control over assignment of subjects to treatments. The

purpose of using the process evaluation was to gain an in

sight as to the development of continuous control and refine

ment of the pilot program and procedures. The objective of

process evaluation was to detect or predict, during the

implementation stages, defects in the procedural design or

its implementation. To accomplish this, the two panel

observers who are experts in the field of art education were

selected. Their strategy was to identify and monitor, on

a continuous basis, the potential sources of failure in the

pilot study. These included such aspects as relationships

among the teachers and mothers, mothers and children; adequa

cy of the resources, physical facilities, staff, and time

schedule; etc. Under process evaluation, information fur

nished by the two observers was collected daily, organized

systematically, and analyzed periodically by the writer.

An example of an information which was considered fail

ure during the implementation stages is:

I think that perhaps it may be a good idea to maybe start with the parents. In order to want to get the child to do the lessons with the music the parent has to be trained.

160

In the analysis, the writer categorized this informa

tion as one of the defects (ineffective incidents) in the

pilot study since the writer's program design was not in

keeping with the observer' felt needs. Whenever considered

possible, attempts were made to change the procedures.

Changes made during the course of study based on needs were:

(1) The writer focused on the subject matter and

tried to organize the learning experience in such a way as

to communicate the content to children and their parents as

clearly as possible.

(2) The writer focused on parents and tried to make

the content area relevant to their needs and interests.

(3) The language suitable for children was used to

get a child interested in a topic in which he was involved

in activities which were designed to develop his skills,

thinking processes, and attitudes to a higher level of compe

tency, or culminating. The writer hoped that a child could

be helped to synthesize a diverse set of experiences with

his mother into some kind of overall pattern which had mean

ing.

(4) The seating arrangement was changed from its tandem

position to a one-row semi-circular position when instructing

parents and/or parents-children in order to increase the

visibility of demonstrations.

(5) Varied informal experiences such as humor, ^okes,

etc., were employed for the kinds of experiences v/hich American

161

children seemed to enjoy.

(6) The writer focused on guided discovery rather

than self discovery. Guided discovery generally meant lead

ing children through a programmed sequence where the answers

were more or less predetermined. Because of the young age,

the children did not really have to think critically or

choose intelligently between alternatives. This was all

pre-planned by the writer. For meeting objectives such as

memorizing an exact sequence of strokes which make a partic-

lar shape quickly, this type of experience was considered

to be worthwhile but in terms of higher level objectives,

and concept development, the writer judged such a practice

was highly questionable.

APPENDIX E

PARENT EVALUATION

162

163

PARENT EVALUATION OF THE NEW ARTS METHOD

Instructions: The following represents one part of a system of evaluation, the primary aim of which is the continued up-grading of the new method.

Your responses to the following statements will remain anonymous and should reflect your thoughtful and true feelings.

Please circle the one number for each statement in the order of your importance (strongly agree 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 strongly disagree), which most accurately describes your actual feelings. In addition, please insert brief comments into blank spaces at the end.

Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree

5...4...3...2...I (1) The instructor explained at the outset the material that was to be covered in the course.

5...4...3...2...I (2) The instructor explained at the outset the course objectives and what you and your child were expected to be able to do as a result of the course.

5...4...3...2...I (3) The instructor is accomplishing the stated objectives of the course.

5...4...3...2...I (4) The instructor presents the course material in a logical, well-organized manner.

5...4...3...2...1 (5) The instructor presents the effective use of class time.

5...4...3...2...1 (6) The instructor utilizes teaching methods that maintain you and your child's attention and interest level.

5...4...3...2...I (7) The instructor demonstrates a high degree of personal knowledge of the content and philosophy covered by the method.

5...4...3...2...1 (8) The material presented in the course is clearly related to the stated objectives of the course.

164

5-..4...3...2...1 (9) The facilities are adequate.

5...4...3...2...1 (10) Your child seems to enjoy listening the taped music of the method.

5...4...3...2...I (11) The method demonstrates an active concern for strengthening the parent/child ties.

5...4...3...2...I (12) The method demonstrates a concern for developing the child's early learning habits.

5...4...3...2...I (13) The instructor clearly explained at the outset what your responsibilities would be in the course and how you would evaluate yourself.

5..-4...3...2...1 (14) You have worked with your child with the daily practice of 20 to 30 minutes at home.

5..-4...3...2...1 (15) You have kept a daily log stating the nature of practice sessions at home.

5...4...3...2...I (16) You feel important that you become a teacher for your child at home.

5...4...3...2...I (17) You feel important that your child's education should start as early as possible.

5...4...3...2...I (18) You feel important that we, parents, should provide our children as much training as possible.

5...4...3...2...I (19) After having taken the course, you liked the new method.

5...4...3...2...I (20) After having taken the course, you recommend this method to your friends.

5...4...3...2...1 (21) After having taken the course, you have seen your child's artistic ability improved.

5...4...3...2...I (22) After having taken the course, your child have spent more time in his/her art activities voluntarily beyond daily practices.

5...4...3...2...I (23) After having taken the course, you feel this new method really works.

5...4...3...2...I (24) After having taken the course, \'?;r child seems to have gained more appreciation for t/i: arts .

165

5...4...3...2...1 (25) After having taken the course, you and your child would like to take the course again if offered at some other time and place.

Are there other issues related to this course which you feel should be addressed? If there are, please elaborate (please use the other side if necessary):

166

PARENT EVALUATIONS: MEAN SCORES OF ITEMS

Item^

# 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 # 5 # 6 # 7 # 8 # 9 #10 #11 #12 #13 #14 #15 #16 #17 #18 #19 #20 #21 #22 #23 #24 #25

Average x

Question

X

4.29 4.57 3.90 4.33 4.52 3.76 4.90 4.19 3.86 3.24 4.71 4.67 3.76 2.95 2.10 4.57 4.57 4.57 4.14 4.33 3.48 4.00 3.67 3.19 3.19

4.02

Items

Rating"-*

Good Excellent Good Good Excellent Good Excellent Good Good Average Excellent Excellent Good Average Below Average Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Good Average Good Average Average Good

Good

^See the previous page for description of each item.

^The objective translation of ratings is as follows:

4.5 to 5 Excellent Quality 3.7 to 4.5 Good Quality 2.8 to 3.6 Average Quality 1.9 to 2,7 Below Average Quality 1.0 to 1.8 Poor Quality

167

PARENT EVALUATIONS: MEAN SCORES OF RESPONDENT

Parents

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7 P 8 P 9 PIO Pll PI 2 PI 3 Pl4 PI 5 PI 6 PI 7 PI 8 PI 9 P20 P21

x^

4.24 4.04 4.00 4.16 3-48 3.56 4.12 4.32 3.68 4.20 4.16 3.76 3.96 4.12 3.84 4.16 4.04 4.28 4.04 3.92 4.32

Rating

Good Good Good Good Average Average Good Good Average Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good

Average x 4.02 Good

^he objective translation of ratings is as follows

4.5 to 5-0 3.7 to 4.5 2.8 to 3.6 1.9 to 2.7 1.0 to 1.8

Excellent Quality Good Quality Average Quality Below Average Quality Poor Quality

APPENDIX F

PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY

168

169

Dear Parents of Pre-First Grade Children,

Please read the following and check the appropriate box at the bottom of the page and return to me as soon as possible. As you notice, no name or signature is required. This IS an opinion survey. I am interested in determining the probable acceptance by the public of a new program for the teaching of art. This is a questionnaire only. No one will call on you no matter what your answer may be. Your reply will be greatly appreciated.

Funded by the Texas Tech University Education Department, I am now conducting a pilot arts education program for 3 to 6 year old children as a part of my dissertation for the PhD degree in Fine Arts. At present, the classes will be or are meeting at St. John Neumann School throughout the month of May. This program is based on the philosophy of the Suzuki violin educational method. As you may be aware, many of our local children are learning to play the violin at an early age by this method and have appeared on television and in concerts.

This arts education pilot program is the first effort in the United States to adapt the Suzuki music program to the field of visual arts. This program proposes a method of early childhood arts education based on the Suzuki Method of Japan. It is felt that such a program would provide not only an early introduction to the field of visual arts, but also would foster the development of the child's full potential through parent-child-centered educational techniques. The program places importance on: (1) fostering visual sense, (2) developing artistic ability, and (3) strengthening a positive parent-child relationship.

The pilot program strives to incorporate Dr. Suzuki's educational philosophy in the teaching of art. Art is taught to the very young child in a gradual, sequential, systematic manner, and the child learns the principles and techniques of visual arts in the same manner in which he learns language. A most important aspect of the program is the involvement of parents in the learning process. One or both parents is taught to teach his/her child and, throughout the week, he/she spends 20 minutes to one half hour daily reinforcing what was introduced in the twice weekly lessons. Using the rhythmic method, art activities take place between the parents and their children. Lessons which build a basic knowledge of drawing, painting, etc., are sequentially planned and are taught through the use of music, story-telling, audio-visual materials, and dance.

170

Please check one; Yes, I would be interested in participating in a Suzuki-type arts education program if one were to be offered in my area at a reasonable price and at a convenient time.

Undecided.

No, I would not be interested.

If you have any questions, please call; Joe Arimitsu, 4620 Grinnell St., Lubbock, Texas, (806) 747-0897. Thank you.

APPENDIX G

SCORING SHEET AND STANDARDS:

GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST

171

172

GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST

by Florence L. Goodenough and Dale B. Harris*

Name

School

Grade .Age

Father's Occupation

Boy_ Girl

_Date of Drawing,

Birth Date

Examiner's Notes Summary

Raw Score Standard Score Percentile Rank

Point Scale

Man

Woman

Average

Self

Quality Scale

Man

Woman

Average

^Copyright I963 by Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., New York. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.

SHORT SCORING GUIDE* 173

Man Point Scale

1. Head present 2. Neck present 3. Neck, two dimensions 4. Eyes present 5' Eye detail: brow or lashes 6. Eye detail: pupil 7. Eye detail: proportion 8. Eye detail: glance 9. Nose present 10. Nose, two dimensions 11. Mouth present 12. Lips, two dimensions 13. Both nose and kips in

two dimensions 14. Both chin and forehead

shown 15. Projection of chin shown;

chin clearly differentiated from lower lip Line of jaw indicated Bridge of nose Hair I Hair II Hair III Hair IV Ears present Ears present: proportion and position

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25-

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Fingers present Correct number of fingers shown Detail of fingers correct Opposition of thtimb shown Hands present Wrist or ankle shown Arms present Shoulders I Shoulders II Arms at side or engaged in activity Elbow joint shown Legs present Hip I (crotch) Hip II Knee joint shown Feet I: any indication Feet II: proportion

41. 42. ^3. 44.

45.

46. ^7.

48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

55-56, 57-58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70. 71. 72. 73.

Feet III: heel Feet IV; perspective Feet V: detail Attachment of arms and legs I Attachment of arms and legs II Trunk present Trunk in proportion, two dimensions Proportion; head Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion

head face arms arms legs limbs

I II

I II

m two dimensions Clothing I Clothing II Clothing III Clothing IV Clothing V Profile I Profile II Full face Motor coordination: junctures Superior motor coordination Directed lines and form: head outline Directed lines and form: trunk outline Directed lines and form: arms and legs Directed line and form: facial features "Sketching" technique "Modeling" technique Arm movement Leg movement

^(Harris, 1963, p. 2?5)

SHORT SCORING GUIDE* 17^

Woman Point Scale

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

41. 42. 43.

Head present Neck present Neck, two dimensions Eyes present Eye detail: brow or lashes Eye detail: pupil Eye detail; proportion Cheeks Nose present Nose, two dimensions Bridge of nose Nostrils shown Mouth present Lips, two dimensions "Cosmetic lips" Both nose and lips in two dimensions Both chin and forehead shown

of jaw indicated I

Line Hair Hair Hair Hair

II III IV

m

Necklace or earrings Arms present Shoulders Arms at side (or engaged activity or behind back) Elbow joint shown Fingers present Correct number of fingers shown Detail of fingers correct Opposition of thumb shown Hands present Legs present Hip

I; any indication II: proportion III: detail I: "feminine" II: style

Placement of feet appropriate to figure Attachment of arms and legs Attachment of arms and legs Clothing indicated

Feet Feet Feet Shoe Shoe

44. ^5. 46. ^7. 48. 49. 50.

51.

52. 53.

54. 55. 56. 57-58. 59. 60.

61. 62. 63.

65-

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

Sleeve I Sleeve II Neckline I Neckline II: collar Waist I Waist II Skirt "modeled" to indicate pleats or draping No transparencies in the figure Garb feminine Garb complete, without incongruities Garb a definite "type" Trunk present Trunk in proportion, two dimensions Head-trunk proportion Head: proportion Limbs: proportion Arms in proportion to trunk Location of waist Dress area Motor coordination: lines Superior motor coordination Directed lines and form: head outline Directed lines and form: breast Directed lines and form: hip contour Directed lines and form: arms taper Directed lines and form: calf of leg Directed lines and form: facial features

I II

*(Harris, I963, p. 292)

Make Your First Drawing Here

Draw a picture of a man. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make the whole man, not just his head and shoulders.

Raw Score

1.

2 .

3 . 4 .

5 . 6.

7 . 8.

9 . 10 .

1 1 .

12 .

1 3 . 14.

15 . 16 .

17. 18 .

19 . 20.

2 1 .

22 .

2 3 . 2^ .

25 . 26 .

27. 28 .

29. 30.

3 1 . 32.

3 3 .

3 ^ .

35 . 36.

37 .

175 38 .

39 . 40 .

4 1 .

42 .

4 3 . 44 .

4 5 . 46 .

47 . 4 8 .

49 . 50.

51 . 52.

53. 54.

55. 56.

57. 58.

59. 60.

6 1 . 62.

63 . 64.

65. 66.

67. 68 .

69. 70.

7 1 . 72.

7'^.

Make Your Second Drawing Here

Draw a picture of a woman. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make the whole woman, no just her head and shoulders.

Raw Score

1 .

2 .

3 . 4 .

5 . 6.

7 . 8.

9. 10.

1 1 . 12.

1 3 . 14.

15 . 16.

17 . 18.

19. 20.

2 1 .

22.

2 3 . 24.

25 . 26.

27. 28 .

29. 30.

3 1 . 32.

33 . 34.

35 .

36.

176 37.

38 .

39 . 40.

4 1 .

42 .

4 3 . 44 .

4 5 . 46 .

47 . 48 .

49 . 50.

5 1 .

52.

53 .

54.

55.

56.

57. 58.

59. 60.

6 1 .

62.

63 . 64.

65. 66.

67. 68.

69. t o .

7 1 .

APPENDIX H

SCORING SHEET: BROUCH TEMPERA RATING SCALE

177

178

TEMPERA USE RATING SCALE

Check only one per group:

1. Primitive/Scribble

2. Pre-Schematic Schema:

3. Schematic 4. Dawning Realism

1. Raw

2. Mixed; Local

3. Mixed; Designed

4. Mixed/Carried Through 1. Flat

2. Shaded Shape: ^ ^ . ^ - ,

3. Fairly Correct 4. Accurate Proportions 1. Weak

^^^^^ 2. Bold/Sure

1. Smooth

2. Thick

3. Watered ^^^^^^^'' /|. Varied/Graded

5. Blended

6. Textured

You may check more than one of the following:

1. Center of Interest 1. Picture Completed

Composition: j^^ Atmosphere 1. Harmony

Student # Rav/ Score

APPENDIX I

INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY

179

180

PEARSON r CORRELATION ON THREE BTRS*JUDGES

TO ASSESS INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY

Group E Group C Group E Group C Pretest Pretest Posttest Posttest

Judges

# 1 and # 2 0.025 0.280 0.110 0.600

# 1 and # 3 O.730 O.960 O.750 0.550

# 2 and # 3 0.060 0.330 0.460 -O.050

*The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale

APPENDIX J

PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY: NUMBER OF RESPONSES

151

182

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