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Copyright by
TOKUROH ARIMITSU
1982
THE SUZUKI METHOD OF INSTRUCTION APPLIED TO
ART EDUCATION FOR YOUNG CHILDREN IN AMERICA
by
TOKUROH ARIMITSU, B.A., M.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
FINE ARTS (ART)
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
May, 1982
/?'- , :-> ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of a doctoral study is not an individ
ual effort, and I am deeply indebted to those who gave of
their time and knowledge to help bring this study to a
conclusion. I regret that I cannot mention the names of all
persons, both in Japan and in the United States, who made
possible its culmination.
A debt of gratitude is due particularly to Professor
Marvin Moon, whose invaluable guidance and counseling
contributed to the preparation and completion of this study.
As chairman of my dissertation committee, he gave generously
of his wisdom, scholarly advice, and moral support.
I am equally indebted to Dr. Marvin Flatten for pro
viding financial support through the Departn ient of Education
at Texas Tech University. He inspired me to consider the
organization of the dissertation's complex design and pro
vided me with a variety of resources during the initial
phases of the dissertation. His belief in the potential of
the development and implementation of this study caused T;e
to expand my perceptions of the new method's potential
usefulness for American art education.
The advice and assistance of the other mem/cers of :.y
committee, Professors Clarence Kincaid, Reid Hastie, Billy
Lockhart, and James Barber have also made this i: ss-3rtation
a meaningful and rewarding experience.
ii
My gratitude must also be extended to the two Japanese
scholars who acted as advisers and providers of m.anuscripts
essential to the completion of this study, Mr. Yoshio Tamano
and Dr. Masaaki Honda.
I owe a special word of appreciation to Professor Betty
Street for her continuous support and encouragement.
Special appreciation is extended to administrators and
teachers at St. John Neumann School and First Christian
Church School, who participated in the study.
Appreciation is herewith extended to: Barbara Barber,
Director of the Suzuki Program at Texas Tech University, and
my colleagues who participated in the study, Fran Scott, Dan
Wood, Matalie Wham, Sara Summers, and V/innell Young.
Above all, I am most thankful to my wife. Sue Ellen,
who has sacrificed much and has given me encouragement from
the outset of my project to the completion of this study.
Without the love, support and strength of my wife and child
ren, Yumi, Vincent, and Miki, this doctoral dissertation was
not possible.
Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES x
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Study 1
The Poverty of Art Education 1
The Suzuki/Tamano Method 6
Statement of the Problem 7
The Hypotheses 9
Hypothesis One 9
Hypothesis Two 9
Hypothesis Three 9
Hypothesis Four 9
Hypothesis Five 10
Hypothesis Six 10
Assumptions of the Study 10
Limitations of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 12
Summary 1^
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 15
The Comparative Study of Creative Thinking In Japan and the United States 16
The Philosophic Backgrounds of Curricul^ar. Development in the United States and Japan 2 0
1 V
Background of Curriculum Development in the United States 21
Background of Curriculum Development
in Japan 2G
The Suzuki Method 30
Concepts of the Suzuki Method . . . . 30
The Tamano Method 3^
Concepts of the Tamano Method . . . . 35
The Interface with Early Childhood Education 36
Summary 4l
CHAPTER III THE ADAPTED SUZUKI/TAMANO TREATMENT +3
Stage One: Utilizing Suzuki Concepts . . . ^3
Rote Teaching ^^
Parent Involvement ^5
Listening Program ^7
Stage Two: Synthesizing the Suzioki and Tamano Methods . . . ^9
Stage Three: Modifying the Instructional Situation 50
Summary 51
CHAPTER IV THE EXPERIMENT 52
The Population 52
The Setting 52
St. John Neumann School 53
First Christian Church School . . 5 '
Selection of the Experiment and Control Groups 55
V
Method of Selection 55
Design of the Study 5^
The Research Design 5"]
The Instruments G^
The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC) GOi
Specifications of Instrument . . . 60
Administration and Scoring Procedures 62
The Goodenough-Harris Drav/ing Test
(GHDT) 63
Specifications of Instrument . . . 63
Administration and Scoring Procedures 65
The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS ) GG
Specifications of Instrument . . . GG
Administration and Scoring Procedures 68
Parent Evaluation 70 Specifications of Instrument . . . 70
Administration and Scoring Procedures 71
Public Opinion Survey 72
Specifications of Instrument . . . 72
Administration and Scoring
Procedures 73
The Method of Treatment 7-
Teaching Procedures 7^
The Statistical Analysis 80 Summary 8C
vi
CHAPTER V FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS 82
Preliminary Findings 83
t-Tests 83
Principal Findings 85
The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts . . . 85
The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test . . 91
The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale . . . . 93
Parent Evaluation 96
Scores by Items 96
Scores by Respondents 98
The Public Opinion Survey 98
Interpretation of the Data 100
Hypotheses 100
Hypothesis One lOQ
Hypothesis Two 100
Hypothesis Three 101
Hypothesis Four 101
Hypothesis Five 101
Hypothesis Six 102
The Surveys 102
Parent Evaluation 102
Public Opinion Survey I03
Summary 10-
CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMT/IENDATIONS IO6
VI1
Summary of the Experiment 106
Primary Investigation 107
Hypothesis One IO9
Hypothesis Two IO9
Hypothesis Three IO9
Hypothesis Four IO9
Hypothesis Five IO9
Hypothesis Six 110
Secondary Investigation 110
Parent Evaluation 110
Public Opinion Survey Ill
Conclusions and Implications 112
Recommendations for Further Study 115
SELECTED REFERENCES 120
APPENDIX 126
A. TORRANCE'S SIXTEEN INDICATIONS OF
CREATIVITY 126
B. PARENTAL PLEDGE OF COOPERATION . . . . 129
C. ADAPTED TAMANO METHOD: SELECTED LESSONS 131
D. PROCESS EVALUATION: OBSERVATIONAL DATA 158
E. PARENT EVALUATION l62
F. PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY I68 G. SCORING SHEET AND STANDARDS:
GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST . . . I7I H. SCORING SHEET: BROUCH TMPERA
RATING SCALE 177
viii
I. INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY 179
J. PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY: NUMBER OF RESPONSES 181
IX
LIST OF TABLES
I. Ethnic Distribution of Experimental and Control Groups 5G
II. Pretest: t-Test Comparisons Between
Two Groups on Five Variables 8^
III. Steps to Determine Difference in Age . . . . 86
IV. Posttest: t-Test Comparisons Between Two Groups on Five Variables 87
V. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Boehm Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 88
VI. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups' Boehm Test of Basic Concepts Scores 90
VII. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Goodenough-Harris Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 92
VIII. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups'' Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test Scores 9^
IX. Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental and Control Groups' Scores on the Brouch Tempera Posttest Controlling for the Pretest Scores 95
X. Results of the Paired t-Test of Control and Experimental Groups' Brouch Tempera Rating Scale Scores 9?
XI. Results of Public Opinion Survey ?9
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The Poverty of Art Education
The field of art education in present day America
places great emphasis on the creative/expressive. Little
attention is given to teaching artistic technique, as it is
maintained that the rules of art are to be discovered, not
imposed. Little emphasis has been placed on actual tech
nical learning in art education since child development
concepts broke through the formalistic method (i.e., the
prescribed drawing lessons ) of the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century. Artistic responses, it has been postu
lated by Viktor Lowenfeld, come easily and naturally to the
young child in a reasonably well-defined and orderly sequence
(Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1982). Minimally the contribution
of the teacher is to refrain from obstructing this process;
maximally it is to anticipate and nurture the developing
sequence of behaviors with appropriate materials and experi
ences. Consequently, research in art education has tended
to be primarily descriptive in order to establish the proper
sequences, and only secondarily experimental in order to
determine the most efficacious materials and methods (Harris,
1971).
1
As early as the 1960s, the traditional goal of self-
discovery through art has been challenged in various
studies. The conclusions of these studies agree that if
work in art is mainly self-projective and does not include
some form of artistic search, analysis, expression, and
evaluation; little interactive learning can take place. In
setting specific or general goals, the teacher must always
remember that artistic behavior, indeed, all behavior, is
developed through environmental interaction as well as
through subjective experience (Eisner, 1966; Wilson, I966).
Therefore, it would seem that curriculum planning,
which involves the orderly study of education in light of
stated objectives, is as important to art educators as the
study of art as a discipline. Harnack (I968) defines 5 r a
curriculum planning more specifically when he refers to it \^
as a four-fold process: (1) attacking an instructional
problem through group effort, in which members of the group
mutually respect one another and resolve their differences
rationally; (2) soliciting expert opinion from all available
sources and its use after intelligent consideration of its
applicability to a specific local situation; (3) putting
plans into practice; and ( ) continuous reevaluating and
refining these plans after they become operational (pp. ^ 8-
55).
Due to the general lack of interest in art education
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among school administrators and the public as compared to
other subjects such as reading or mathematics, children
commonly lack exposure to art. Empirical data gathered
by Downey (I96O) and by Dressel and his associates (1959)
indicates that the public still does not assign the arts
high priority among school subjects. Downey conducted an
extensive survey to determine educational priorities of
various reference groups in which he asked people from
differing parts of the coujitry to rank in order of import
ance, sixteen tasks typically undertaken by the school.
Aesthetic education as the development of artistic capac
ities and skills was ranked fourteenth by lay people and
twelfth by educators. Although the value assigned to t
aesthetic education increased with the amount of education * r t
individuals had, in no group did it break into the upper {
half of the ranking. In a survey of college faculty
members regarding the importance of the arts in higher edu
cation, Dressel and others (1959) found that approximately
thirteen per cent thought that involvement in the arts
should be required of ail students in college. Although
the status of the visual arts in public education appears
to be low, there is some evidence to suggest that greater
concern for education in the arts was beginning to emerge
in the 1970s as the result of the federally-funded prograii s
in the arts. Yet, complaints concerning general apathy
\
toward art education are raised time and again by art
teachers and sometimes in professional literature as v/ell.
For example, Vincent Lanier asks why research has not had
a noticeable effect on educational practice, and Arthur
Efland questions why art occupies such a low status in cur
schools (Lanier, 1974, pp. 12-15; Efland, 1976, pp. 37-^^).
Clearly there is a need to improve the status of art in
our society.
Therefore, it would seem that community based art
education would be of substantial value if it involved the
whole or part of a community for the purpose of providing
children with more exposure to art outside the public
educational systems and gains public awareness and support
for the values of art. A community oriented arts education
has two advantages: (1) it can involve parents directly
in their children's art education; and (2) it allows the
participation of preschool children with emphasis placed
upon developing the child's visual perception at a young age.
Since parents are the first educators of their child,
it seems appropriate that any form of education for the
child should stem from the family. In 1515 Sir Thomas More
wrote in his "Utopia" that the basis of perfect existence
must be provided by the family. More recently the home
environment has been regarded as a crucial factor in the
development of the child's creativity. In view of research
by Bloom (196^), Dave (I963), Hunt (I96I), and Wolf (196^),
5
the home environment appears to be most important in foster
ing or hampering a disposition toward creativity during the
crucial early years of the child's development. The later
one begins to foster or nurture creativity, it seems, the
more difficult it is for the child to develop this quality
(Brittain, 1979, pp. 183-184). How then can one go about
the task of providing the child with opportunity to develop
creativity?
Charles Wieder in an article reviewing research in
child art concludes:
The intelligent application of research methods and the integration of findings from within and outside of the field of art education is a formidable endeavor. Instructional application of this research to the education of children is equally demanding. Both are essential functions of art education; and confusion concerning children's artistic development. (1977, p. 10)
These are the primary concerns in curriculum planning, and
yet in this reference Wieder never uses the word "curric
ulum ."
During recent years the art education-related journals
have included articles regarding the various aspects of
instruction such as pupil-teacher planning, learning
theories, and creativity. Yet, little effort has been
expended to synthesize these articles into a comprehensive
theory of instruction. Methods books have continued to
focus on general directions for the aims of art education
rather than focusing on specific directions for presenting
specific materials. Anderson Macklin has expressed concern
over this kind of situation pointing out that:
. . .Students in art education courses are taught don'ts in classroom instruction in art: Don't give the children perspective or any kind of technical instruction until they are ready; don't employ coloring books or workbooks; avoid competition; don't introduce watercolor during the schematic stage of development. Moreover, art educators agree that the nature of art expression precludes rigid, planned teaching objectives or lesson plans. (1978, p. 11)
Macklin then attacks the over-reliance on self-discovery
as the focus of a school's art program since the turn of
this century and concludes that:
The Suzuki Method adapted for instruction of drawing and design principles should be introduced : into the school program. Drawing and Design are ( suggested, since they are other areas of art studio. If children at the age of three can be taught to j reproduce notes on a violin with aural instruction, ' then children at the age of three should be able to reproduce harmonious arrangements of lines, forms, i. and color with visual instruction. Definitions in art are unimportant at this level of instruction. They are unimportant for the same reason that they are unimportant in music. They only inhibit the learning of fundamentals. Definitions can come later. (1978, p. 12)
The Suzuki/Tamano Method
The Suzuki Talent Education Method, popularly kno\\Ti
as the Suzuki Method, has enjoyed considerable success
throughout the world since its im^plementation shortly after
World War II. At present a great number of children in
sixteen different countries are taking music lessons by
the Method, including some 100,000 children in Anerica and
25,000 children in Japan (Ukai, 198O). The effectiveness
I-•J
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of this method of teaching music was quickly appreciated
in the United States by such professional music schools
as the New England Conservatory, the Eastman School of
Music, and the College Conservatory in Boston, all of
which instituted Suzuki Type Programs ("Invasion from the
Orient," I967).
Masaaki Honda is the current director of the Suzuki
Talent Education Institute, the organization that operates
the Suzuki Method Program in Japan and abroad. Yoshio
Tamano is head of the Arts Education Research Institute
which provides the Suzuki Method Program v;ith visual arts
emphasis. As this dissertation involved a study in early
childhood arts education adapted from the Suzuki Method
using the Tamano curriculum and instruction, both of these
men have expressed interest and have discussed the possi- f.
bility with the writer of utilizing the Suzuki organization
as a means of expanding and implementing such a program if
it appears feasible (Honda & Tamano, 1980a, 1980b).
Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study was to adapt for American
children and to the visual arts the mother-tongue method
of Shinichi Suzuki; to apply it to a group of subjects
utilizing a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest nonequiv-
alent control group design for the experiment; and to
evaluate its success utilizing measures of art quality,
\
9-
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ability to form basic concepts, and cognition.
The curriculum materials employed were translated
and adapted from an existing series of arts education
materials recently developed by Yoshio Tamano (1979a)
for the purpose of determining if it could be successfully
adapted to the visual arts in America as the Suzuki Method
has been adapted to music education. If this were to be
feasible, it might also determine the direction the program
should take in the future. To assess this, the study
addressed this concern:
What effects will participation in the activities
in the pilot study have on the children in term.s of f
the quality of their art work and of their cognitive
development? '
The study also addressed the following secondary question: i.
Will a pilot arts education program using the Suzuki/
Tamano Method generate sufficient interest to warrant
a continuation and expansion of the program in the
United States?
In summary, the study was intended to determine the
feasibility of using curriculum materials and methods of
instruction designed for use in the Japanese early child
hood arts education program, i.e., the Suzuki/Tamano Method,
in an American version of that same program.
9
The Hypotheses
From the statement of the problem, six research
hypotheses were formulated and tested with two groups of
children, an experimental group and a control group. The
hypotheses are:
Hypothesis One
The experimental group will score significantly
higher than the control group at the end of the experiment
on a standardized measure of their abilities to form basic
concepts (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts).
Hypothesis Two
The experimental group will score significantly higher
on the posttest measure of their abilities to form basic
concepts than on the pretest, using the same measure for
both (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts). The control group
will not.
Hypothesis Three
The experimental group will score significantly
higher than the control group at the end of the experiment
on a standardized measure of cognition (the Goodenough-
Harris Drawing Test).
Hypothesis Four
The experimental group will score significantly
higher on the posttest measure of their cognition than on
I r r ( r
10
the pretest, using the same measure for both (the Goode
nough-Harris Drawing Test). The control group will not.
Hypothesis Five
The experimental group will score significantly
higher than the control group at the end of the experiment
on a measure of the quality of their art works (the Brouch
Tempera Rating Scale).
Hypothesis Six
The experimental group will score significantly
higher on the posttest measure of the quality of their art
works than on the pretest, using the same measure for both
(the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale). The control group
will not.
Assumptions of the Study
For this study several assumptions were made:
(1) The Suzuki/Tamano Method assumes that a close
relationship exists between a parent and child, and that
this relationship in early learning experiences enable the
child to learn more effectively during his school years.
Thus, it would follow that a program which combined early
learning experience and the development of closer parent-
child ties would have a salutary effect upon the development
of the young child. This assumption is supported by a
quantity of research studies which deal with multiple
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II
aspects of child growth.
(2) It also is assumed by the Method that every
child has potential of his/her own, in varying degrees,
and that it can best be brought out by following the natural
process by which a mother teaches her child to speak, i.e.,
the mother-tongue method.
(3) The Method assumes that children need time to
develop, to test, to explore, to repeat, to reinforce, to
acquire, to learn through the structure of a content area.
Several such areas, e.g., those exemplified by the Physical
Science Study Committee (PSSC), the Chemical Bond Approach
(CBA), and the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), have
been undertaken in this regard. Such studies were first
begun in mathematics and science but have gradually spread '
to all subject areas (Eraser, 1962).
Limitations of the Study
In order to achieve the specific purpose of this
study, certain limitations were necessary in order to
circumscribe and confine the problem.
(1) The selection of participants was limited to
children who were enrolled in the pre-first grade in private
schools of Lubbock, Texas. Although the original Suzuki
Method in Japan involved children as young as the age of
two, the pre-first grade in Lubbock generally consists 01
three- to six-year-old children, so the study was confined
[ f
12
to this grade level. Also, as the schools involved were
private schools and charge approximately eighty dollars
per month tuition, the students are essentially middle
class children.
(2) The participants in this study were limited to
children who possessed certain physical characteristics
necessary for successful performance of the art activities.
Characteristics considered to be essential were good general
health, and normal vision and hearing ability. Medical
records of the school nurse were consulted for these
conditions.
(3) The subjects in the study were limited also by
the willingness of a parent to participate with the child
for the full four weeks of treatment.
(4) It was necessary to draw the data from these
intact groups rather than a randomly sampled group of
subjects. The data was gathered from the respondents,
especially the children, over a relatively short period of
time (four weeks).
As a consequence of these limitations, extrapolations
or projections of the data beyond the groups and the popula
tions sampled should be made with care.
Definition of Terms
The following are terms used in the study and are
defined in relation to their application to this research.
13
(1) Arts education: For the purpose of this study,
arts education is defined as being inclusive of the visual
arts as well as music, poetry, dance, drama, storytelling,
etc. Within this study, special emphasis is placed on the
visual arts.
(2) Early childhood: For the purpose of this study,
the term will apply with particular focus on three- to
six-year-old preschool children.
(3) Mother-Tongue approach: The term refers to a
method by which young children learn in a manner similar
to that by which they learn language. As in the learning
of language, this method utilizes the parent at the first
teacher, and the relationship of child to parent is the
vital ingredient in the child's progress. •
(4) The Suzuki Method; The Suzuki Talent Education f
Method for violin instruction has been employed for many
years in Japan and more recently in the United States and
sixteen different countries. Children as young as two
years of age are taught through this mother-tongue method
to play compositions which are, technically and musically,
quite demanding. The children learn to play the instruments
through the process of imitation and repetition.
(5) The Suzuki/Tamano Method: For the purpose of
the study, this term will be utilized to designate the
writer's adaptation and extension for American children of
Tamano's application of Suzuki's concepts for the visual artL-.
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Summary
This study explores the possibility of developing
and implementing an early childhood arts education program
based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method to three- to six-year-
old children. It is undertaken for the purpose of deter
mining the feasibility of adapting the Japanese program
for American children and the advisability of continuing
and expanding such a program. To assess this, the study
focuses on effects on the participating children in terms
of the quality of art work and their cognitive development.
The problem is deemed significant since, to the writer's
knowledge the study is the first effort in the United p I
States to develop and implement a Tamano early childhood
arts education program based on the Suzuki concepts. r
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter contains a discussion of the literature
relating to this study. Presented first is a brief summary
of Paul Torrance's comparative study on the nature of
creative thinking of the Japanese as compared to their
American counterparts. By stating its findings, the writer
hopes to shed light upon the basic difference between the
two countries' educational philosophies. This section is
followed by a discussion of the philosophical basis for *.. rr I
the curriculum development of both countries emphasizing ^
art education. Then the Suzuki concept as a representative »;
of Japanese curriculum is explored. This is of particular J
importance since it is used throughout for purposes of -i
this study. This chapter then contains a brief summary
of the Tamano early childhood arts education method which
is an adaptation from the Suzuki concept and is used for
the outcome of this study in analyzing instructional events,
and the problems and limitations involved. The last topic
discussed is concerned with an interface showing evidence
of support for the Suzuki/Tamano Method in the literature
of early childhood education.
16
The Comparative Study of Creative Thinking In Japan and the United States
Paul Torrance, Alumni Foundation Distinguished
Professor of Creativity at University of Georgia, was one
of the first educators to research and evaluate cross-
cultural creativity achievements. In 1978 he spent three
months in Japan under the auspices of the Japan Society
for the Promotion of Science. While in Japan, he recog
nized a number of creative achievements of Japanese society
which people had come to the forefront of world creativity,
while conversely, the United States had developed a national
problem of underachievement. To support this view, Torrance rr
cites such evidence as the fact that: |
In 1978, patents issued to residents of the United States declined to the lowest point in 15 years (Michaels, 1979), the trade deficit of the ; United States rose to $28 million, and productivity t; in the United States dropped. At the same time, -^ Japan emerged as "Number 1" in many areas of creative achievement (Seward, 1977; Vogel, 1979). The following are examples of such achievements: number of inventions and patents, number of novels published each year, student achievement on international tests in science and mathematics, percentage of students completing high school, literacy, life expectancy, pollution techniques and standards, elimination of poverty and unemployment, wages to workers, transportation and communication systems, shipbuilding, textile exports, transistor exports, and the like. In addition, Japan's crime rate is the lowest of any country in the world and the percentage of criminals detected is the highest. (Torrance & Sato, 1979a, pp. 145-146)
Torrance became fascinated by evidence he received
while in Japan that indicated that Japanese children and
adults made up a nation of over-achievers by pointing
17
out that:
In the 15 preschools that I visited, the physical skills in musical performance, art products, dramatic enactments, and skills of group cooperation were beyond what I thought was developmentally possible. They were accompanied by a quality of creative expressiveness and also of problem solving that I had thought beyond the capability of children 3-6. Many people believe that emphasis on these skills accounts for the fact that there are not only no reading problems in Japanese schools but also an almost total lack of illiteracy. (Torrance, 1980, p. 30)
In order to answer the numerous questions, Torrance
in conjunction with Saburo Sato, Professor of American
Education and Dean of the Faculty of Letters at Osaka City
University of Japan, set out to compare and contrast
differences in Japanese and American styles of creative
thinking. Two investigative studies were conducted; in r r
each study the subjects were 200 Japanese and 200 American \ \-
randomly-chosen college students. The first investigation ^ ,«
attempted to study possible differences in cerebral
specialization (Torrance & Sato, 1979a). The instrument
used in the study. Your Style of Learning and Thinking,
Form A, is a thirty-six item questionnaire which yields
scores for: (a) left cerebral hemisphere functions (logical,
rational, objective, verbal thinking); (b) right cerebral
hemisphere functions (spacial, perceptual, intuitive, crea
tive, subjective thinking); and (c) integrated functions
(Torrance, Reynolds, Riegel, & Ball, 1977). The results of
this questionnaire were not an indication that American
utilize one cerebral hemisphere either more or less exten-
k
18
sively than do Japanese students; however, it determined
that Japanese scored significantly higher than American
students on both right and left hemispheres and lower on
the integrative scale. These results indicate that the
Japanese have capacities to switch from one mode of thinking
to the other based on needs. Moreover, Torrance found
significant difference in three areas: (1) he found that
more Japanese students showed a preference for an intuitive
approach to problem solving, while American preferred a «
logical approach; (2) Japanese students were inclined toward
planning and precision in problem solving while American
students preferred spontaneity and open-endedness; and (3)
Japanese students placed more importance on verbal modes of
learning, teaching and communication than did American
students (Torrance & Sato, 1979a).
Torrance concludes that recent Japanese dominance in
creative areas seems to stem from the Japanese preference
for verbal exactitude and for planning and precision combined
with the strong cultural preferences for creative and
intuitive thinking. He feels these are a "winning combina
tion" (Torrance & Sato, 1979a, p. 150).
In a second study Torrance and Sato delved further into
a comparisons of Japanese and American students, this time
in the area of figural creative thinking abilities. Again,
200 American and 200 Japanese college students were the
subjects of the study. The instrument used was the Torrance
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Test of Creative Thinking. In this test subjects are asked
to complete incomplete figures. The completed figures were
scored for sixteen indications of creativity. (See Appendix
A.) Of the sixteen characteristics measured, Japanese
students scored significantly higher than the American
subjects on twelve of the indicators: flexibility in using
the repeated figures, originality, elaboration, resistance
to premature closure, breaking boundaries, unusual visual
perspective, internal visual perspective, rich colorful
imagery, humor, feeling and emotion, fantasy, and movement.
American students excelled on only one indicator--that of
fluency. There were no significant differences on three of
the indicators: flexibility in content, synthesis, and
articulateness in telling story. Torrance concludes that
contrary to the popular belief that the Japanese are adapters
and imitators; Japanese are indeed, more creative than their
American counterparts (Torrance & Sato, 1979b, pp. 216-221).
Upon reviewing the findings of the tv/o studies,
Torrance makes the following suggestions to American educators:
(1) We should attempt to establish a climate more favorable to the expression of giftedness and creativity - one in which the creativity of each individual is valued and one in the entire society assumes responsibility for stimulating to the fullest the potential of our children.
(2) We should provide a great many more experience to children (especially 3-6) in developing physical, visual art, music, drama, dance, and team skills, and we should regard such skills as basic in education.
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(3) We should find many new ways to reward a great variety of creative achievements among children as well as among adults.
(4) We should assign great importance to persistence training and to taking "the long look"-giving considerable time in the curriculum to helping students get a broader, richer, more accurate image of the future.
(5) We should provide conditions which will facilitate the development of the abilities, skills, and motivations needed for self-directed learning.
(6) We should give more opportunities for group learning and problem solving and should make skills of cooperation in groups in meaningful activities a goal of education.
(7) We should encourage respect for rules along with the development of skills for using the freedoms allowed under the rules. (Torrance, I98O, p. 32)
Torrance has expressed his primary concerns in curriculum
planning, yet in this reference, he has not used the word
"curriculum." Although he suggests the basic difference
in curriculum approaches taken by each country, a more
complete discussion of the various differences which
delineate the over-all structure of curriculum development
is included in the following sections.
The Philosophic Backgrounds of Curriculum Development in the United States
and Japan
A number of interesting questions about Japanese
curriculum development are raised by Torrance's findings.
These prompted the writer to pursue two objectives: first,
to describe the brief background of curriculum develop
ment of both the United States and Japan and second, to
present a summary of those differences having significant
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21
hearing on problems in the field.
Background of Curriculum Development in the United States
Curriculum in the schools in the United States during
the 1870s generally was defined as courses of study and
lists of subjects and courses offered by the school. Since
1870, this concept of curriculum has broadened to include
"all the experiences which are offered to learners under the
auspices or direction of the school" (Doll, I966, p. 15).
This change has occurred largely as a result of psychological
theories which suggest that if the whole child comes to
school, then teachers must structure learning activities
involving all dimensions of his being. Curriculum plarjiers
have reasoned that if students' experiences were to improve,
teachers must be re-educated. If the re-education of teach- f
ers were to be accomplished, teachers of teachers, i.e.,
administrators, professors, would need to be re-educated as
a means of identifying and satisfying the needs of teachers.
This is the basis for the curriculum planner's belief in
cooperative effort as the means of improving the educative
process, and is one of the many forces which has led to the
tremendous rise in educational research (Doll, I966).
The period between 1917 and 1947, when curriculum
development as we know it today was just becoming estab
lished, often referred to as the Era of Progressive
Education. According to Miller three distinct phases are
i
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22
identifiable in this period. The first he refers to as
the Science of Education Movement, the second as the
Child-Centered School, and the third as the Social Recon-
structionist Position (Miller, I966, pp. 3-l6).
The Science of Education Movement began as an attempt
to apply the scientific method to education. Achievement
and aptitude testing appeared at this time and their
impact was such that even more attention was devoted to
the accumulation of factual information (Miller, I966,
pp. 3-16). Logan, commenting on this movement in relation
to art education, states that the rational psychologists,
the Hegelians, set upon educating children up to a standard
of adult values in art, literature, craftsmanship, and
citizenship (Logan, 1955, p. 103). »
A violent reaction against this educational philo- (:.
Sophy resulted in the Child-Centered School which was a
scientific approach relying heavily on experimentation in
the psychology of human development. The primary goal of
the Child-Centered School was the development of individ
uality through creative self-expression. This movement
affected curriculum development in all areas, leading to
expanded programs which had their basis in the new philo
sophy. Logan states:
. . .The art curriculum was expanded in the elementary and high schools and into additional thousands of schools during the most vigorous decade of the child-centered program, the 1920's. Creative self-expression was the meaning of this movement. . . (1955, p. 53)
I »•
23
The final phase in the Progressive Movement was the
Social Reconstructionist Position which had as its goals;
social, political, and economic democracy in and through
education. Miller states this philosophy:
. . .education was not for life--it was life. The reduction of the dualism between education and life became a primary concern of the social reconstruc-tionists. Concomitantly, they advanced the dissemination of music and art as a contribution to a richer fuller life for all individuals within the refined democracy. (Miller, I966, p. I6)
It is from the Social Reconstructionist Position that the
slogan of the National Art Education Association, "Art for
every child, and every child for art," can be traced. The
Social Reconstructionist Position also is the basis of
the philosophy of curriculum development with its belief
in democracy and the right of all children to an education
geared to their individual abilities. The Progressive Era ,
reinforced the curriculum planner's belief in cooperative
effort between all people involved in education. It expanded
the belief in research to include not only measurement of
learner aptitude and achievement but psychological/socio
logical research as a means of making curriculum more
relevant to students. This research not only was applied
to the learner, but to teachers, administrators, and other
personnel involved in the total educative process. Social
reconstructionism is the source of the curriculum planner's
belief that the curriculum should be "concrete," i.e.,
meaningful to students in terms of their past and ongoing
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experiences (Miller, I966).
In the 1950s and 1960s, those responsible for curric
ulum development became increasingly aware of the complexity
of their task. Large numbers of people to be educated,
economic problems, racial strife, the rapid knowledge
explosion, and the implementation of psychology and sociology
have forced upon us the need for continuous evaluation and
redirection of the curriculum (Miller, I966).
Much of today's curriculum research and theory arise
from concern for making the curriculum comprehensive as
well as cooperative, concrete and continuous. The reports
published by the National Education Association's Project
on Instruction have encouraged such research by recommending
that all school systems allocate funds for research and
become involved in the establishment of regional curriculum
and instruction centers (Sand, I963). The Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development has stimulated
interest in the comprehensive study of curriculum by publish
ing a variety of pamphlets based on professional meetings
and reports of various commissions established by the organ
ization. The Commission on Instructional Theory has
produced a pamphlet in which terms such as theory, model,
instruction, and teaching are defined in an attempt to improve
the lines of communication (Gordon, I968, pp. 1--4).
A theory of instruction is defined by this group as
a ". , .set of statements, based on sound replicable research
which would permit one to predict how particular changes in
1
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25
the educational environment (classroom setting) would affect
pupil learning" (Gordon, I968, p. 3). Such theories may
include primitive terms (such as "felt needs") which concern
matters that are experienced intuitively; key terms (such
as "reinforcement" ) which can be operationally defined; and
theoretical terms (such as "attitude") which cannot be
defined directly by pointing to specific events but which
can be defined through their relationship to other terms
which are operationally defined (Gordon, I968, pp. 1-44).
Jerome Bruner in his book. Toward a Theory of Instruc
tion, discusses levels of learning experiences in what he
calls the mode of representation. If the learning experi
ence involves a set of actions appropriate for achieving a
certain result, he titles it "enactive representation;" if
it involves a set of summary images or graphics that stand ^
for a concept without defining it fully he refers to it as
"iconic representation;" if the experience calls it "symbolic
system that is governed by rules or laws for forming and
transforming propositions," he calls it "symbolic represen
tation" (Bruner, I966, p. 45). The added dimension v/hich
Bruner provides is that he views enactive, iconic, and
symbolic learning experiences as forming a hierarchial order
for determining sequence and as a means of insuring a variety
of experiences (Bruner, I966, pp. 44-54).
Although curriculum specialists in the past decade have
devoted considerable effort to constructing models on
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content-subject centered learning in art education in order
to insure a variety of experiences, actual teaching situa
tions seem to focus on the Child-Centered School Era of the
1920s. This appears not to have changed greatly since that
time.
Background of Curriculum Development in Japan
After nearly three hundred years of Tokugawa feudalism,
Japanese modernization began in the last half of the nine
teenth century. Educational reforms were introduced.
Modeled after French, American, and German practices, these
reforms represented comprehensive and revolutionary changes.
Such changes had been foreseen and even urged by Meiji-Era
leaders (I868-I9II), who were strongly concerned with the
unification and modernization of Japanese society on the one
hand and its ability to cope with the intruding political
and social pressures of the West on the other. Those leaders
considered education as a means of helping the new nation-
state modernize and meet the West on equal terms. Under
this philosophy, comprehensive educational reforms were
conducted in the 1870s, a time in which some art schools
were established by selected Japanese artists who had crossed
the ocean to study the arts of the West, particularly in
Europe. Such education was expanding rapidly by the time
six years of universal schooling became the norm in I907
(Nagano, 1966, pp. 335-338).
27
Lacking any antecedent Japanese curriculum models for
the type of education that could fulfill these political
and economic functions, the Meiji leaders urgently looked
to the West for curriculum models to emulate, in hopes of
fostering technological, economic, and political improvement.
Thus, their eagerness for, and concentration upon, educational
reforms led to the introduction of new curriculum developments
into Japan. The reforms involved copying fundamental curricu-
lar practices from the West, practices that were entirely
foreign to the Japanese. As the Japanese were not willing
to accept alien orientations, attempts to implement the
reforms were doomed to failure, and, as a consequence,
Japanese curriculum development became intertwined with
Western educational practices to produce a new system of c
curriculum acceptable to Japanese society. In short, insti- i.
tutional curricular changes in education were made on the
basis of Western models, but the success of these educational
reforms required that Japanese cultural orientations be the
framework in which such reforms could take place. It is
relevant to note that the educational reforms after the
World War II followed the same route (Nagano, I966).
The postwar reform, initiated by the United States
Education Mission in 1946 and headed by George Stoddard, was
a revolutionary innovation and was as comprehensive as the
Meiji reforms. The initial report of the Mission addressed
six categories: the aims and content of Japanese education;
I.
28
language reform; administration of education at the primary
and secondary levels; teaching and the education of teachers;
adult education; and higher education. Recommendations of
this report were later to result in promotion of art educa
tion programs. Undoubtedly these recommendations were based
on American conceptions of democratic education which
emphasize progressivism, decentralized control of education,
and the development of individuality. Experimentalism, as
John Dewey's philosophy was generally referred to, became
the most influential underlying curriculum development of
the new art education in Japan that time. Teaching methods
and curriculum practice in the late 1940s were definitely
influenced by progressive education. While the Western core
curriculum, i.e., mathematics, language, etc., was studied
and attempted rather extensively, the educational process
also emphasized problem solving and the child's self-
activity, interest, freedom, and self-expression. Until the
early 1950s, the Japanese attempted to implement this reform,
but a major problem confronted by progressive college
professors and other leaders in the postwar education was
the extreme difficulty of translating experimentalism matrix
of Japanese culture (Nagano, 1966, pp. 335-338).
By 1952 educators realized the essential incompati
bility of American and Japanese cultural orientations.
Japanese independence, coupled with the Korean War (which
had a significant impact upon the Japanese economy and
I r
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29
politics) served as a turning point in the development of
postwar Japanese curriculum and led to the "Japanization"
of the American educational system as it had been trans
planted in Japanese soil. That is, the major structural
features of the curriculum have remained unchanged to the
present time, but its underlying orientation gave way in
the 1950s to an orientation compatible with Japanese culture
(Yomiuri, 1976, p. 99).
Various reforms which occurred between 1952 and i960
marked a definite departure and shift from the early postwar,
experience-centered art education to a more traditional,
subject-centered one with focus on the continuity of Japan
ese culture, structured instruction, and transmission of a
body of abstract knowledge (Kawai, 1963, PP. 319-335). ' r
Methodologically, the uniformity of the cognitive and J • •
motivational orientations of the students (and of the
teachers) began to be stressed again, and teachers employed
bahavioristic conditioning to impart skills, knowledge, and
attitude. Thus, during the course of the 1950s, the original
curricular practices of early pos'fcv/ar art education disap
peared from most schools as the Japanese curriculum quickly
adapted to the demands of the political, economic, and social
institutions central to the foundations of Japanese culture.
This fundamental curriculum of Japanese art education has
remained essentially the same since that time (Yomiuri, 1976).
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The Suzuki Method
The sudden rise to popularity in the United States was
not a new experience for the Suzuki concept of music curric
ulum and instruction. John Kendall of Southern Illinois
University states that:
American interest in Suzuki can be traced back from his 1964 visit several years to the Spring of 1958 when, during a regional meeting of the American String Teachers Association at Oberlin College in Ohio, a group of string specialists incredulously watched and listened to a motion picture of ']50 Japanese children playing the Bach Concerto for Two Violins at the Sports Palace in Tokyo. The phenomenal results achieved by these youngsters aroused a great deal of interest, enthusiasm, and discussion. (1978, p. 3)
The Suzuki Talent Education Movement, known as the Suzuki
Method, represents a major breakthrough in curriculum
development since it is one of the more recent empirically
based and comprehensive presentations of an instructional
methodology. A unique aspect of Suzuki's concept of
curriculum design is that the same format applies at vary
ing levels of specificity and can therefore be applied not
only to music but also to art education (Honda, I98O).
Suzuki's concept explains the process of instruction,
and this process is the basis for the development and
implementation of the Suzuki/Tamano Method in this study.
Concepts of the Suzuki Method
Shinich Suzuki has developed an approach based on the
proposition that since every infants learn to speak their
mother tongue before they learn to read or write, they also
€ %
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can be taught to play music before they learn to read musical
notations. As Suzuki points out, the children's speaking
achievement is not gained by using formal, written language
but through the natural and obvious method of imitating
their mother and other members of their family.
By applying the concepts used in teaching young child
ren to speak their language to teaching them to play the
violin, Suzuki has proved that much of what we have assumed
to be inborn genius in young prodigies on the violin has
actually been a rather common ability which has been stimu
lated and developed by a favorable environment from a
formative age. In describing the learning process, Masaaki
Honda (I98O) stated: I
Suzuki's instruction scheme follows the six basic steps of language learning. In learning a I language, a child is surrounded by adults who are T-continually talking: (1) exposure. Next, he tries -• to copy these sounds and attempts his first word: (2) imitation. The parents praise him and urge him to say the word again: (3) repetition. One word leads to another: (4) addition. Through constant repetition of the first word, subsequent words come more easily: (5) improvement and (6) refinement.
These six steps to learning the mother tongue are system
atically applied in Suzuki's method. It should be noted
here that the success of the child's learning is dependent
upon the unique role of the parents. The parent is the
model. Therefore, in order to teach their child by the
mother-tongue method, the parent must first be able to play
the violin. In Japan, each mother receives about three nonths
of violin instruction before the child begins to study. V/hen
32
the child has begun formal instruction with a competent
teacher, emphasis is placed upon exposure during all phases
of the learning experience.
Suzuki (1973) posits five conditions for the first
step exposure:
(1) Educate as early as possible.
(2) Give as much training as possible.
(3) Create as favorable an environment as possible.
(4) Have as good teachers as possible.
(5) Adopt as good an educational method as possible.
In addition to the above conditions, much stress is
placed on hearing and seeing. By giving the child an oppor
tunity to hear recordings of music being studied, he is offer
ed a perfect example to emulate. Learning by seeing is a
natural function of the normal child, and it is for this
reason that such emphasis is placed upon first teaching the
mother to play the violin. She becomes the model from whom
the child is able to learn by observation. All mothers can
not be expected to play the violin without flaws or v;eakness
in execution, however, so the trained teacher is constantly
alert and strives to correct such flaws and weaknesses as
soon as they become apparent. This is a serious matter of
concern to the teacher because of children's natural tendency
is to imitate as well as to repeat what they see and hear
whether the model is good or poor.
Learning by imitation and repetition is stressed during
'^
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33
all phases of the child's experience. Suzuki maintains thus
an insistence upon precision beginning at the earliest stages
of learning greatly accelerates the child's progress.
Exercises, corrective studies, and entire pieces are imitated
and repeated until precision is achieved. Learning by this
method imitation and repetition are considered a natural way
of learning especially for three- to six-year-old children
and do not interfere in any way with the child's later
abilities (Kendall, 1978, p. 4). The objective is memory
development, and memory development is a natural by-product
of the Suzuki Method because it is basically a rote method.
As children learn to speak the mother tongue before they read,
so do they learn to play the violin before being introduced
to musical notation. Most children who begin at the age of
two or three develop a keen sense of hearing and accumulate
an extraordinary repertoire of music. When they finally be
gin to study musical notation, it has been established that
their progress is greatly accelerated compared with children
who begin instruction at a later age by the generally accept
ed practices of instrumental teaching (Garson, I968, p. 6).
Addition in the Method leads to accumulation of experi
ence toward a mastery of the work being studied. These
outcomes are attributed to the satisfying sense of achieve
ment derived from each new accomplishment.
The last two of the five points upon which the Suzuki
Method is based are improvement and refinement. These are
€ »
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closely allied to synthesization and develop out of the
natural sense of accomplishment that comes from the first
three stages of learning. Understanding becomes the by
product, and it leads to appreciation and enjoyment of the
work being studied. The emotional response of the child
is also expressed, beginning with a narrow range responses
that grow and develop as the child learns more about music.
These affective responses subsequently are nurtured through
the listening to the music of Bach, Mozart, Vivaldi, and
other great composers. This becomes a vary meaningful devel
opment because it exemplifies one of the major goals of music
education: to enrich the aesthetic experiences of children.
Concerning the importance of our conceptions regarding
children's artistic development, Suzuki states:
. . .Abilities are born and developed by the working of the vital forces of the organism as it strives to live and to adapt to its environment right in the beginning. Therefore, the only superior quality a child can have at birth is the ability to adapt itself with more speed and sensitivity to its environment. (1969. pp. 23-24)
Referring to the results of his work with the mother-tongue
method, Suzuki said, ". . .it made me realize that any child
is able to display highly superior abilities if only the
correct methods are used in training" (1969, p. 9)-
The Tamano Method
Recently, there appears to be a growing interest in
the United States and Japan for the adaptation of the Suzuki
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35
Method to the other arts, particularly to the visual arts.
John Kendall, an exponent of the Suzuki Method in the United
States, and Barbara Barber, director of the Suzuki Program
at Texas Tech University, are two educators who have become
aware of an increasing desire on the part of parents and
educators for such visual arts program (Kendall, I98O; Barber,
I98O). In Japan, Yoshio Tamano has epitom.ized this interest
by publishing a series of books (in Japanese) dealing with
teaching children, in conjunction with their parents, the
visual arts through the use of rhythm and movement. These
materials recently served as guides for the development of
visual arts programs in Japan, Brazil, and Canada, in the
framework of the Suzuki Method (Tamano, 1979t>). The Kiri
Kiri Boshien School directed by Masaaki Honda is an example
of such a program and involves both music and the visual arts. f.
It serves as a model for program development throughout the
world (Honda, I98O).
Concepts of the Tamano Method
The Tamano concepts follow closely those of the Suzuki
Method as his art activities are planned and sequenced. (See
Appendix C. ) The Method emphasizes the rhythmic features
of music with words to which the children listen while
engaging in art activities. Content and activities to foster
the child's development include music, storytelling, dance,
drama, etc., as supporting elements to enhance the art activ
ities (Tamano, I98O). The details of the Tamano curriculiun
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36
and instruction are presented in Chapter IV.
The goals and outcomes of the Tamano Method encompass
skills basic to traditional Japanese education--perceptual
awareness, decision-making, creative thinking and doing,
critical analysis and judgment, and valuing of one's own
choices. All are set in the context of the arts, a human
endeavor that the Tamano Method values intrinsically for
its- own sake. Tamano feels it is important that all students,
not only the talented few for whom music lessons and studio
art lessons are indeed essentials, have the opportunity to
know about the arts and to value them. He continues to state
that all students can and should gain awareness of the
aesthetic dimensions of our world; be prepared to analyze,
judge, and value objects and situations that affect them;
and to make informed choices about themselves and their world
based upon the aesthetic as well as economic criteria (Tamano,
1980).
The Interface with Early Childhood Education
There appears to be some support in the literature for
the Suzuki concept as well as for the Tamano approach as they
apply to art education at an early age; in that visual imagery
concept development, influence of the home environment and
the relationship of art and culture are applicable to early
childhood education.
Perhaps the strongest support in the literature of
American art education can be found in the research and
k ^
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37
writing of Rhoda Kellogg (1970). Lowenfeld indicates that
young children do not design, at least not consciously
(19^7, p. 284), but Kellogg feels that it is precisely
through design that children learn to draw (and to write).
Children learn the twenty basic scribbles by the age of two,
i.e., the dot, the vertical line, the horizontal line, etc.,
and these scribbles become increasingly more sophisticated
as they modify and combine them to form placement patterns,
combines, aggregates, and finally pictorials. These same
elements persist and mature eventually to comprise adult
art (Kellogg, 1970). It is upon these elements that the
Suzuki/Tamano Method concentrates.
Jean Piaget's theory of intelligence defines the period »* r:
from roughly two to seven years as the preoperational stage
during which the child's thinking is limited. However, l'. ,*
according to Piaget, as early as the age of eighteen months,
the child begins to have mental images. These images
originate as imitative actions that grow increasingly
internalized. The child becomes able to replicate past
events and objects that are not before him at the moment.
This ability is prerequisite for symbolic thought (Percy &
Berlyne, 1950). Sigel believes that after age two, children
use mental imagery to free themselves from the actual
presence of objects in order to bring them into mind.
Effective facilitation of this process allows children to
become more independent and their thinking to be more
38
abstract (Sigel, 1970). According to Bruner, children
construct a model of their world through cognitive develop
ment which is a result of their interaction with the external
world (Bruner, I966). Oxford found that exercises in mental
imagery, in which the drawing of objects play an important
role, appear to have a positive influence on achievement
of typical concepts, concepts which are a part of the
expected learning outcomes at the kindergarten level. She
concludes that early concept attainment, enhanced by such
experiences in early mental imagery is a crucial factor
in the development of learning skills for the child's life
time (Oxford, 1978). Eisner (1978) points out that images
are named and then made. Suzanne Langer (I970) calls this
process "Symbolic Transformation." Eisner states that two
stages are employed in this process: (1) the child forms ;
a visual concept of the object perceived, and then, (2)
he invents a visual graphic image whose properties are in
some way related to the visual concept he wishes to symbolize.
Thus, Eisner concludes, when a very young child creates art,
he learns that the images he creates can function as symbols,
a basic means of communication (Eisner, I978). Wilson and
Wilson (1977) postulate that the images created by children
to symbolize their world are not as readily influenced by
prevailing drawing devices and formulae as they are influ
enced by the visual signs of others, principally older
siblings and older friends. "The act of mark-making is
^ r. 9 r
39
modelled by children as particular sound-makir^g is modelled
by children—the mark by watching people write and draw
and the sound through listening to speech and song" (Wilson
& Wilson, 1977, p. 32).
The influence of the home environment is of utmost
importance in fostering a disposition toward creativity
during the crucial early years of the child's development.
Some research studies and theoretical papers deal v/ith
multiple aspects of child growth. In these studies a closer
parent-child tie is considered a highly important factor
involving the child's perceptual development, cognitive
development, and meaningful interpersonal relationships
(Eisner, I969, p. 82).
Extensive research on the child's early stage of
perceptual development has been conducted by Piaget and ?;
Hooper. In these studies, some of the characteristics of
the home environment relate to and influence the perceptual
development of the child (Piaget & Inhelder, 1967; Hooper,
1977).
Relating to the child's cognitive development. Bloom
states:
These types of research reveal. . .It is the adults in the home who serve to stimulate the child's intellectual development, and it is the adults in the home who determine the basic preparation of the child for later learning in the school. (I98I, p. 77)
Since the late 1970s, studies dealing with the child's
interpersonal relationships, such as the Who Am I in the
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40
Lives of Children?; An Introduction to Teaching Young
Children by Feeney and Christensen (I98I), have been under
taken by various groups. These and other research and
development programs are beginning to put more emphasis
on the child's meaningful interpersonal relationships,
especially with his parents.
In the relationship of art and culture, McFee recog
nizes that, in a larger sense, it is a people's culture
that is transmitted from one generation to the next by what
she calls a major language system; art. Art symbolizes
and maintains a people's system of values and beliefs as
well as their social, economic, and architectural structures
(McFee, 1970). Even our emotions are cultural products,
Geertz (1973) tells us. Therefore, ". . .(art) should be
a central factor rather than a peripheral part of the educa
tion of every child" (McFee and Degge, 1977, p. 383).
Yet, Eisner (I972) points out that perceptual skills
are not an automatic consequence of maturation; they must
be consciously and purposely developed through systematic
art instruction. According to Ferro (I969), the earlier
this training begins, the better. A child's degree of suc
cess is perceptual-conceptual learning depends on his
earlier visual and motor learning. "His capacities as a
scholar will rest upon the earlier development of his whole
being" (Ferro, I969, p. 34). In other studies the basic
concepts of a subject area, sequentially planned, are
41
specified in a manner thought to be within the conceptual
grasp of children (Ferro, I969).
As for art instruction, the first "content-context
approach" was published in I962 by Barkan under the auspices
of his article in School Review; "The Visual Art in Second
ary Education." He urged the focus of activity be shifted
from characteristics of children to those of art--a content
emphasis which art teachers have long neglected. He empha
sized an eclectic art education philosophy of selecting
scholarly organized content offerings relating to the pro
duction, criticism, and history of art in relation to the
contextual limits of the total school learning environment
(Barkan, I962). r
V
^ Summary %'^
The chapter begins by presenting Paul Torrance's
comparative studies on the nature of creative thinking of
the Japanese as compared to their American counterparts.
The field of art education for cross-cultural and compar
ative studies conducted by both Torrance and Sato revealed
these findings: (1) the Japanese subjects scored signifi
cantly higher than American subjects on both right and left
hemispheres, and lower on the integrative scale in Your
Style of Learning and Thinking Measure, Form A, and (2)
the American subjects excelled on only one indicator out
of sixteen indications of creativity over their Japanese
42
counterparts. Based on these findings, Torrance makes
seven suggestions directed to American educators.
After the basic difference between the two countries'
educational philosophies documented by Torrance, the parallel
development of curriculum development and art education
are traced in terms of their philosophic background between
the United States and Japan, revealing these basic philo
sophic differences between the United States and Japan:
(1) the American educational process emphasized problem
solving and the child's self-activity, interest, freedom,
and self-expression; and (2) the Japanese process employed
behavioristic conditioning to impart skills, knowledge,
and attitude.
Aside from investigations of a difference between the
two countries, Suzuki's concept of curriculum design is t.
explored in detail. This is then interpreted and related
to the Tamano Method which is used for the outcome of this
study in the analysis of instructional events, and the
problems and limitations involved. Finally, an interface
with an early childhood education and the Suzuki/Tamano
Method is discussed in support of this study.
I
43
CHAPTER III
THE ADAPTED SUZUKI/TAMANO TREATMENT
The problem of this study was to examine the effects
of the Suzuki/Tamano Method on the three- to six-year-old
children in terms of art quality, ability to form basic
concepts, and their cognition. The treatment selected for
accomplishing this objective is an adaptation of the Tamano
Method, i.e., it is an adaptation of an adaptation. Tamano
had modified the Suzuki Method for the purpose of teach
ing the visual arts to Japanese children with planned and
sequenced art activities. The Tamano Method, furthermore, ^
did not include parental involvement. Therefore, some ^
modifications were necessary in order to make the treatment \
more suitable to the goals of the Suzuki Method which were i
described in the preceding chapter. In this chapter the
development of the adapted Suzuki/Tamano Method is discussed
in three stages.
Stage One: Utilizing Suzuki Concepts
The adaptation of the Tamano Method developed by this
writer consists of three parts and is based upon and modified
by Suzuki principles. Three Suzuki concepts were employed
within the framework of Tamano curriculum and instruction.
These were: " • •<
/y (1) Use of rote teaching was employed.
44 \ i j
(2) Parents were assigned a teaching role during i
the home practice session of the children. |
(3) Implementation of a comprehensive listening
program was used as an integral part of the learning expe-
rience (Suzuki, I969). ,
Rote Teaching
The writer and an assistant performed in their roles
of teachers whom the children emulated during class sessions.
Since rote learning is a process by v/hich the child imitates
the teacher, it was necessary for the writer to demonstrate
the exercises adapted from the Tamano Method, exercises
which the children were expected to learn. Qualifications u
of the writer to assume such responsibility include nine 5
years of experience in the teaching of art and an adequate ^
degree of proficiency in visual art production and inter- Ii
disciplinary fine arts concepts.
Rote procedures were directed toward an understanding
of all functions of the basic design elements before intro
ducing their application to the children. They were made
aware of varying thicknesses and length of lines. This
provided the basis for making various shapes and forms exact
ly to the "names" given to lines of specific forms, e.g.,
"up," "down," "slide," etc., but no demand was made for their
memorization. It was expected that the frequency of these
references would develop a familiarity with these "names"
and would eventually result in subconscious memorization.
45
The development of an awareness of shapes and forms
as the product of lines was approached in a similar manner.
As new shapes appeared in the text, a series of various
lines to make shapes was taught by having the children
listen to exercises recorded on a tape for this study.
They were asked to identify the shapes and to make the
shapes in the air with their hands. After successfully
identifying the shapes and producing them in the air with
their hands, the children drew the shapes on paper as they
were demonstrated by the teacher. Comparable procedures
were used to develop an understanding of the use of colors,
with special attention given to mixing them.
Im.itative teaching/learning was used for the entire
duration of this experiment (four weeks). The fundamental
purpose of teaching by rote was to develop a sound founda
tion of basic skills before the children were taught to
express themselves freely in visual images.
Parent Involvement
An integral part of this study was the aspect cf jsing
the parent as teacher for home exercises, sc the parents
(exclusively mothers in this study) were asked to provide
their full cooperation in compliance with the rules and reg
ulations necessary to the proper control of this experimenu.
Thus a pledge of cooperation specifying these rules and reg
ulations was signed by each participating parent of the
experimental group. (Appendix B. ) Since the development of
r.
,*
46
certain prescribed responsibilities of the mother is perti
nent to the success or failure of this study, an account of
these procedures is described below.
As described previously, the Suzuki Method requires
the mother to learn to play the violin and subsequently to
serve as a home teacher. For the purposes of this study,
the Suzuki procedure was adapted in art by assigning certain
r *
9-
»-•
prescribed responsibilities to the mothers as teachers at
home although only two were professionally qualified as
teachers.
The main function of the mother was related directly
to the assigned exercises of the child, including the reviews
of the previous sessions. Each mother was expected to attend
every session with her child and learn to become a teacher
in the Method in order to supplement and reinforce the ;
instruction of the writer. She was to spend a minimum of
twenty minutes (and not more than thirty minutes) daily with
her child for the assigned home exercises and reviews and
keep a daily log regarding the child's progress and reactions.
A cassette tape player containing the listening program was
utilized during the child's home practice sessions.
To insure the maximum effectiveness of the mother, meet
ings for parents with the writer were scheduled at the begin
ning of each session while the children were given separate
instruction by the assistant. The parents' meetings included
the following:
47
(1) A review was made of the learning experiences
which had taken place during the lessons preceding each
meeting.
(2) The mothers' daily logs were discussed and eval
uated.
(3) A detailed description of the basic techniques
to be taught in succeeding lessons was explained by the
writer.
(4) An explanation of intended accomplishments for
each assignment was given by the writer.
This meeting was used as a continuing opportunity to
stress the importance of all procedures pertinent to this
study. Exchanges of dialogue between the writer and the
parents were confined largely to anecdotes demonstrating
their own enthusiasm and the enthusiasm of their children
for the project. The primary value of these meetings was
the opportunity to reiterate the vital importance of rigid
control to protect the integrity of this study.
Listening Program
The listening program served a dual function in this
study. The first was to supplement class instruction by
recording the selected portions of the exercises in the
sequential order similar to that which appeared in the Ja
anese version of the Tamano Method cassette tape (Tamano,
1979c )• The recordings were performed by a competent profe
sional singer and a pianist, both of whom v/ere candidates
tj—
48
in the PhD in Fine Arts program in the Department of Music,
Texas Tech University.
These original recordings, along with exclusive rights
to their use, were made available to the writer by Tamano.
The original songs with the piano accompaniment were written
entirely in the Japanese language and were translated and
modified for this study. Of all the exercises on the orig
inal Tamano tapes, seventeen basics (lines and shapes) and
eight subjects (e.g., giraffe, fish, etc.) were used at the
suggestion of Tamano. (Appendix C.)
A brief statement of instruction was included with
each recorded exercise to help the child to recognize a break
between the exercises, and each complete set was reproduced
on one ninety-minute cassette tape. Each child in the
experimental group was provided with his/her own cassette ?-';
for home use.
The purpose of the recording was to serve as a home
substitute for the teacher in the rote experiences of the
child. Assignments were made at each class lesson for home
practice and were based on exercises already learned in class.
At home the children listened to those exercises and replayed
them as necessary. If they encountered difficulty with an
exercise, they had an opportunity to listen to it as many
times as necessary and were able to make drawings or paint
ings with the recording until the confidence was developed.
A secondary purpose of the recordings was to permit
i;
0'
-»
49
the child to listen to exercises which were to be learned
during the next lesson. Based on material already learned,
the writer predetermined the exercises to be taught in the
next lesson and assigned specific exercises for listening
only. The purpose of this procedure was to facilitate the
learning of a new material to be studied through a familiar
ity with the music.
Stage Two: Synthesizing the Suzuki and Tamano Methods
The second part of the development allowed the writer
to synthesize the two methods (Suzuki and Tamano). Attempts
were made to adjust these methods to the experimental group. r^
This included the translation of both the Suzuki and Tamano ?' V
original manuscripts written in Japanese to English. I
Personal communication between the writer and those who are -•
involved in the methods had to be integrated into the study.
In the process the writer evaluated the contents of Japanese
material in terms of his personal judgments, opinions, and/
or reasons for developing it as "suitable for the experimen
tal group." The writer's adequate proficiency in the lan
guages involved (English and Japanese), experience in teach
ing art, and knowledge of music contributed to the proper
evaluation of the materials. Through this evaluation the
writer attempted to get at some of the beliefs, values, and
attitudes which the children might have about learning,
teachers, society, and their perception of the "good life."
50
stage Three: Modifying the Instructional Situation
In the final (third) part of the development, a modi
fication had to be made in the instructional situation. A
more relaxed regimen of skill development was employed due
to the shorter attention span of children aged three to
six as opposed to the more structured regimentation of the
Tamano curriculum and instruction (intended for kindergarten
children). The more relaxed instructional situation empha
sized child-centeredness, flexibility, and an orientation
toward self-discovery.
To maximize the effectiveness of the adaptation, two
professional observers were asked to record specific L
incidents of behavior, ones deemed effective and ones deemed T
ineffective. These incidents are reported in Appendix D. r
These incidents were to be specific, indicating such factors
as the actions of the teacher, the children, and the mothers
and the results of those actions. Based on these observations,
the writer made further revisions in the program during the
experiment. The observers utilized were knowledgeable about
early childhood art education and are career art teachers,
and, as such, they have knowledge and understanding of the
aims and goals of an instructional situation in art. There
fore their judgments about appropriate observations may be
considered expert.
51
Summary
A discussion of the development of the adapted Suzuki/
Tamano Method and the appropriateness of these modifications
for the study is presented in three stages. Stage one was
concerned with utilizing Suzuki concepts; stage two involved
synthesizing the Suzuki and Tamano Methods; stage three
addressed the necessities for modifying the instructional
situation.
Stage one is devoted to the writer's adaptation of
three Suzuki concepts, i.e., the use of rote teaching, the
parent involvement, and the use of the listening program.
In stage two the writer synthesized the Suzuki and Tamano
Methods by a process that involved the translation of both
the original Suzuki and Tamano manuscripts from Japanese into
English. Finally, the modification of the instructional ?'.
situation in the third stage involved the use of two
observers who aided the writer in pinpointing effective and
ineffective behavioral incidents during the experiment. The
writer used these reported incidents to modify the treatment.
ff
52
CHAPTER IV
THE EXPERIMENT
I r
The Population
The Setting
Lubbock, Texas is the largest city of the Texas South
Plains with a population of approximately 180,000 people.
Located at the center of a prosperous agricultural region,
the city derives much of its income from agriculture and
agriculture-related industries, particularly from the cotton
industry. In addition to this, several large plants employ
a sizable number of its residents. ^
In regard to public school population, of 29,276 stu- :'»
dents enrolled at the end of first six weeks of the year in
October, 1981, Anglo-American students were in the majority,
representing 54.44 per cent (15,937 students); Mexican-
American students accounted for 31.25 per cent (9,149 students);
and Black students represented 13.42 per cent (3,930 students)
of the student population. Other races, predominantly Amer
ican Indian, accounted for 0.89 per cent (260 students).
At the present time, the public school system, which,
due to a racially imbalanced housing patterns, has been
accused of de_ facto segregation. It is attempting to remedy
this situation by busing students from predominately Anglo
53
schools to predominately minority schools and by busing
minority students to predom.inately Anglo schools. Busing
is, in Lubbock as in many areas of the country, a controver
sial issue and some parents have enrolled their children in
private schools rather than comply with the court-ordered
busing. The resultant situation is that a number of the
private schools in Lubbock are populated predominately by
middle and upper-middle class Anglo students. However, the
parochial school which cooperated in this study is not one
which is ethnically unbalanced. Thirty-eight per cent of
its population is made up of minority students, most of
whom are Mexican-American. According to the principal of
the school, scholarships are offered and ethnic minorities
are actively recruited by St. John Neumann School.
0'
r. St. John Neumann School. The experimental group for J*
this study was drawn from St. John Neumann School because
it offers an extensive preschool program involving children
from three years to six years of age. As the public schools
in Lubbock do not provide for the education of children at
this age (except for in a few programs for exceptional or
disadvantaged children), it was necessary to recruit young
sters and their parents from the ranks of the private schools.
The preschool at St. John Neumann is a highly struc
tured one of sixty-five students which encompasses three
levels. There are separate classes for three year olds, four
year olds (pre-kindergarten), and five year olds (kinder-
54
garten). Since this study was undertaken toward the end of
the school year, many of the children in the kindergarten
had already attained their sixth birthday, and all children
were older than three and one-half years of age. Art is a
daily part of the curriculum at all three levels of educa
tion, and the children receive instruction and practice in
various media such as crayon, tempera, clay, etc.
The school as a whole is geared to academic achievement.
Standardized tests (Science Research Associates) are given
each year to all children from kindergarten through eighth
grade and considerable pride is taken by the administrators,
teachers, and parents in the high scores (85th percentile)
the school as a whole receives. The writer, in observing —
the pre-kindergarten and kindergarten children during class 1
time, was impressed with the degree of orderliness and self- ?•;
discipline exhibited by the children.
First Christian Church School. Although this study
is primarily a pilot study and a quasi-experimental one, it
was decided to utilize a comparable group of children as a
control group and to administer the same pre- and posttest
measures to this group as were to be administered to the
St. John Neumann group. For this purpose, children enrolled
at First Christian Church preschool and kindergarten were
chosen. More information as to determining the relative
equality of the First Christian group to the St. John ::euna:in
group will be given in the next paragraphs.
55
Selection of the Experimental and Control Groups
I ir
The experimental group was selected from three- to six-
year-old preschool children from St. John Neumann School in
Lubbock, Texas. First Christian Church School was chosen
as a control group. A total of fifty-four children (twenty-
seven in the experimental group and twenty-seven in the
control group) began the program. All completed the program.
Method of selection. The children at St. John Neumann
School were chosen as the experimental group for this study
for a number of reasons. In order to include children of
the desired ages (three to six years old), it was necessary
to select a private school which had a large enough pre
school population to ensure a suitable number of subject for
the sample. Finding an involved and enthusiastic parental ?'.
group was also of importance. The potential success of the
pilot study depended on not only obtaining a sample size of
around twenty-five, but also on recruiting parents who were
interested in children's arts and who would be motivated to
attend the classes and to supervise their children's practice
at home. Finally, in speaking with administrators, teachers,
and parents at the school, the writer found that St. John
Neumann School was equipped with excellent facilities, and
these facilities were generously offered for the writer's
use.
As a control group, the writer judged the children at
0'
5^
First Christian Church School (FCCS) preschool and kinder
garten to be an adequate match with the children of the
St. John Neumann (SJN) group. Both schools had a sim.ilar
number of three to six year old children (sixty-five in
SJN preschool and sixty-two in FCCS preschool). The
population of both the experimental and control groups were
ethnically similar as indicated in Table I.
TABLE I
ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION OF EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUPS
School
Anglo Mexican American American Other
No. % No. % No. %
I
Experimental \ Group (SJN) 18 GG,^ 6 22.2 3 H-l •;
Control Group (FCCS) 19 70-4 5 18.5 3 11.1
In order to ascertain whether these two groups were
indeed similar and that no significant differences exist
between the two groups, the three measurements used as a
pretest for this purpose were carried out. The results of
these tests will be reported in Chapter V.
No investigations were made as to the socio-econoniic
status of the children involved in either group, but as both
schools are private church-related institutions whose rate
57
of tuition were similar ($82 per month for SJN and $84 per
month for FCCS); it was assumed that there were no great
socio-economic differences between the groups.
In order to recruit interested subjects for the pilot
study, a letter explaining the purpose, goals and require
ments of the proposed program was sent to the parents of
both St. John Neumann School and First Christian Church
preschool, pre-kendergarten, and kindergarten. This letter
asked parents to indicate their interest in the program and
their desire to participate in the proposed program. The
response to this letter was very positive: from the total
of one hundred eleven letters given to the parents, eighty-
six parents indicated interest in the program. Of these,
fifty-seven asked to participate in the study. Of those who
indicated that they could not participate in the program at «;
the time indicated, many (twenty-nine) requested that another
class be formed at a time other than the one offered.
Design of the Study
The Research Design
The research design for this study is quasi-experimen
tal in nature in that intact groups were used rather than
being randomly chosen. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent
Control Group Design was utilized (Campbell & Stanley, 19c3)-
That is, two groups were used: (l) an experimental group
at St. John Neumann School and (2) a control group at First
ft
58
Christian Church School.
Using a notation similar to that suggested by Campbell
and Stanley (I963), coupled with the writer's notation, the
design of this study appears below.
THE TREATMENT GROUP
0. 0, 0,
PRETESTS
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
St. John Neumann School
n = 27
O4 ^5 ^6
-> POSTTESTS
THE NONTREATMENT GROUP
0. 0. 0,
PRETESTS — >
CONTROL GROUP
First Christian Church School
n = 27
% O5 ^6
•> POSTTESTS
Fig. 1. Design of the Experiment
ff
i. • •
Each pretest and posttest (denoted by 0) implemented
each of the following three measures:
- The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts, Form A
- The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test
- The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale
0. = Post-BTBC - Same as Pre-BTBC, Form B
0^ = Pre-BTBC
O2 = Pre-GHDT
0-. = Pre-BTRS
0^ « Post-GHDT - Same as Pre-GHDT
0/ = Post-BTRS - Same as Pre-BTRS
X = TREATMENT
59
Each group was administered three measures as pretests:
(1) the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts; (2) the Goodenough-
Harris Drawing Test; and (3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale
(Boehm, 1971; Harris, 1963; Brouch, 1970). After the treat
ment of the experimental group implementing the adapted
Suzuki/Tamano Method, both groups again were administered
the same measures as posttests. Form A and B of the Boehm
Test of Basic Concepts were used for the pre- and posttests
respectively. Identical forms of the Goodenough-Harris
Drawing Test and of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale were used
for both the pre- and posttests.
At the conclusion of the treatment, all parents (n =
21) of the children in the experimental group were asked to • - •
evaluate their experience of the Suzuki/Tamano Method by -c
responding to a questionnaire. (See instrument in Appendix E. ) f
In a task not directly related to the actual experiment,
the experimenter contacted parents of children, ages three
to six, in thirteen private schools and nurseries in Lubbock.
These parents responded to a survey instrument devised by
the writer probing their possible interest in the Suzuki/
Tamano Method for their children. (See instrument in Appen
dix F.) The thirteen schools and nurseries involved were
randomly selected from the Southwestern Bell Telephone Direc
tory's yellow pages which listed thirty-nine such establish
ments. The writer co'ntacted and surveyed parents in these
thirteen schools and nurseries by attending regularly schedule:
60
meetings of parents at these institutions, addressing the
parents on the matter, and asking them to respond at the
meeting to the survey form.
The Instruments
The study used the following instruments for the
purposes of this study. To examine the effects of the Suzuki/
Tamano Method upon three to six year old children in terms
of their art work and their cognitive development, three
instruments were used. These were: (1) the Boehm Test of
Basic Concepts, (2) the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and
(3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale. In order to determine
the suitability of a Japanese early childhood arts education
program based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method in an American
school, it was necessary to evaluate its curricular offerings f ,
in regard to its effect upon students and parents. Therefore
the writer decided also to use a Parent Evaluation instrument.
If the effect of these programs upon students and their
parents was to be considered for continuation and expansion
of the program in the United States, it was necessary to
obtain information from such data concerning the existence
of sufficient interest. To obtain reliable data from local
sources, a Public Opinion Survey was constructed and used.
The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC)
Specifications of instrument. The BTBC is designed to
measure children's mastery of concepts which are considered
c
61
essential for various levels of achievement especially in
the first years of school. The test is read aloud by the
teacher, and is suitable for use with children ages three
to six. The BTBC results were used in this study to
compare the differences in conceptual progress between the
experimental and control groups.
There are two equivalent forms (A and B) of the BTBC,
each containing the same number of exercises, exercises of
comparable difficulty. Form A was published in I969.
Form B, which yields a total raw score equivalent to that
of Form A, was released in 1971 by A. B. Boehm. For the
purpose of this study, Forms A and B were used as the pre
test and posttest respectively. Each form consists of fifty
pictorial, multiple-choice items using such basic concepts
as top, through, away from, up, down, in, out, as well as f.
colors, numbers, and names of familiar objects. This test
has been used frequently in early childhood education
research (Seefeldt, 1979).
The reliability of the BTBC was expressed in split-
half reliability coefficients and was computed for both
Form A and B, based on the scores of the pupils participat
ing in the testing sessions of the equivalent study. The
reliability coefficient may range from zero through 1.00 with
the higher values indicating greater reliability. Of the
2,647 cases tested, the split-half reliability coefficients,
based on the correlation of scores on odd-numbered items with
I r.
62
scores on even-numbered items, corrected by the Spearman-
Brown formula, were .90 for Form A and .84 for Form B (at
the kindergarten level).
An essential aspect of the validity of a test is how
well the test performs its intended work. For the BTBC,
like any other test of educational achievement or mastery,
validity is primarily a matter of the relevance of the test
content to the school curriculum. This type of validity is
usually called content validity. As an example, a test of
typewriting speed and accuracy would have high content
validity if used at the start of an intermediate typewriting
course. In the case of this study, the basic concept items
mentioned earlier were used within relevant curriculum
materials and were presented to the children as basic to
understanding directions and other oral communications from C.
teachers and mothers for the duration of this experiment.
Therefore, the writer believed that the concept achievement
of the experimental group and the control group whose instruc
tional experiences and home-study were controlled, might be
measured with confidence with the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts.
Administration and scoring procedures. Form A of the
Boehm Test of Basic Concepts was administered on April 27,
1981 as a pretest and Form B on May 29, I98I as a posttest
to both the experimental and control groups. Each form
consists of two booklets, each containing three sample
questions followed by twenty-five test questions. The ques-
63
tions are comprised of fifty pictorial items arranged in
approximate order of increasing difficulty and divided evenly
between the two. Each item consists of a set of pictures,
about which statements are read aloud to the children by the
writer. The statements briefly describe the pictures and
instruct the children to mark the one which illustrates the
concept being tested. Each of the Forms required approxi
mately forty minutes.
Tabulation of the BTBC was preceded by an inspection
of the answer sheets to determine whether more than one
response had been marked for any item. Where multiple mark
ings occurred, the item had to be omitted from the scoring.
The class record form served as both a scoring key and an
interpretive aid to the writer who scored the tests. The
number of correct responses were counted for each test and
were recorded as the raw score.
The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT)
Specifications of instrument. In addition to the BTBC,
the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test was employed to measure
differences in cognitive development, although Harris has
produced considerable evidence documenting its validity as
an indicator of mental maturity (Harris, 1963). The Harris
test is based on an earlier one developed by Florence Goode-
nough entitled "Draw a Man Test" (Goodenough, 1926). Goode-
nough believed that concept development and cognition were
strongly responsible for the graphic configurations that
I r,
• •
I
64
children make (Lansing, I969). Over the years since it was
first developed in I926, the Drawing-a-Man Test has been
shown to measure conceptual or intellectual factors more
than it has measured aesthetic or personality factors. Harris
affirms Goodenough and concludes that concepts (and cognition)
have a more profound influence than do other factors on the
nature of children's drawings (Harris, I963). Therefore,
Harris reevaluated Goodenough's method, extended it to older
groups, and developed an "alternate form" of the test by
adding to drawing of the self (I963, p. 1). The Drawing
Test permits consideration of children's concepts of the hu
man figure as an index or sample of their concepts generally.
Harris believes that the children's intellectual activity
requires: (1) the ability to perceive, i.e., to discriminate
likenesses and differences; (2) the ability to abstract, i.e., f!.
to classify objects according to such likeness and differences;
and (3) the ability to generalize, i.e., to assign an object
newly experienced to a correct class, according to discrimi
nated features, properties, or attributes (I963, p. 5). For
this reason, each of the children was asked to produce two
drawings: a man, and a woman, to see whether they could
discriminate such likeness and differences. The children
indicated their responses on a specially designed drawing
paper which was scored by the writer. These two tests used
as a pretest measure in this study, were administered sepa
rately, but consecutively to measure different aspects of
p'
65
drawing ability. Procedures for the administration of tests
were rigidly controlled as recommended in the manual of
instruction.
A total of seventy-three features of a human figure,
such items as the presentation of a head, a neck, eyes, eye
details, etc., comprise the test on the man drawing as
scoring standards. In the test for the woman drawing,
seventy-one criteria were presented and exactly the same
procedure described for the man drawing was applied to the
drawing of a woman. (See Appendix G for the scoring stan
dards of a man and woman drawing.)
The reliability of the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test
was estimated by means of the internal consistency coeffi
cients based on a number of studies. Intercorrelations
between different scorings ran^e from the low .80s to as
high as .96. Values commonly exceed .90. In the manual of
instructions, there are references to several independent
studies in which the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Tests were
favorably correlated with external criteria which were
typically reliable estimates of the extent of cognitive
achievement (Harris, I963, pp. 90-99).
Administration and scoring procedures. The tests of
a man and a woman were administered on April 28 and May 30,
1981 for the pretest and posttest respectively to both the
experimental and control groups. There was no time limit
for the test, but the entire process took approximately
66
thirty minutes each for the two drawings for the experimen
tal and control group children. Because subjective judgment
was required to score some items, perfect agreement between
two scorings could not be accom.plished or expected. There
fore, to minimize the "random error" in scoring, an attempt
was made to develop certain standards by the writer. Accord
ing to the results for inter-scorer studies, once a scorer
follows instructions painstakingly and gains both in speed
and accuracy, agreement is conceived to be high (Harris,
1963, p- 242). It was this instruction that the writer
carefully followed when scoring the tests. In hopes of
eliminating the personal bias against two sets of data ob
tained from the experimental and control groups, an assis
tant was used to assign coded numbers to the tests and then
mix them to conceal their identities. Subsequently all of
the tests were scored by the writer.
The Brouch Tem.pera Rating Scale (BTRS)
Specifications of instrument. For the purpose of
assessing the quality of art work, the Brouch Tempera Rating
Scale was chosen as the principal instrument (Brouch, 1970).
This scale was developed by Virginia M. Brouch in 1970 to
analyze the effects of synchronized, slide-tape art learning
experiences on the tempera paintings of randomly selected,
normal third and fourth grade children. In 1973 both Taylor
and Trujillo used the scale to test the aesthetic quality
of art products of four-year-old children. Their study
r..
67
revealed that significant gains in the overall aesthetic
quality of the art products of the experimental group were
observed through the use of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale.
Because of the younger group of subjects used by Taylor and
Trujillo, they added the schema categories with the permis
sion of Brouch (Taylor & Trujillo, 1973, pp. 57-66).
Appendix H shows this revised version of "Tempera Use Rating
Scale" which the writer used in this study. As a result of
this change, the scale became a six-item multiple choice in
a simple check sheet designed to rate tempera paintings.
Points are assigned for schema, use of color, shape, line,
surface quality, and composition. The sum of these points
becomes the tempera use score for each subject. The possible
scores range from zero to twenty-four. The higher the score,
the greater the level of aesthetic quality of art work. \,
The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale was used by a team of
three experts who judged the quality of art v/ork produced
by both the experimental and control groups. The anonymity
of the pretest-posttest tempera paintings was assured by the
use of a coded number for each pair of art products. Only
the writer had a record of the identity of the pre- and post-
test data.
Criteria used for the selection of the experts were
as follows:
(1) The experts were required to be certified teachers
of art with minimums of five years of teaching experience
68
in the public schools or as teachers of art-related curric
ulum in institutions of higher learning.
(2) They must have earned at least a master's degree
in art or art education.
(3) They must be an art education specialist who has
studied children's art with a competent instructor for a
minimum of three years and whose major area of concentration
during their graduate studies were in art education.
The subjects selected for tempera paintings in the study
were restricted to eight. They were comprised of a giraffe,
a fish, a sail boat, a person, a turtle, a lion, an Indian,
and a cow. They were delimited to a maximum of thirty minutes
of daily home exercise to be studied for the period of four
weeks. This was controlled by instructions given to all
mothers to enforce the delimitation. Because of the extra- i'.
ordinary cooperation of mothers throughout this study, the
writer was confident of compliance.
There have been no reported studies dealing with the
test-retest reliabilities of the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale.
However, Taylor and Trujillo (1973, p. 59) reported that the
intraclass correlation for the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale
judgments was .50. Reliability is the ratio of true variance
to total variance. This figure was considered to be accept
able though not high.
Administration and scoring procedures. The Brouch
Tempera Rating Scale (pre- and posttests) were administerei
^a
I-r..
69
on the same day when the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts was
given to the experimental and control groups.
The BTRS was scored from a set of the tempera paint
ings (pre- and posttests) of all subjects in this study.
Three judges used a separate scoring sheet and recorded
their scores independently of the others. Thus, there were
three evaluations of each tempera painting. In order to
exact a more precise evaluation, the major elements, such
as schema, etc., were subdivided into more specific catego
ries. Each judge placed a check mark on any one of these
categories which he/she considered a proper evaluation of
the data being scored.
Three evaluation sheets were prepared for each tempera
painting, as indicated above. The three scores recorded
for each category were averaged. The sum of these averages f.
constituted the raw score for each subject.
In order to assess the amount of agreement (inter-judge
reliability) between the judges on the BTRS items, the
Pearson r correlation was used to compare each judge with
each other one. The scores on each item of the BTRS by the
various judges were compared in all possible combinations
with the other judges involved. There were all together
twelve combinations on both the experimental group pretest-
posttest, and the control group pretest-posttest. The
correlations ranged from -.05 to +.96, with the average being
+.40. These correlations were quite low; however, upon
70
inspection of the three judges' scores used in this study,
it was noted that one judge's scores were quite different
from the other two judges. Appendix I shows the results
of the Pearson r correlation for twelve possible combina
tions. It should be noted that the amount of agreement
involving the Judge #2 on eight items are very low ranging
between -.05 to +.60, with the average being +.22?.
Consequently the correlations would have been higher had
these scores been eliminated. Nevertheless, these correla
tions were considered adequate to be used as a standard
against which to measure the difference of the pre- and
posttest scores of the BTRS.
Parent Evaluation
Specifications of instrument. Combining closed-form
and structured responses, the writer formulated a parent
evaluation instrument for the purpose of obtaining data
pertaining to the procedural success or failure of the pro
gram. Parent evaluations were specially designed for the
mothers of the experimental group who participated in the
program. It was not intended to be an operational instrument,
rather to be used for the recommendations for further study
of Chapter VI.
Following closely to an approach devised by Van Dalen
(1973), this closed-fonn questionnaires consisted of a
prepared list of twenty-five concrete questions and five
numerical values constituted a choice of possible answers.
r..
^a
71
Twenty-one mothers of the experimental group became the
respondents and were asked to rank a series of statements
in the order of importance (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). In addition,
they were asked to insert brief statements on empty lines.
Appendix E indicates the contents of a parent evaluation.
Administration and scoring procedures. This question
naire was administered to the twenty-one mothers of the
experimental group on May 27, I98I as a group. Individual
items on the questionnaire were structured for clear and
efficient tabulation by hand.
To assess the program rating from a specific mother,
a score was derived by summing up the numerical values of
twenty-five individual questions and then was averaged. To
assess the rating of an individual question, the numerical
values of a specific question given by the twenty-one
mothers were added and averaged.
The writer formulated a guide for the objective trans
lation of an average score (based on scores both per item
and per respondent) as follows:
4.5 to 5.0 . . . . Excellent Quality
3.7 to 4.5 . . . . Good Quality
2.8 to 3.6 . . . . Average Quality
1.9 to 2.7 . . . . Below Average Quality
1.0 to 1.8 . . . . Poor Quality
r. • •
72
Public Opinion Survey
Specifications of instrument. This simple questionnaire
was devised by the writer for the purpose of determining the
extent of interest in this study by the Lubbock area
population. To obtain necessary data, the writer cast ques
tions in a closed form based upon the background, philosophy,
contents, and requirements of the program, and simply asked
the respondents to check their reactions from a choice of
answers: yes, no, and undecided. Since the closed form
questionnaire is limited and does not reveal the respondent's
motives for their answers, it does not always yield informa
tion of sufficient scope or depth. To avoid biasing the
results, the writer inserted a third choice ("undecided") •-•
in addition to yes-no questions.
As the writer was well aware of the fact that informa- ^ \ .••
tion that was elicited from a readily available group would
not always reflect the opinion of the total population, the
attempts were made to minimize this limitation by randomizing
the surveys. There are approximately thirty-nine local
nursery and preschools in Lubbock of which thirteen were
selected for this study. The procedures for this selection
included plotting all thirty-nine schools on a map, and
randomizing the thirteen in an attempt to attain a represen
tative sampling of the various areas. The public opinion
survey form is shown in Appendix F.
! • :
73
Administration and scoring procedures. In order to
assure an adequate return, the writer arranged to administer
the public opinion survey form at the respective nurseries
and preschools during regularly scheduled parent meetings
during the April, May and June of I98I.
The data was collected by the writer on the following
schools in Lubbock, Texas:
(1) Busy Bee Nursery School
(2) Christ The King Catholic Church School
(3) First Christian Church School
(4) Kersey-McCham School
(5) Kinder Care Learning Center (School No. 130)
(6) Lubbockview Children's Academy
(7) Montessori School of the Plains
(8) Oakwood United Methodist Church School
(9) Second Baptist Church School
(10) St. John Neumann School
(11) St. Luke's United Methodist Church School
(12) Texas Migrant Council Headstart Nursery School
(13) Westminster Young Children's School
All respondents were parents who had one or more three-
to six-year-old children. Completion of the form required
approximately fifteen minutes.
Appendix J indicates the distribution of respondents
from thirteen schools. The writer summarizes its results
as follows: the total number of responses from the thirteen
r .
74
nurseries and preschools was 376 out of a possible 646,
a total response of 58 per cent. Considering the total
number of responses against the total number of opinion
survey forms distributed, 78.5 per cent of parents who had
children between the ages of three to six responded and
returned the form to the writer.
The scoring was accomplished by counting each of three
answers (yes, no, undecided) that the parents marked on the
survey form. Its sum became the raw score for further
interpretation.
The Method of Treatment
Teaching Procedures
The sequence of skills to be developed and materials
to be studied were presented to the experimental group. The
primary difference in the learning experiences of the experi
mental and control groups was the manner in which the
treatment was given only to the experimental group and not
to the control group. The control group was taught by a
widely accepted method of early childhood art education (this
term for the purpose of this study was defined as that which
emphasized art as a means of self-expression through the
use of various art media).
In the initial stages of the study (the first two weekly
lessons), the experimental group received the instruction
II
r.
75
relating to the care of the materials and equipment: handl
ing the brushes, mixing the paints to produce a desired
color, holding the crayons in multiple numbers, and all
other understanding which precede the actual execution with
materials on the drawing or painting surface. Similarity
of instruction was controlled by using the same procedures
for teaching each function, presenting these problems in the
same sequence, and devoting an equal amount of time to their
presentation (two weekly lessons). While m.aintaining the
successful accomplishment of these preliminary functions,
the experimental group received instruction with adaptations
of the Tamano Method based on Suzuki approaches.
The procedures of instruction for the experimental
group were described earlier in Chapter III. The control
group did not participate in any way in the educational r. a
program developed by the writer, but received only the art
education normally offered by the school. For the experi
mental group, the teaching procedure followed a basic pattern
as indicated based on the Suzuki concepts:
Suzuki Concepts Pilot Study Basic Pattern
(1) Exposure Describe or demonstrate (or both) to the children and their mothers the way to solve a specific problem.
(2) Imitation Allow both children and mothers to try it until they show a clear understanding of its solution.
76
(3) Imitation/ Assign home exercises to Repetition the mothers which are designed
to develop artistic proficiency of children through the mothers as teachers.
(4) Addition/ Review previously assigned Improvement/ exercises for evidence of Refinement satisfactory achievement or
need for further exercises.
The detailed concepts of the Suzuki Method are shown in
Chapter II.
Because of individual differences among children and
their mothers, specific procedures vary. However, these
four steps generally are accepted as the framework for teach
ing a child to gain artistic knowledge or skills. It is this
framework which the writer followed in teaching the Suzuki/
Tamano Method to the experimental group.
There appears to be mutual agreement between the Suzuki i',
and Tamano Methods concerning the sequence of skills to be
taught. Furthermore, it is generally agreed that certain
artistic skills can be developed when a certain environment
is provided. There are two principles regarded as most
important:
(1) The child must be helped to develop an eye for art.
(2) From the very beginning, every step of art-making
must be thoroughly mastered.
Therefore, instructional methodology in this study focused
on building on the basics by providing every child with visual
environment. To produce such an environment, the study sought
77
to create an apparatus to experiment within this framework
of ideas. The physiological extension of peripheral vision
was considered, and the creation of visual form in drawing,
and tempera painting, the color slides of subjects studied
and recording of worded tape music were constructed and
simultaneously used. The classroom was equipped with screens
for projection, a lighting system that could be flexibly
controlled, projection machines, a phonograph, a cassette
tape player, self-standing panels, and a broad floor space
facing the circular seating arrangement on v/hich drawing
boards were placed theatre-style.
During the duration of this study, the classes were
held in two ways: (1) with the group of parents being taught
by the writer in one room and the children being taught by
an assistant in another separate room; and (2) with the f. .. •
mother and child working together while being taught by the
writer. The purpose of separating into two groups was to
familialize the mothers with lessons which were used to teach
their children at home.
After the initial sessions of introducing the use of
materials and quipments were accomplished, the emphasis is
was shifted toward the development of the basics in design.
The children started with dots, then made lines, shapes, space,
color, and texture as the generally accepted ingredients of
design. These elements were taught by telling the child and
mother to draw or paint each succeeding element in the air
78
with their hands before actual execution on paper.
The cassette tapes were designed through both music
and words to explain specific procedures for the child/
mother to make long or short, hard or soft, quick or slow,
soft to loud movements in making lines and forms. The tape
also deals to some extent with the development of manual
dexterity to deal with unaccustomed hand movement. For
instance, it teaches the making of lines down to up, or left
to right, as opposed to usual up to down or right to left
construction of lines.
As the Tamano Method of art curriculum and instruction
places an importance on artmaking by the rhythm of musical
sounds and words recorded in the tape, both the mother and
the child were asked to sing along with the tape. This
enforces the memorization of exact sequences of procedures f.
in the hope of imbuing them with kinesthetic movement. While
listening to the tape, the mother and the child were encour
aged to express their feelings through dance and play.
As soon as the fundamental design principles had been
introduced and applied successfully, these learners were
introduced immediately to eight-step drawing or painting of
the following subjects in five variations. They started with
a simple graphic respresentation of a giraffe, followed by
a fish, a sail boat, people, a turtle, a lion, an Indian,
and finally a cow. This variety of subject matter provided
the children with an insight into the transformation of -p
79
simple angle to more complex views that can also be related
to those found in giraffes, fish, etc. By so doing, the
writer hoped that the children would learn to create new
combined figures of their own within the five various views
of the same subject.
The procedures described in the preceding paragraphs
constitute the guide for practices at home for both the
mother and the child. In this case, the mother becomes a
teacher. These are the practices which the mother used for
teaching their children at home daily for a minimum of twenty
minutes and a maximum of thirty minutes. The number of tech
niques taught in each succeeding lesson was determined by
the degree of understanding and achievement of every child
in the class. The guideline which governed the nujnber of
new problems to be introduced was the successful achievement V.
of each technique by all members of the class before the
next sequential step was presented.
Differences in the rate of progress of individual child
ren became apparent in their weekly lessons due to the age
differences as well as differences in the mothers' devotion
at home. Whenever possible, the writer visited the homes
of participants in the study and provided extra private
sessions in order to help the students to reach a level with
the rest of the group. This enabled both the writer and the
assistant to set a pace more suitable to the ability of the
experimental group. To recognize the slower learners, the
80
mothers were asked to submit their home exercise materials
and daily logs to the writer periodically in order for him
to identify them.
The Statistical Analysis
Data collected from all three measures were analyzed
by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and paired t-tests. In
this study, since random sampling techniques were not possi
ble and intact group procedures were used, statistical
analysis employed analysis of covariance with the pretest
measures as the covariates. Campbell and Stanley (I963)
states that the weakness of the nonequivalent control design
which does not have pre-experimental sampling equivalence
can be overcome by the use of covariance statistics (p. 50).
To determine the significance of difference favoring the
experimental group over the control group between two
groups' scores as a result of pre- and posttesting, paired
t-tests were employed. According to Cornett and Beckner
(1975), since two measures (pre- and posttest scores) have
been taken from the same individuals, the data are considered
correlated. Thus, when these kinds of data are to be analyzed,
the correlated data technique (paired t-test) must be used.
Summary
Twenty-seven preschool children ages three to six,
enrolled at St. John Neumann School, Lubbock, Texas, comprisei
the population of the experimental group. A like nur.ber c:
I i * '
81
children and like age at First Christian Church School was
selected for the control group. The duration of this study
was limited to a period of four weeks of instruction with
two sessions per week during the April and May of 198I.
This study was designed as being quasi-experim.ental
using intact groups rather than randomly selected groups as
random selection of two groups was not possible. Utilizing
the pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design, the
study employed three instruments in order to test the hypoth
eses set forth in Chapter I. These instruments were: (1)
the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts to measure the child's
mastery of concepts, (2) the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test
to measure cognition, and (3) the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale
to assess the quality of art work. In a task not directly
related to the main purpose of this study, the study utilized
two other instruments. These were parent evaluation to
determine the feasibility of the Suzuki/Tamano Method and
public opinion survey to gain an insight into a possible
indication of public acceptance for the program locally.
The specifications, administration and scoring procedures
of these instruments were also explored in this chapter.
This was followed by an outline of the method of treat
ment for the experimental group in which the mothers partici
pated with the children at school and as the teacher at home.
Finally, the statistical techniques used to analyze
data were given toward the conclusion of this chapter.
I .
82
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS
The posttests of scores of the Boehm Test of Basic
Concepts, the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and the Brouch
Tempera Rating Scale were analyzed by analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) with the pretest for each of the post measures
serving as covariate. Upon completion of data collection,
test scores of these three measures were place on IBM cards
and used with the Statistical Package for the Social Science
(SPSS)(Nie, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975). The means,
standard deviations, standard error, F values, t values, and
multiple Rs, were obtained from the multiple regression
computer system at Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas.
The .05 level of probability was used by the writer. -i
Parent Evaluation and Public Opinion Survey were
analyzed by hand. The findings on these two measures are
considered in a somewhat less formal manner in which their
mean scores are considered.
The present chapter reports the preliminary findings
of the independent t-tests on the pretest scores of three
measures. This is followed by the principal findings show
ing the results of analysis of covariance of these three
measures. In conjunction with ANCOVA, significant results
obtained from the independent t-tests and paired t-tests
will be reported.
» .
83
The results of Parent Evaluation and Piablic Opinion
Survey will also be included in the principal findings.
Finally the findings of each measure will be grouped and
interpreted.
Preliminary Findings
This section includes the pretest scores on the depen
dent variables because they have a bearing on interpreting
the principal findings.
t ests
Because complete randomization of subjects was not
possible in either the experimental or control groups of this r!
study, an analysis of pretest data was made to determine if
there were statistically significant differences on the '•_
dependent variables between the groups prior to the administ
ration of the treatment. The five separate independent
t-tests were performed between the two groups on the Boehm
Test of Basic Concepts, the Goodenough-Harris Drav/ing Test,
and the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale. (See Table II.)
The results revealed that only the pretest scores of
the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale indicated a statistically
significant difference between the experimental and control
groups. The pooled variance estimate produced a two-tailed
probability of less than .05 level.
Further t-test analysis of age differences between the
84
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experimental and control groups yielded no significant
difference at the .05 level. (The steps to determine the
results of the t-test of age are given in Table III.)
Since the age differences between the experimental and
control groups were not contributed to a significant differ-
rence revealed by the pretest scores of the Brouch Tempera
Rating Scale (see Table II), the differences between groups
on this factor might be attributable to scoring inconsis
tencies as well as to initial differences in painting abil
ities of groups.
The writer hypothesizes that scoring inconsistencies
may be attributed to some bias and/or low inter-judge relia
bility. (See Appendix I.) The significant difference
favoring the experimental group children on the whole
may have had a little more previous experience in painting,
or the "Hawthorne Effect" may be in evidence. On the basis
of this analysis, any conclusion concerning the Brouch Tem
pera Rating Scale must be viewed with caution and reservation
Principal Findings
This section will report the results of the paired and
independent t-tests, and the results of the analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA). For the purpose of reporting the test
ing of each research hypothesis, they will be restated in
null form.
The Boehm Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC)
Findings in Table II, IV, and V refer to children's
86
TABLE III
STEPS TO DETERMINE DIFFERENCE IN AGE
Control Group
^ x^ = 99,845
(I x)^ = 2,735,716
X = 61.76, n = 27
s^^ « 56.83
F =
Experimental Group
X x^ = 88,476
(X x)^ = 2,280,100
X = 55.93, n = 27 r.2 _ '2 = -154.91
-154.91 56.83
= -2.726 (p --.01)
Therefore, the F ratio of the two variances are
significant. Therefore, a separate variance t-test must
be used to determine if the difference in age between the
experimental and control groups is significant.
t = ^1 ^2 = 1.90 (t = .10.05)
r. • »
Therefore, age differences between the two groups
are not significant at least at the .05 level of probability.
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89
mastery of concepts as measured by the BTBC. Table IV
indicates that an independent t-test yielded no significant
difference at the .05 level of probability in post-BTBC
scores between the experimental and control groups.
However, Table II reports that the BTBC pretest means
are significantly different in favor of the control group.
The writer attributed this difference to the control group's
slightly older average age (5 l/3 months) and therefore
their initial advantage in identifying the various objects
given in the BTBC. The t-test analysis of the BTBC scores
given in Table IV, however, indicates that not only did
the younger experimental group students catch up with the
other group in this measure to assess children's knowledge
of basic concepts, they even surpassed them slightly. Although
the means were not significantly different in the t-test
analysis, ANCOVA of the posttest BTBC, scores reported in
Table V, controlling for pretest BTBC scores reveals that,
compared with the control group, experimental group gains
were highly significant, F(l, 49) = 26.702, p<.001.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant
differences in the posttest scores of the Boehm Test of Basic
Concepts between the experimental and control group scores
is rejected.
The results of the paired t-test of pre- and post-3IBC
scores are given in Table VI. The paired t-test resulted
in a significant difference between the pre- and post-BTBC
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90
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91
scores of subjects in the experimental group, t(26) = 9.564,
p < .001. No significant difference was found in the control
group's pre- and post-BTBC scores, t(26) = I.595, p > .10.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant
differences between the pre- and post-BTBC scores of the
experimental group is rejected, and that of the control group
is not rejected.
The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT)
The t-test analysis of posttest-GHDT scores as reported
in Table IV reveal highly significant differences favoring
the experimental group in all three of the measures: the
Man Scale, t(52) = 11.27, P < .001; the Woman Scale, t(52) = [^
10.86, p <.001; and the Average Scale, t(52) = 11.58, p<.001. Vz
To determine if these difference were significant in terms
of the pretest-GHDT scores of both groups, analysis of -i
covariance was performed on only the Average Scale; the writer
reasoned that analysis of this scale was sufficient since
the t values in all three scales were essentially congruent.
ANCOVA of the GHDT Average Scale scores controlling for the
pretest scores as shown in Table VII reveals a highly
significant difference between the two groups, F(l, 50) =
120.998, p < .001. The experimental group children, accord
ing to this analysis, far surpassed the control group in
this measure of concept development and cognition.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant differ-
r.
92
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93
ences in the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test between the
experimental and control group scores is rejected.
The results of the paired t-test between the pre- and
post-GHDT scores for both the experimental and control
groups are shown in Table VIII. The paired t-test analysis
yielded a highly significant difference between the pre-
and post-GHDT scores for the experimental group, t(26) =
16.735, P < .001. The paired t-test for the control group
resulted in no significant differences between the pre-
and posttest GHDT scores, t(26) = 2.02?, p > .05.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant
differences between the pre- and post-GHDT scores of the
experimental group is rejected, and that of the control
group is not rejected.
The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS)
Although the t-test analysis of pretest-BTRS scores
produced a significant difference favoring the experimental
group as seen in Table II, the t-test analysis of posttest
scores (see Table IV) revealed a much wider margin for this
same group of children. The difference between the means
of the BTRS for each group increased by 33.26 points. Analysis
of covariance of the BTRS posttest scores with the pretest
scores serving as covariates which is reported in Table IX,
revealed a significant difference in favor of the experimental
group, F(l, 50) = 71.^71, P <.001.
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94
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96
The decision to reject the null hypothesis was some
what tempered by the significant difference in pretest BTRS
means. However, a paired t-test analysis of the gain of
BTRS control group means from pre- to posttest proved to
be not significant, t(26) = I.89, p >.05, as shown in
Table X. On the other hand, a paired t-test analysis of
BTRS experimental group means from pre- to posttest revealed
a significant difference, t(26) = 7.28, p <.001.
Therefore, the results of these two t-tests together
with the highly significant differences found in ANCOVA of
BTRS posttest scores, first, the null hypothesis of no
significant difference in the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale \ '
between the experimental and control group scores is rejected.
And secondly, the null hypothesis of no significant differ
ence between the pre- and post-BTRS scores of the experimental
group is rejected, and that of the control group is not
rejected.
Parent Evaluation
Each of the twenty-five items on the forms returned by
the twenty-one mothers who participated in the experimental
group was scored on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 5 (highest).
(See Appendix E for the form and breakdowns on the scoring
on the various items and by the individual respondents.)
Scores by items. The mean score for all twenty-five
items scored by the twenty-one mothers was 4.02. 2y pre-
I f * ' <• t
97
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98
established criteria, this constitutes an overall response
of "good" in the expectations of the writer.
Eight individual items (items 2, 5, 7, 11, 12, 16,
17, and 18) scored above 4.5, the "excellent" range. Eleven
(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 13, 19, 20, 22, and 25) scored between
3.7 and 4.5, the "good" range. Five (10, 14, 21, 23, and
24) scored between 2.5 and 3-6, the "average" range. Only
one (item 15) scored between I.9 and 2.?, the "below
average quality" range.
Scores by respondents. On average rating on twenty-
five items by an individual respondent breaks down somewhat
differently. Eighteen mothers scored these form with an
average rating between 3-7 and 4.5, the "good" range. ;r
Only three scored in the "average quality" range, 2.8 to
3.6. No mothers scored in the "excellent," the "below *,
average quality," or the "poor quality" ranges.
The Public Opinion Survey
The findings in Table XI are concerned with public
interest in the study as evidenced by the Public Opinion
Survey form distributed to thirteen randomly selected
nurseries and preschools in Lubbock, Texas.
These findings are summarized as follows: Of 376
responses collected, 274 indicated a strong interest in the
study by answering "yes, 72.88 per cent. A "yes" response
indicated an interest in actually participating in a future
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100
program based on the Suzuki/Tamano Method if "one were to
be offered in my area at a reasonable price and at a conven
ient time." A total of 102 responses (51 for "undecided"
and 51 "no" ) indicated either not si re or not interested in
the pilot study. Consequently, there appears to be strong
public interest and support of the program.
Interpretation of the Data
This section of the study will be devoted to the inter
pretation of the data in relationship to the hypotheses as
they are stated in Chapter I. A brief statement of the
interpretation of the surveys will also be covered.
Hypotheses
Hypothesis One. The null hypothesis based upon hypoth
esis one was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis one is accepted:
A group of subjects who have undergone treatment with the
Suzuki/Tamano Method would score significantly higher than
a control group on a posttest measure of their abilities to
form basic concepts as measured by the Boehm Test of Basic
Concepts.
Hypothesis Two. The null hypothesis based upon hypoth
esis two was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis two is accepted:
The experimental group scores on the posttest would be signif
icantly higher than their pretest scores on a measure of
their abilities to form basic concepts as measured by the
101
Boehm Test of Basic Concepts. The hypothesis two also
hypothesized that as the control group experienced no
treatment, a significant difference would not be found
between their post and pretest-BTBC scores.
Hypothesis Three. The null hypothesis based upon
hypothesis three was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis three
is accepted: The hypothesis three was concerned with how
the Tamano/Suzuki Method treatment might affect the
cognitive development of the experimental group children.
Specifically, it was hypothesized that children having receiv
ed sequentially-based instruction would have scored
significantly higher on the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test
at the end of the treatment than those who did not receive
treatment.
Hypothesis Four. The null hypothesis based upon i;'.
hypothesis four was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis four
is accepted: Similar to the hypothesis two, this hypothesis
was formulated that the experimental group scores on the
posttest Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test would be significantly
higher than their pretest scores on a same measure of their
abilities in cognition. It also hypothesized that the control
group would not score significantly higher on their posttest
GHDT scores than their pretest scores as they would not receive
treatment.
Hypothesis Five. The null hypothesis based upon
hypothesis five was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis five
102
is accepted; The hypothesis five predicted that there v/ould
be significant difference in the posttest Brouch Tempera
Rating Scale scores between the children in the Suzuki/
Tamano Method treatment group and the children not treated
by the same Method.on a measure of the quality of their art
works.
Hypothesis Six. The null hypothesis based upon
hypothesis six was rejected. Therefore, hypothesis six is
accepted: As with hypothesis two and four, hypothesis six
stated that the experimental group would score significantly
higher on the posttest measure of the quality of their art
works than on the pretest, using the Brouch Tempera Rating
Scale. It also hypothesized that the control group would :• *
not score significantly higher on the posttest score of ^ \
the same measure than on the pretest. :.
The Surveys
Parent evaluation. Based on the ratings of twenty-five
individual question items provided by the mothers of the
treatment group, the writer made the following interpretations
based upon the items as they were scored by the respondents:
(1) The parents felt that the writer explained and
accomplished the stated objectives of the Suzuki/Tamano
Method.
(2) The children enjoyed listening the taped music
of the Method.
103
(4) The Method demonstrated a concern for developing
the child's early learning habits.
(5) The Method demonstrated an active concern for
strengthening parent-child ties.
(6) The parents worked with their children with daily
practice of twenty to thirty minutes as requested although
some occasionally skipped.
(7) The parents did not keep regularly a daily log
stating the nature of practice sessions at home as requested
by the writer.
(8) The parents felt that it was an excellent idea
to provide their children with good education starting an
early age. [
(9) The parents liked the Method and expressed their ' CI
desire to recommend it to someone else. F
(10) The parents expressed that they saw some improve
ment in their children's artistic abilities and the quality
their art work.
Public opinion survey. Of 376 responses collected from
thirteen nurseries and preschools, 274 (72.88 per cent)
expressed interest in participating in a future program based
upon the Suzuki/Tamano Method. Thus, the data indicate
potential support for expansion of the program in the United
States.
'. a
104
Summary
For the purposes of this study, the analysis of the
collected data was made in two stages. The first stage is
the key and most important part of the study in that the
six research hypotheses were tested. The data from the Boehm
Test of Basic Concepts (BTBC), the Goodenough-Harris Drawing
Test (GHDT), and the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS) were
tested statistically through the uses of t-tests and analysis
of covariance. Significant differences (p<.05 or less)
were found on the posttest BTBC, GHDT, and BTRS scores when
controlling for each of the pretest scores between the experi
mental and control groups. It was also discovered that the
paired t-test comparisons of all three measures' pretest
and posttest scores for the experimental group produced a
highly significant effect (p<.05 or less), and those for
the control group did not. Thus, all six research hypotheses
set forth in Chapter I were accepted.
While the findings of the second stage were not central
to the study, they provided additional information about the
acceptance, potential and feasibility of the program for
further implementation and expansion.
Both the parent evaluation and the public opinion surveys
yielded supportive results. The mean scores of Parent Eval
uation revealed that eighteen mothers (86 per cent cf mothers
who were directly involved in the study) rated the pilot study
105
with "good quality" and three (14 per cent) with "average
quality." The overall rating was "good quality." In the
case of Public Opinion Survey based on the 376 responses from
thirteen local nurseries and preschools, seven out of ten
responses indicated the strong interest and support for the
program as it is currently structured, and fewer than three
out of ten responses revealed their answers as either "no"
or "undecided."
The present study sought to look closely to examine
the effects of the Suzuki/Tamano Method in terms of children's
cognitive development and the quality of their art works,
but it was also concerned with the potential for expansion
of the program in the future. The overwhelming findings
included the acceptance of all six hypotheses set forth in
Chapter I and very positive results on the survey forms.
These finding are very encouraging because they suggest that
the Suzuki-type art education program can be expected to have
a positive impact upon American children ages three to six.
106
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter reports and discusses a general review
of the study, followed by the results of the findings as
they relate to the six hypotheses and the primary research
questions. Also discussed in this chapter are the writer's
conclusions and the implications of the study. Recommenda
tions for future research are given at the conclusion of
the chapter.
Summary of the Experiment
The main purpose of this study was to adapt for Amer
ican children the Suzuki Method using the Tamano curriculum
for mother-tongue instruction in early childhood art educa
tion; apply it utilizing a quasi-experimental pretest/post
test nonequivalent control group design; and to evaluate
its success in terms of hypothesized improvements in the
quality of the children's art works, abilities to form basic
concepts, and cognition. As a secondary purpose, this study
was undertaken to test the feasibility of introducing this
adapted Japanese early childhood arts education program
(herein termed the Suzuki/Tamano Method) on a larger scale
in America by examining interest and acceptance at this local
level.
F .
107
Primary Investigation
Subjects for the study were fifty-four preschool child
ren between the ages of three to six in intact classes.
Twenty-seven children at St. John Neumann School, Lubbock,
Texas were selected as the experimental group and received
the treatment. The assignment of subjects to the experi
mental group was determined by the willingness of the
mothers to accept certain prescribed responsibilities
essential to the implementation of the pilot study. Those
who agreed to comply with these prescribed responsibilities
affirmed their willingness by signing a pledge of coopera
tion in which their duties and the necessary controls were
clearly defined. Twenty-seven children at First Christian
Church School, Lubbock, were included in the control group
and did not receive the treatment. They received whatever
kind of art instruction they would have normally received.
The treatment consisted of the subjects' participation
in the early childhood art education techniques which the
writer developed by adapting the Suzuki-based Tamano curric
ulum and instruction but by applying some aspects of the
Suzuki Method more directly than did Tamano, e.g., parental
involvement. The treatment was given to the experimental
group in eight one-hour sessions held twice a week over a
one month period during April and May of I98I. The classes
were taught by the writer and an assistant teacher.
The uniqueness of the treatment given to subjects of
108
the experimental group was characterized by three procedures
not generally utilized in present practices. They were;
(1) Rote teaching was employed.
(2) Parents were assigned a teaching role during the
home practice sessions of the children.
(3) A comprehensive listening program was used as an
integral part of the learning experience.
The research design for this study was quasi-experi
mental in nature in that intact groups (the experimental
and control groups ) were used rather than being randomly
chosen. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group
Design was utilized (Campbell & Stanley, I963).
Data for determining the results of this study were
obtained by the administration of three measures:
(1) A pre- and post-Boehm Test of Basic Concepts
(BTBC, Formi A and B) were used to measure children's m.astery
of concepts which are considered essential to achievement
in the first years of school.
(2) The Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT) was used
as the pre- and posttest to measure differences in children's
cognitive development.
(3) The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale (BTRS) was util
ized as the pre- and posttest to assess the quality of
children's art work.
Data collected from all three measures were analyzed
by the independent or paired t-tests and analysis of covari-
109
ance controlling for the pretests. Data collected from
fifty-four subjects, twenty-seven in the experimental group
and twenty-seven in the control group, were included in
the analyses.
A total of six research hypotheses were examined, two
for each measure. All six hypotheses were retained at the
.05 level of probability.
Hypothesis One. The experimental group will score
significantly higher than the control group at the end of
the experiment on a standardized measure of their abilities
to form basic concepts (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts).
Hypothesis Two. Tl e experimental group will score
significantly higher on the posttest measure of their
abilities to form basic concepts than on the pretest, using
the same measure for both (the Boehm Test of Basic Concepts)
The control group will not.
Hypothesis Three. The experimental group will score
significantly higher than the control group at the end of
the experiment on a standardized measure of cognition (the
Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test).
Hypothesis Four. The experimental group will score
significantly higher on the posttest measure of their cogni
tion than on the pretest, using the same measure for both
(the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test). The control group
will not.
Hypothesis Five. The experimental group will score
110
significantly higher than the control group at the end of
the experiment on a measure of the quality of their art
works (the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale).
Hypothesis Six. The experimental group v/ill score
significantly higher on the posttest measure of the quality
of their art works than on the pretest, using the same
measure for both (the Brouch Tempera Rating Scale). The
control group will not.
Secondary Investigation
The study was also undertaken for the purpose of deter
mining if a modification of the Suzuki Method using the Tamano
curriculum and instruction could be as adapted successfully
to the visual arts as it has been to music education in
America and to determine the direction for which the program
should take in the future. To achieve this objective the
study focused on answering the following two questions:
(1) Was it feasible to use curriculum materials and
methods of instruction designed for use in the Japanese early
childhood art education Suzuki Method program in an American
version of the same program?
(2) Would a pilot art education program using the
aspects of the Suzuki Method be able to generate sufficient
interest from local sources to warrant a continuation and
expansion of the program in the United States?
Parent Evaluation. Combining closed-form and structured
responses, the writer designed a questionnaire instrument
Ill
based on Van Dalen. The purpose of this instrument was to
obtain data pertaining to the procedural success or failure
of the study. The instrument consisted of a prepared list
of twenty-five concrete questions, each with five numerical
values which constituted the choice of possible answers.
Twenty-one parents of the experimental group who
participated in the study became the respondents and the
questionnaire was administered on May 27, I98I as a group.
The writer formulated a scale for the objective translation
of average scores, and data collected from twenty-one
mothers of the experimental group were analyzed. The pilot
study received a rating of "good quality" with a mean score
for all items of 4.02.
Public Opinion Survey. A simple questionnaire was
constructed to determine whether sufficient interest and
support exist for the study on the local level to warrant
possible expansion of the program in the future. A closed
form questionnaire consisted of an explanation of background,
philosophy, contents, and requirements of the program, and
simply asked the respondents to check one of three answers:
"yes," "no," or "undecided."
In order to assure a significant return, the writer
randomly selected thirteen nurseries and preschools and
arranged to administer the form at their regularly scheduled
parent meetings in the April, May and June of I98I. The
112
The respondents were all parents of one or more three to
six year old children.
The total number of responses from the thirteen schools
was 376 out of a possible 646, 58 per cent of the total
population. Considering the total number of forms distri
buted (478), however, 78.5 per cent of parents responded
and returned the form to the writer. Of 376 responses
collected, 274 indicated a strong support of the study by
answering "yes" (72.88 per cent), 51 were "undecided," and
51 voted "no." Therefore, there appears to be a strong
public interest in the program.
Conclusions and Implications
As a result of this study, three general conclusions
may be drawn, and these conclusions have strong implications
for the field of art education today and for the development
of future programs.
The first general conclusion is that the data obtained
from this study seem to offer strong statistical evidence
that results superior to those achieved by the generally
accepted method of early childhood art education may be
anticipated through the use of the Suzuki/Tamano Method.
This experiment has established the likelihood that in a
similar setting and under similar conditions of rigid control,
the use of Suzuki techniques using the Tamano curriculum and
113
instruction can be an effective means of improving three to
six year old children's conceptual and intellectual develop
ment as well as the quality of their art works.
Important implications may be drawn from this conclu
sion. That is that factors other than the teaching method
ologies may have contributed to the findings of the experi
mental group's significantly greater improvement in the
qualities measured: (1) the earliness of the training in
art appears to have played an important part, and (2) a
family environment in which the parents give serious atten
tion to their children's education also seemed to have been
an important factor. The results of the Parent Evaluation
support these implications.
The findings also might lend considerable support to
the notion that a major portion of what a child draws and
paints is cognitive in nature, an idea that should have
serious implications for those who advocate a bare bones
"back to basics" curriculum in which art has little or no
place. They also support Eisner's (1972) expressed view
that art educators might begin to question a prescription
which stems largely from the influence of Viktor Lowenfeld
and has been followed for more than thirty years: "Never
let a child copy " (Lowenfeld, 1947, p. ^ ) . Pariser (19 ?)
also had challenged Lowenfeld's view when he concluded from
his research that the act of copying need not hinder artisti.
and creative growth. The results of this study support his
114
findings as well. The highly imitative, repetitive, and
directed nature of the treatment used in this study, in
which children did indeed "copy," did not seem to stifle
their artistic expression.
A second general conclusion is that the Suzuki/Tamano
Method generated interest and potentially active support
locally. Sufficient interest was found in favor of the
study by the Public Opinion Survey.
However, this survey which produced 376 Lubbock area
respondents a valid indicator of interest in the overall
population of the state, or even of the area. If continua
tion and expansion of the program in the United States is
to be seriously considered, then some means of program support
assessment must extend beyond this locally-based evaluation.
A third and final conclusion is that, considering
the success of this experiment, it appears to be feasible
to use curriculum materials and methods of instruction de
signed for use in Japanese early childhood art education in
an American version of the same program (i.e., the Suzuki/
Tamano Method). Also the experimental group mothers rated
the program on their Parent Evaluations as being of "good
quality." This indicates that these mothers formed positive
attitudes toward a Japanese curriculum of instruction, a
highly structured pedagogical experience. The implication
of this runs counter to the commonly held position that
greater freedom on the part of the student, accompanied by
less pedagogical structure, will lead to the development of
115
positive attitude toward art.
The writer feels, however, that these conclusions are
somewhat tentative and in need of further investigation.
Recommendations for Further Study
Based on the findings from this investigation, the
following recommendations are suggested as areas for further
study.
(1) While the extent to which the role of the parent
contributed to the progress of the child could not be
precisely measured by this study, it seems logical to assume
that a favorable effect did accrue. Furthermore, the
prescribed listening assignments were unique to the experi
ences of the children in the experimental group, but there
is no evidence to establish precisely which experiences
contributed or contributed more to the children's superior
achievement. The degree of influence of the parent and/or
the actual contributory effect of the listening program must
be determined by further research specifically designed for
this purpose.
(2) There should be replication studies, using differ
ent groups of randomized students and parents. Because of
the small intact sampling used in this study, (27 subjects
in the experimental group, 27 subjects in the control group),
at least two fundamental questions remain unanswered: (1)
to what extent would similar results be achieved in a large-
116
scale randomized application of Suzuki techniques using the
Tamano curriculum and instruction? and (2) to what extent
would parents from various socio-economic backgrounds be
willing to accept the responsibilities of a home teacher?
(3) If the Suzuki/Tamano Method is considered for
large scale implementation in the early childhood art
education of America, its merits must first be established
through research involving a large population of subjects
from a variety of socio-economic backgrounds. Such a study
need not be limited to the areas of drawing and painting
alone, but may include a variety of the art media currently
taught in the preschool and kindergarten. The writer
hypothesizes that the application of Suzuki techniques
using the Tamano Method would not be more effective with a
particular area of visual art fields and less effective with
others. Different and perhaps more complex procedural prob
lems would exist when used in other areas of art, but this
study strongly suggests that these other areas would benefit
as well from adaptation of the Suzuki/Tamano Method. That
is, similar results in other areas would be likely.
(4) The findings of this study appear to have some
implications for education in the visual arts. It has gener
ally been accepted in the field of art education that art
experiences lead to overall growth in creativity. This
position has not been addressed by this study, thus leaving
some questions which are important and worthy of further
117
investigation. The feeling of the writer is that art expe
riences in the Suzuki/Tamano Method do promote general
creativity as it can be measured by existing tests; there
fore, it should be thoroughly tested over an extended period
of time. Even though the eight lessons over a one month
period produced results in the areas of children's quality
of art work and cognition, further investigations for
creativity should be carried out over extended periods of
time in order to confirm or disconfirm this hypothesis.
(5) The development of an art program basic to the
general curriculum of instruction in the public schools is
another important concept with which art education is con
cerned today. In this study only two measures (the Goode
nough-Harris Drawing Test and the Boehm Test of Basic
Concepts) directly addressed this concern. A more intensive
study of the method's effect upon these cognitive areas
would constitute a valuable area for further investigation.
(6) As previously indicated, the degree to which the
listening program and the role of the parent contributed
to the achievement of the child is not known. Therefore,
it is recommended that a study be instituted to determine
the extent of their individual influences on the total
achievement of the child. For the sake of convenience and
greater uniformity, it would seem desirable to limit this
study to the teaching of the same art media to all subjects.
The choice of media should be determined by the researcher's
118
competence to teach it and by assurance of the availability
of a sufficient number of subjects to give confidence to
the findings.
Three groups of subjects are recommended for a study
of this nature. They could be designated as Groups One,
Two, and Three. Procedures should first be established to
match the subjects in each respective group with those in
the other two groups. This may be done by the administra
tion of a prognostic test of art talents to determine the
strengths and weaknesses of each subject. When the match
ing procedures have been completed, a program of study simi
lar to this writer's research should be developed utilizing
the Suzuki/Tamano Method but with the following qualifica
tions:
(a) Group One should receive instruction to include
the three major pedagogical techniques: rote instruction,
use of the parent as a home teacher, and a comprehensive
listening program.
(b) Group Two should be taught by the same techniques
as Group One except for the exclusion of the parent as a
home teacher.
(c) Group Three should be instructed by the same tech
niques as Group One without the inclusion of the listening
program.
The achievement of each group may then be tested at the
termination of a pre-determined period of instruction. The
119
data obtained by the researcher should enable him to deter
mine the extent to which parental participation and/or the
listening program influences the child's progress. Although
it is highly unlikely, it is conceivable that neither
activity contributes to the child's total achievement. If
this were found to be the case, its discovery would be an
invaluable contribution to future endeavors in the explora
tion of the effectiveness of Suzuki techniques.
120
SELECTED REFERENCES
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Barkan, M. The visual art in secondary education. School Review. I962.
Beatty, W. H. (Ed. ). Improving educational assessment and an inventory of measures of affective behavior. Washington, D- C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, I969.
Bersson, R. D. The use of participant observation in the evaluation of art program. Studies in Art Education, 1978, 12(2), 61-67.
Bloom, B. S. Stability and (Change in human characteristics. New Yorkl Wiley, 1964.
Bloom, B. S. All our children learning, a primer for parents, teachers, and other educators. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., I98I.
Boehm, A. E. Boehm test of basic concepts. New York: Psychological Corporation, 1971.
Brittain, W. L. Creativity, art, and the young child. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1979.
Brouch, V. M. An experimental study of the effect of synchrO' nized slide-tape art learning experiences on tempera paintings of third and fourth grade children. Doctor' al dissertation, Arizona State University, 1970.
Bruner, J. S. Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press, I966.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally and College Pub. Co., 1963.
Cornett, J. D., & Beckner, W. Introductory statistics for the behavioral sciences. Columbus, Oh.: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1975.
Dave, R. H. The identification and measurement of environ-miental process variables that are related to educational achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Chicago, I963.
121
Doll, R. C. Curriculum improvement; Decision-making and process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1966.
Downey, L. The task of public education: The perceptions of people.Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, i960.
Dressel, P., & others. The liberal arts as viewed by facultv members in professional schools. Teacher's College, Columbia University, I959.
Eisner, E. W. The development of information and attitude toward art at the secondary and college levels. Sudies in Art Education. I966, 8(1), 43-58.
Eisner, E. W. Art education. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., I969, pp. 76-86.
Eisner, E. W. Toward a more adequate conception of evaluation in the arts. Art Education. 1974, 22(7),
Eisner, E. W. What do children learn when they paint? Art Education. March 1978, pp. 6-10.
Efland, A. The school art style: A functional analysis. Studies in Art Education. I976, 12(2), 37-44.
Feeney, S., & Christensen, D. Who am I in the lives of children?: An introduction to teaching young children. Columbus, Oh.: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., I98I.
Ferro, M. Why is early training necessary? In S. Suzuki, Nurtured by love. New York: Exposition Press, I969.
Eraser, D. M. Current curriculum studies in academic subjects . National Education Association, Project on Instruction, I962, pp. 6-4l.
Garson, A. Alfred Garson answers questions on the Suzuki teaching method. Montreal: South Shore Protestant Regional School Board, I968. (Mimeographed)
Geertz, C. The interpretation of culture. Nev/ York: Basic Books, 1973.
Goodenough, F. L. Measurement of intelligence by drawings. In L. M. Terman (Ed.), Measurement and Adjustment Series. New York: World Book Company, I926.
122
Goodenough, F. L., & Harris, D. B. The test manual; Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test. New York: Harcourt Brace & World, Inc., 1963.
Gordon, I. J. (Ed.). Theories of instruction. Washington, D. C : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1968.
Harnack, R. S. The teacher decision maker and curriculum planner. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook, I968.
Harris, D. B. Children's drawings as measures of intellectual maturity. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1963.
Harris, D. B. Scientific inquiry into artistic learning. In L. C. Deighton (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Education (Vol. 1). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1971, PP. 119-331.
Honda, M. Personal interview, summer, I98O.
Honda, M. , & Tamano, Y. Personal interview, July 8, I98O. (a)
Honda, M., & Tamano, Y. Personal interview, August 15, I98O. (b)
Hooper, J. Children's drawings of a table and an adaptation of a Piagetian coordination of perspectives task. Unpublished master's thesis, Cornell University, 1977.
Hunt, J. V. Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald, 1961.
Invasion from the orient. Time Magazine, November 3, 1967, p. 46.
Kawai, A., & Yanai, H. Gendai nipponno kyoiku shiso. Tokyo: Reimei Shobo, 19 3" ^
Kellogg, R. Analyzing children's art. Palo Alto, Ca.: National Press Books, 1970.
Kendall, J. The Suzuki violin method in American m.usic education. Reston, Va.: Music Educators National Conference, 1978.
Kendall, J. Southern Illinois University. Personal interview, February I6, I98O.
Langer, S. K. Expressiveness. In G. Pappas (Ed.), ConceTots in art and education. London: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970, pp. 168-175-
ft
123
Lanier, V. A plague on all your houses: The tragedy of art education. Art Education. March 1974, pp. 12-15.
Lansing, K. M. Art, artists, and art education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I969.
Logan, F. M. Growth of art in American schools. New York: Harper & Row, 1955.
Lowenfeld, V. Creative and mental growth: A textbook on art education. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1947.
Lowenfeld, V., & Brittain, W. L. Creative and mental growth (7th ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1982.
Macklin, A. D. Selling the art program: Tickling a sacred cow. Art Education. December 1978, pp. 10-13.
McFee, J. K. Preparation for art. Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1970.
McFee, J. K., & Degge, R. Art culture and environment: A catalyst for teaching. Belmont, Ca.: Wadsworth, 1977.
Michaels, G. E. The Georgia science and engineering fair. Georgia Jounal of Science, 1979, 22(2), 53-54. i
Miller, T. W. The influence of progressivism on music education, 1917-194?. Journal of Research in Music Education, Spring I966, pp. 3-16.
Nagano, R. Sengono Kyoiku. In Seiichi Miyazawa (Ed.), Kyoikushi. Tokyo: Tokyo Keizai Shinposha, I966.
Nie, N. H., Hull, C. H., Jenkins, J. G., Steinbrenner, K., & Bent, D. H. Statistical package for the social sciences (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1975.
Oxford, P. A. H. The effects of mental imagery activities on early concept acquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech University, 1978.
Pariser, D. A. Two methods of teaching drawing skills. Studies in Art Education, 1979, 20, 30--2.
12 ^
Percy, M., & Berlyne, D- E. (Eds. and trans.). Psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, Let., 1950.
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (F. J. Langdon & J. Norton, I967.
The child's conception of space L. Lunzer, trans.). New York:
Sand, 0. (Director). Schools for the 60's (National Education Association/Project on Instruction). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., I963.
Seefeldt, C. The effects of a program designed to increase young children's perception of texture. Studies in Art Education. 1979, 20, 40-47.
Seward, J. The Japanese (7th ed.). Tokyo: Lotus Press, 1977
Sigel, I. E. Distancing hypothesis: A casual hypothesis for the acquisition of representational thought. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Effects of early experience. Coral Gables, Fl.: University of Miami Press, I970.
Suzuki, S. Nurtured by love: A new approach to education (W. Suzuki, trans. ). New York: Exposition Press, Inc., 1969.
Suzuki, T., Mills, E. , Ferro, M., Schreiber, M., Behrend, L., Jempelis, A., Kendall, J., Mills, H., Rowell, M., Tillson, D., & the American Suzuki Institute-West. In E. Mills 80 Sr. T. C Murphy (Eds.), the Suzuki concept: An introduction to a successful method for early music education. Berkeley, Ca.: Diablo Press, Inc., 1973.
Tamano, Y. Kashozokei to eno shido. Tokyo: Meiji Publishing Co., 1979. Til
Tamano, Y. Zokei ritomikku kyoiku no riron taikei. Tokyo: Hakubun Publishing Co., 1979- TbT
Tamano, Y. (Producer). Kashozokei to eno shido. Tokyo: Meiji Publishing Co., 1979. (Tape) Tc)
Tamano, Y. Personal interview, summer, I98O.
Taylor, A. P., & Trujillo, J. L. The effects of selected stimuli on the art products, concept formation, and aesthetic judgmental decisions of four-year-old children. Studies in Art Education, 1973, 1^, 57-66,
ft
125
Torrance, E. P., Reynolds, C. R., Riegel, T., & Ball, 0. E. Your style of learning and thinking. Forms A and E: Preliminary norms, technical notes, scoring keys and selected references. Gifted Child Quarterly, 1977, 21, 563-573.
Torrance, E. P., & Sato, S. Differences in Japanese and United States styles of thinking. The Creative Child and Adult Quarterly. Autumn 1979, pp. 145-isr: Til
Torrance, E. P., & Sato, S. Figural creative thinking abilities of United States and Japanese majors in education. The Creative Child"and Adult Quarterly, Winter 1979, pp. 216-221. (Tl
Torrance, E. P. Japanese attitudes on giftedness and creativity. The Education Digest, May 1980, pp. 29-33.
Ukai, N. Lightness in the dark. Asahi (Tokyo) Evening News. 29 March I98O, p. 6.
Van Dalen, D. B. Understanding educational research: An introduction (3rd ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973.
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Wilson, B. G. An experimental study designed to alter fifth and sixth grade students' perception of painting. Studies in Art Education. I966, 8(1), 33-42.
Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. Response in iconoclasticism challenged: A correspondence on child art, by Wieder, C. G., Wilson, B., & Wilson, M. Art Education. February 1977, PP- 30-33.
Wolf, R. W. The identification and measurement of environ-mental^process variables related to intelligence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Chicago, 1964.
Yomiuri, S. (Ed. ). Taishu daigaku. Osaka: Yorniuri Shinbun, 1976, p. 99.
APPENDIX A
TORRANCE'S SIXTEEN INDICATIONS OF CREATIVITY
126
127
(1) Fluency: Number of relevant, recognizable
responses.
(2) Flexibility in Using Repeated Figures: Number
of different ways the triangles were used (e.g., two or
more connected, as background or foreground for another
object, encircling, as a part of an object, etc. ).
(3) Flexibility in Content: Ntimber of different
categories into which responses can be classified.
(4) Originality; Number of uncommon responses (based
on statistical infrequency, appearing in less than 2% of
records ).
(5) Elaboration: Number of details used in elaborat
ing drawings.
(6) Resistance to Premature Closure: Number of times
premature closure (easiest, simplest, most obvious) was
avoided in-the incomplete figures.
(7) Synthesis: Number of times two or more triangle
were joined together to make an object, scene, etc.
(8) Extending Boundaries; Number of times the bound
aries of the closed triangles were broken or extended.
(9) Unusual Visual Perspective: Number of times the
objects are presented in other than the accustomed perspec
tive (e.g., as seen from above, below, or at different angle).
(10) Internal Visual Perspective: Number of times
internal views of objects shown.
128
(11) Humor: Number of conceptual or perceptual
incongruities produced.
(12) Rich/Colorful Imagery: Number of times images
rated as strong, vivid, exciting, and/or colorful.
(13) Feelings and Emotions; Number of times drawings
expressed feelings and emotions (joy, sorrow, anger, etc.).
(14) Articulateness in Telling a Story: Number of
drawings in which context was added to give meaning and
action to a drawing.
(15) Fantasy; Number of drawings using fantasy (e.g.,
animals, people, plants, etc. given fantasy characteristics,
mythological characters, etc.).
(16) Movement: Number of drawings showing movement
(running, dancing, throwing, jumping, flying, fighting, etc. ).
(Torrance & Sato, 1979b, p- 217) ft
APPENDIX B
PARENTAL PLEDGE OF COOPERATION
129
130
I, the undersigned, do hereby grant permission for
my child to participate in the pilot program of early child
hood arts education to be organized and supervised by
Mr. Tokuroh Arimitsu. I also pledge my full and unqualified
cooperation in compliance with the rules and regulations
necessary to the proper control of this research. I agree
to the following conditions;
(1) That I will not engage a private instructor for
my child for the duration of this research,
(2) That I will guarantee a minimum of twenty minutes
and a maximum of thirty minutes of daily home exercise by
my child for the duration of this research,
(3) That I will fulfill all of the duties required
of me as a parent/teacher.
I further agree to accept any future conditions which may
be necessary to the successful completion of this research.
Signature of Parent of Guardian
APPENDIX C
ADAPTED TAMANO METHOD: SELECTED LESSONS
(The musical notations and illustrations unless otherwisely indicated are from "Kasho Zokei To Eno Shido" by Yoshio Tamano, 1979- Copyright 1979 by Yoshio Tamano. Reproduced by permission.)
131
132
Instruction
Home study for the first lesson of the early childhood arts education begins this week. Please follow the instruction when working with your child. Please keep the class notes as instructional procedures will be explained in detail during the class period, and these handouts are briefly structured.
Precaution when using the handouts
1. Only one set of handouts is provided. Parents are responsible for keeping these in place, for they will be used throughout our lessons.
2. A cassette tape must be played at all time when working with handouts.
3. Before using the handouts, the child should be exposed to music so that he/she remembers its rythm and words.
4. Let your child sing along with music.
5. Drawing or painting take place in the air before using the paper.
6. Soft, loud, big, small strokes of lines as well as directional changes of lines should be emphasized.
7. The child should be taught to feel the rythm of music as well as the lines he/she is making.
Use of crayon or brush '»
1. The crayons are easily broken. Let your child hold them close to the tip.
2. The instruction for handling the brush is provided in the next page. Let your child hold them correctly.
How to color with crayon and brush
1. Break the end of crayon about half an inch and take out the paper. Using the side of the crayon, child can color with broad strokes.
2. Make sure that your child is using the middle part of the brushes.
How to choose the color of crayon or tempera paint
1. Using the favored colors.
2. Using the unfavored colors.
3. Using the longest crayons.
4. Using the shortest crayons.
133
How to use your cassette tape
Contest. Your cassette tape contains: Side 1 (30 minutes). Side 2 (17 minutes), of recording based on the work handouts. Side 1 starts v/ith "Ton Ton Ton Ton (dots)" and ends with "Let's Draw A Turtle". Side 2 begins with "Let's Draw A Giraffe," and ends with "Let's Draw A Cow" in the middle of the tape.
Steps. (1) perceptual training through musical rhythm with words (e.g., "Ton Ton Ton Ton" becomes familiar to your child and understanding the words), (2) feeling through kinesthetic activities in the open air following musical rhythm (e.g., your child draws or paints in the air by his/her hands), and (3) bodily appreciation of the first two steps by turning them into visual imagery.
How to Hold Brushes n
by T. Arimitsu '82
134
1. Ton Ton Ton Ton
Learning Steps
(1) Choose any color and make dots freely, then change color and repeat.
(2) Using different crayons, make a rabbit, a television, a tree, and others.
(3) Make curved lines with dots. Change color and repeat.
(4) Let your child pick up his/her favored colors. Hold-at least two crayons, make dots.
l-x
^k; J J^i^/jjj iJ'lj fe T^ J~. J J ^ ^^ Wtd^^^maid'^ltt^da^mat
Ton I I n I t I , I I I I I I I I I I 11 Ton " " I I I I I I I I 11
1 ) • • • • . • . . • . . • : .• . ; . . . • * . • . . . . . . • . • . • * .
. • • • • • . . • . , « • ' *•
• ' _ •;. » '• . • • • • . . • . . .
* • • ' • • • •
• . . • • •. • . ' • • . . . * • . • . • • • . • . •
• • . . - . • • • ' . ' • . • • •
( 2 ) •:: . - g v ^ : . . : ; : ^ . ; ; . ; ' . ; • • • • : • • • • " •
• • • . . • > ' /:?' ; ' . • • • : - . t . • • . • • • • . • . .
. • . ' • ^ - . . - ^ . • . • • : . • • : • • . • . ; • . • • . . . • • . •
• • V" > . ' ' . ' . • • • ' > - . . , . • • • • . • . ' . . . . . . . . • • • • vV • . . . f - . . - - . - . - . r » - . * " , • • . . • . • • . • . . . • • •
• . • . . •.;:• / ,.;•-' Nf ^v-^j • • . . ' \ • • • • ' • ? / • •»>••• • > '•'•'-••'.
• • . • . • • : . • • • • • V ; v . •• • • . . •.•.'•'•^' • • : ' • * ? • • , - . ' • . , ••. • • .-. ..^...••
• . • • • . / • • > •<•:-. • • • • . • .
\ '• \ ' - . ( 3 )
• • * « . « *
> . . . . , t < * *
\ , , . • • • . • » •» \ . - '
> • » • , • '
» » » . . ' , » • * . • *'^ • • " ' »
• * - . • ' • . . . • . . • • • • .• • . ' « . *. *•• - v,^ : » •
• « •• . ,. * . » • • ' • • • 1 . • » .« * •
' , » " • > i ' » .» . • % 1
' . * • / , , '» .«
135
2. Horizontal Line, Vertical Line, and Diagonal Line
Three-Mi
i 3 ^ * t •=if=^ ^m One-Fa—
Two-Sol-
Three-La—
i 1? j ^ j j g J 't J J i
z± ^
^ E One-Ti-
Two-Do-
Three-Do
Four-T i —
(1)
(2)
V
Cuia— '• direGtion Learning Steps
(1) Straight (Horizontal): -Make long, short, soft, hard, lines. -Overlap lines with different colored crayons. -Make lines from left to right and vice versa.
(2) Up to Down (Vertical)/ Down to Up (Vertical): -Make lines top to bottom to top. -Overlap lines bottom to top and vice versa.
(3) Slide (Diagonal) -Practice as shown with different crayon
(4) Combination (Diagonal, Horizontal, and Vertical) -Combine diagonal lines with horizontal and vertical lines, using various colored crayons.
3. Swirl Swirl Color Color
136
Swirl Swirl Swirl Color Swirl
' Color
JJjJjJ-QljJjJ^JJ i j j j ^ ^ ^
Color
Learning Steps
(1) Make a diagonal zig zag.
(2) Make a zig-zag line around or inside particular shapes.
(3) Make a star with zig-zag.
(4) Combine zig-zag lines.
(1) Make a curved line.
(2) Make curved lines around or inside particular shapes.
(3) Using the different color proceed as (2 ).
(4) Using at least two crayons, make curved lines.
137
4. Wavy Wavy
Swirl Swirl Swirl Swirl
Note; Break the end of cray-yon about half an inch and take out the paper for coloring. Start using the brush.
i s :xi-
Swirl Swirl Swirl
Learning Steps
(1) Make waves left to right, or right to left. Make big, medium, and small waves.
(2) This time, vertically make waves same as (1).
(3) Make waves soft to loud, or loud to soft horizontally.
(4) Make waves same as (3) except vertically.
(5) Using at least two crayons or brushes, make waves.
w'
5. Zig Zag
138
Zig "^
Zig Zig ^
3 ^ I I I I
^
Zag Zag Zag
/VVNA/vWV
-^MA/VVI/
I I I I I I 11 I I I I I I I I
Learning Steps
(1) Make zig zags left to right, or right to left. Make big, medium, and small zig zags.
(2) This time, vertically make zig zags same as (1).
(3) Make zig zags soft to loud, or loud to soft horizontally.
(4) Make zig zags same as (3) except this time vertically.
(5) Using at least two crayons or brushes, make zig zags.
6. Stair Steps
139
. T ^ T ! 7"^ !^ f I
, 1 I i ' U I i " 1 1 ^ .C" 4-o •; -ir.C! 4-r, 4 -,« II II « •
l^x
i I f 1 t J -w StairStair
Step Step
Learning Steps
(1) Follow example right. Make regular and uniform stair steps bottom to to top as well as top to bottom.
(2) Starting at middle, make stair steps expanding all directions.
Stair,, „ I I I I I I I I
7 . Make I t Bumpy
i w E ¥ m =5= •tr
Make i t
Bumpy I I M
Learning Steps
(1) Follow examples right. Construct regular and irregular bumps based on the rhythm of music. Chage colors as often as possible.
(2) Same as (1) except this time, vertically.
Note; It is very difficult for your child to create uniform bumps; therefore, repeated exercises seem necessary.
11 M II II II 11 II II
140
8. Round and Round
I I 1 — r m i ^ > >i 1 1^=^ ^=^^=i=^ 2=^ x^;t ^
Round Round Round Round Round Round Round Round
Learning Steps
(1) Draw a circle clockwise and counter-clockwise as shown left. Try with brushes using different colors.
(2) While considering directional changes, make elongated circles.
9. Round »
Round 7* Round Round Round Round Round
Learning Steps
(1)
(2)
Make circles cloci: //ise and counter-clockwise. Practice with speed using different colors.
This time, try with straight lines as shown left.
10. Square
141
t i u u J m One Two Three Four
Learning Steps
Steps (1) through (4) are assigned numerical numbers. All strokes must follow 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown right
Emphasis must be placed upon the thickness of lines.
One Two Three FcTdr
Note: Make your child aware of four sides and four corners in the square
11. Triangle
142
^ ? = ^
^ i One Two Th re
W
Learning Steps
Steps (1) through (4) are assigned numerical numbers. All strokes m.ust follow 1, 2, and 3 as shown right.
Emphasis must be place upon an exact sequence of strokes in making the triangle, and its variation.
143
12. Let's Make A Giraffe
Although your child's basic instruction ended last week, it must be continued to be practiced throughout next two weeks. Starting this week, we will begin to focus on various subjects such as Giraffe, Fish, Sail Boat, People, Turtle, Lion, Indian, and Cow. Please note that each subject is illustrated various views which must be learned thoroughly, but it must be considered as guides only. Our aim is not to copy but to increase the child's conceptual grasp of each subject so that he/she can unlock his/her creative potential. To accomplish this, we, parents, must show our children how to juxtapose various images.
Basic Learning Steps for Subject Drawing or Painting
(1) Sing along with music and learn its rhythm and words of a subject being studied.
(2) Talk about the subject by showing the photographs, pictures, illustrations, slides, etc.
(3) Show the child how the subject moves or walks. (4) Start with a simple 8-step drawing or painting,
then, move on to more complex views as provided in each lesson (5 variations).
i JsL
w m m f- n\,,n s H-H-~m J ar TT-ir - i # - * - ata
1. In this magic bottle, oh 2. Let's shoot an arrow what treasure, can we find? now and v/hat happens
then.
i ^ ^ s ^ a m 3. Bubbles come up to the top, 4. Hurry up, put on the
Bubble, Bubble, Bubble. cork to, keep them inside.
(^^ J #
• r ^ j j j j j Ii i==f S 32:
5. Nail it tight and make 6. Next add some leaver: sure, they can't come out Oh how funny nov; it
looks
i g>-i4j:-4A^ & :
m-m. zatjizd -i 1-
-4 , ^ ==r+ ratat i
7. ABRACA DEBRA 8. Mr. Giraffe Oh how funny now it looks How do you do.
12. Let's Make A Giraffe continued
144
145
13. Let's Make A Fish
; wp =
1. The magic ship is sail- 2. From behind I help it ing, sailing in the sea sail sailing in sea
5. first make a straight 6. Take a little sack put line and then one little it on our sail ship curve
iV^ii 3. at the top,. I guide its 4. and at the bottom so
way sailing in the sea, will we
7. Round & Round & Round & 8. Look here our fish is Round now we see his eye swimming in the sea.
12(4)
^ ^ OT'^I^JJJJ at
Our fish is swimming in the sea.
——--—rn ! ri ^ ,
1.
< ^ >
5.
O
2 .
<Z:^ 6.
^C^
3.
C3is k.
O 7. 1 8. 1
_ 1
.46
13. Let's Make A Fish continued
147
14. Let's Draw A Sail Boat
i mp'
^^3 ^ ^
-#-# J J I ci % ^
iS •
1. Up and down tossing witiiwav^a^^ ^^^^^'
2. To & fro rolling with the
3. This one little leaf 4. Falling down from the skv I look
* *< - ^ • — • > y 1 »-
6. One little sail righ there
5. One big sail right here.
^ c
J ,r =?^=^ :T=X i ^ * tf ±3C
7. Blowing in the wind 8. a sail boat is sailing a-long.
148
15. Let's Draw A Pers on
Learning Steps
Please make sure that your child draws the following feature:
1. Head 2. Neck 10- -^^s 3. Eyes with detail ^^' Shoulders 4. Nose 12. Legs 5. Mouth with lips }'?' ^iP 6. Hair 1 - Peet with detail 7. Ears 15. Trunk 8. Fingers (5 fingers each) } ^ ' Clothing 9 . Hands 1^ . Shoe
18 . Others /TV
^ ^
1. 2.
3.
^ T ^ T ^ 4.
=Pt=4 S:
P ^ --- - -r— S=x: Jt m ^-
6. 7.
rn r^ r=t-t J J J J w ^ y
8. " " m ^ •
15. Let's Draw A Person continued
149
150
16- Let's Draw A Turtle
I mp
^ r' ' r J" K^^^ ^ s
1. Big waves a-rolling and'little waves a-splash-ing, splashing, what do you see?
^ ^ ? 2. Something rolling 'round & 'round
i fcfc 5 "—•p
^ 1—r
JL 3 ^ irti m m I m-m-it ^ m m
^ 3 . Here's a white maustache in th i s corner; there i s another one in that corner
I J J J » J J A X ^ . ^ r U J J ^ f » » _ _ _ ^ .^ - • m . '
4. One more hanging over 5. and now it looks 1 here; a space ship
2£
ike
i^dc r^f r pii'' J- If ^ i" ' ; ! i ^ ^
6. Now a head pops & a tail shoots out ri/ - - - - . . . .
7. It's a turtle you see.. 8. Growling so slowly Mr. Turtle along.
l 6 . L e t ' s Drav/ A Tur t l e continued
151
152
17. Let's Draw A Lion
i 1. This is Africa
Great big continent 2. Let's pretend we're in
that land and & take a look around
& ^ ^JiUJ- 'JiJi J J j'ij es.
s 3. Here, lying on the gro
und, is a funny rock.
4. Bushes, Tree: Everywhere you walk
i SE
Old King Lion, yawning 6. He gets up to opens his eyes wide. take a stroll along the
countryside
5^ Jl '^ i^i^ i n - ij-*- ^ v^ ^ m 7. Slowly he struts around 8. Slowly he struts around
Back & forth and back & & swings his tail with
153
17. Let's Draw A Lion continued
154
18. Let's Draw An Indian
g>'; '•', pn^m ^ n n 1. First begin a box a
with a little box, little box 2. then add a little tent.
^ ^ ^ ^ = j . g . 5 - n - ; ^ p , , i p ^ :c=n
Make the 3. add a window to the 4. Draw a 3 the box a house to the house little house little
^ ^ m i
5. Now a crack is made
in the house =i
Draw a little
^ a^ t*: ^ i> im I—m m m \ m m * ^ ^ ^J5.^i^^
window i\T „ T • • • 6. are these Now we see living m feathers ^row
now a snail who is our house i^a^^ers grow-m g from
7. growing from 8. Now we see our picture, this sillv little house It's an Indian chief.
1. 2.
^
3. 4.
5. 6. 7. ^
>
8.
155
18. Let's Draw An Indian continued
19. Let's Draw A Cow
156
^ ^ ^
i / ^
IJ ^H tf r,':'^ ^
1. t)ut in he west 2. Wr&e on the lone pra- open irLe where space
• ^a I
mp
3 3 f ^ P^ < <• r '4:^a^
ffij
idl
f5==Ci"^
^^^^^ I - #.J
=if= -w-^-m ti
•' .f JJ £ 0 1 J- J^j-3J. : i ^ ^
» ' • I • • » #'# J . I rj. : ^ ^ ^
d the 3 . f luf fy 4. with t h e i r h o l s t e r s louds up m the by t h e i r s i de ,
sky, Cowbovs you can s e e , an
c
i 9-g; I a:a«. s I s with ,a
:: 2 ft) 1 »ta
^ ^ ' * • • » • •
=5-.<J-1 W; ! !^. • * »0'm I W' i ^ ^ * ' * I d*^.
lir • I Id •P^m —p
1 . 2. 3. 4.
0 Of "^p. K
Q < !
! ^x
157
19. Let's Draw A Cow continued
5. horn on the right 6T then point 7. Throwing the & horn on the left tjiis ^y & that lesso for the •m • • — » . # - • • — 9 J F.W--.11 111 L I -1— 4 ^ 1 • i—I—1 1 ..— a—• ,.
%^ra ?w=rii: ^m * • 0'0-m-.
8. Driving the cattle to the green pasture.
APPENDIX D
PROCESS EVALUATION: OBSERVATIONAL DATA
158
159
The process evaluation was adapted from suggestions
found in Improving Educational Assessment and An Inventorv ^ I I I I I I I * •
of Measures of Affective Behavior by Beatty (I969); by
Bersson (1978); and by Eisner (1974). Unlike the three
instruments used in this study, which required experimental
design evaluation, the process evaluation did not require
control over assignment of subjects to treatments. The
purpose of using the process evaluation was to gain an in
sight as to the development of continuous control and refine
ment of the pilot program and procedures. The objective of
process evaluation was to detect or predict, during the
implementation stages, defects in the procedural design or
its implementation. To accomplish this, the two panel
observers who are experts in the field of art education were
selected. Their strategy was to identify and monitor, on
a continuous basis, the potential sources of failure in the
pilot study. These included such aspects as relationships
among the teachers and mothers, mothers and children; adequa
cy of the resources, physical facilities, staff, and time
schedule; etc. Under process evaluation, information fur
nished by the two observers was collected daily, organized
systematically, and analyzed periodically by the writer.
An example of an information which was considered fail
ure during the implementation stages is:
I think that perhaps it may be a good idea to maybe start with the parents. In order to want to get the child to do the lessons with the music the parent has to be trained.
160
In the analysis, the writer categorized this informa
tion as one of the defects (ineffective incidents) in the
pilot study since the writer's program design was not in
keeping with the observer' felt needs. Whenever considered
possible, attempts were made to change the procedures.
Changes made during the course of study based on needs were:
(1) The writer focused on the subject matter and
tried to organize the learning experience in such a way as
to communicate the content to children and their parents as
clearly as possible.
(2) The writer focused on parents and tried to make
the content area relevant to their needs and interests.
(3) The language suitable for children was used to
get a child interested in a topic in which he was involved
in activities which were designed to develop his skills,
thinking processes, and attitudes to a higher level of compe
tency, or culminating. The writer hoped that a child could
be helped to synthesize a diverse set of experiences with
his mother into some kind of overall pattern which had mean
ing.
(4) The seating arrangement was changed from its tandem
position to a one-row semi-circular position when instructing
parents and/or parents-children in order to increase the
visibility of demonstrations.
(5) Varied informal experiences such as humor, ^okes,
etc., were employed for the kinds of experiences v/hich American
161
children seemed to enjoy.
(6) The writer focused on guided discovery rather
than self discovery. Guided discovery generally meant lead
ing children through a programmed sequence where the answers
were more or less predetermined. Because of the young age,
the children did not really have to think critically or
choose intelligently between alternatives. This was all
pre-planned by the writer. For meeting objectives such as
memorizing an exact sequence of strokes which make a partic-
lar shape quickly, this type of experience was considered
to be worthwhile but in terms of higher level objectives,
and concept development, the writer judged such a practice
was highly questionable.
APPENDIX E
PARENT EVALUATION
162
163
PARENT EVALUATION OF THE NEW ARTS METHOD
Instructions: The following represents one part of a system of evaluation, the primary aim of which is the continued up-grading of the new method.
Your responses to the following statements will remain anonymous and should reflect your thoughtful and true feelings.
Please circle the one number for each statement in the order of your importance (strongly agree 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 strongly disagree), which most accurately describes your actual feelings. In addition, please insert brief comments into blank spaces at the end.
Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree
5...4...3...2...I (1) The instructor explained at the outset the material that was to be covered in the course.
5...4...3...2...I (2) The instructor explained at the outset the course objectives and what you and your child were expected to be able to do as a result of the course.
5...4...3...2...I (3) The instructor is accomplishing the stated objectives of the course.
5...4...3...2...I (4) The instructor presents the course material in a logical, well-organized manner.
5...4...3...2...1 (5) The instructor presents the effective use of class time.
5...4...3...2...1 (6) The instructor utilizes teaching methods that maintain you and your child's attention and interest level.
5...4...3...2...I (7) The instructor demonstrates a high degree of personal knowledge of the content and philosophy covered by the method.
5...4...3...2...1 (8) The material presented in the course is clearly related to the stated objectives of the course.
164
5-..4...3...2...1 (9) The facilities are adequate.
5...4...3...2...1 (10) Your child seems to enjoy listening the taped music of the method.
5...4...3...2...I (11) The method demonstrates an active concern for strengthening the parent/child ties.
5...4...3...2...I (12) The method demonstrates a concern for developing the child's early learning habits.
5...4...3...2...I (13) The instructor clearly explained at the outset what your responsibilities would be in the course and how you would evaluate yourself.
5..-4...3...2...1 (14) You have worked with your child with the daily practice of 20 to 30 minutes at home.
5..-4...3...2...1 (15) You have kept a daily log stating the nature of practice sessions at home.
5...4...3...2...I (16) You feel important that you become a teacher for your child at home.
5...4...3...2...I (17) You feel important that your child's education should start as early as possible.
5...4...3...2...I (18) You feel important that we, parents, should provide our children as much training as possible.
5...4...3...2...I (19) After having taken the course, you liked the new method.
5...4...3...2...I (20) After having taken the course, you recommend this method to your friends.
5...4...3...2...1 (21) After having taken the course, you have seen your child's artistic ability improved.
5...4...3...2...I (22) After having taken the course, your child have spent more time in his/her art activities voluntarily beyond daily practices.
5...4...3...2...I (23) After having taken the course, you feel this new method really works.
5...4...3...2...I (24) After having taken the course, \'?;r child seems to have gained more appreciation for t/i: arts .
165
5...4...3...2...1 (25) After having taken the course, you and your child would like to take the course again if offered at some other time and place.
Are there other issues related to this course which you feel should be addressed? If there are, please elaborate (please use the other side if necessary):
166
PARENT EVALUATIONS: MEAN SCORES OF ITEMS
Item^
# 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 # 5 # 6 # 7 # 8 # 9 #10 #11 #12 #13 #14 #15 #16 #17 #18 #19 #20 #21 #22 #23 #24 #25
Average x
Question
X
4.29 4.57 3.90 4.33 4.52 3.76 4.90 4.19 3.86 3.24 4.71 4.67 3.76 2.95 2.10 4.57 4.57 4.57 4.14 4.33 3.48 4.00 3.67 3.19 3.19
4.02
Items
Rating"-*
Good Excellent Good Good Excellent Good Excellent Good Good Average Excellent Excellent Good Average Below Average Excellent Excellent Excellent Good Good Average Good Average Average Good
Good
^See the previous page for description of each item.
^The objective translation of ratings is as follows:
4.5 to 5 Excellent Quality 3.7 to 4.5 Good Quality 2.8 to 3.6 Average Quality 1.9 to 2,7 Below Average Quality 1.0 to 1.8 Poor Quality
167
PARENT EVALUATIONS: MEAN SCORES OF RESPONDENT
Parents
P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5 P 6 P 7 P 8 P 9 PIO Pll PI 2 PI 3 Pl4 PI 5 PI 6 PI 7 PI 8 PI 9 P20 P21
x^
4.24 4.04 4.00 4.16 3-48 3.56 4.12 4.32 3.68 4.20 4.16 3.76 3.96 4.12 3.84 4.16 4.04 4.28 4.04 3.92 4.32
Rating
Good Good Good Good Average Average Good Good Average Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good
Average x 4.02 Good
^he objective translation of ratings is as follows
4.5 to 5-0 3.7 to 4.5 2.8 to 3.6 1.9 to 2.7 1.0 to 1.8
Excellent Quality Good Quality Average Quality Below Average Quality Poor Quality
APPENDIX F
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY
168
169
Dear Parents of Pre-First Grade Children,
Please read the following and check the appropriate box at the bottom of the page and return to me as soon as possible. As you notice, no name or signature is required. This IS an opinion survey. I am interested in determining the probable acceptance by the public of a new program for the teaching of art. This is a questionnaire only. No one will call on you no matter what your answer may be. Your reply will be greatly appreciated.
Funded by the Texas Tech University Education Department, I am now conducting a pilot arts education program for 3 to 6 year old children as a part of my dissertation for the PhD degree in Fine Arts. At present, the classes will be or are meeting at St. John Neumann School throughout the month of May. This program is based on the philosophy of the Suzuki violin educational method. As you may be aware, many of our local children are learning to play the violin at an early age by this method and have appeared on television and in concerts.
This arts education pilot program is the first effort in the United States to adapt the Suzuki music program to the field of visual arts. This program proposes a method of early childhood arts education based on the Suzuki Method of Japan. It is felt that such a program would provide not only an early introduction to the field of visual arts, but also would foster the development of the child's full potential through parent-child-centered educational techniques. The program places importance on: (1) fostering visual sense, (2) developing artistic ability, and (3) strengthening a positive parent-child relationship.
The pilot program strives to incorporate Dr. Suzuki's educational philosophy in the teaching of art. Art is taught to the very young child in a gradual, sequential, systematic manner, and the child learns the principles and techniques of visual arts in the same manner in which he learns language. A most important aspect of the program is the involvement of parents in the learning process. One or both parents is taught to teach his/her child and, throughout the week, he/she spends 20 minutes to one half hour daily reinforcing what was introduced in the twice weekly lessons. Using the rhythmic method, art activities take place between the parents and their children. Lessons which build a basic knowledge of drawing, painting, etc., are sequentially planned and are taught through the use of music, story-telling, audio-visual materials, and dance.
170
Please check one; Yes, I would be interested in participating in a Suzuki-type arts education program if one were to be offered in my area at a reasonable price and at a convenient time.
Undecided.
No, I would not be interested.
If you have any questions, please call; Joe Arimitsu, 4620 Grinnell St., Lubbock, Texas, (806) 747-0897. Thank you.
APPENDIX G
SCORING SHEET AND STANDARDS:
GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST
171
172
GOODENOUGH-HARRIS DRAWING TEST
by Florence L. Goodenough and Dale B. Harris*
Name
School
Grade .Age
Father's Occupation
Boy_ Girl
_Date of Drawing,
Birth Date
Examiner's Notes Summary
Raw Score Standard Score Percentile Rank
Point Scale
Man
Woman
Average
Self
Quality Scale
Man
Woman
Average
^Copyright I963 by Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., New York. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
SHORT SCORING GUIDE* 173
Man Point Scale
1. Head present 2. Neck present 3. Neck, two dimensions 4. Eyes present 5' Eye detail: brow or lashes 6. Eye detail: pupil 7. Eye detail: proportion 8. Eye detail: glance 9. Nose present 10. Nose, two dimensions 11. Mouth present 12. Lips, two dimensions 13. Both nose and kips in
two dimensions 14. Both chin and forehead
shown 15. Projection of chin shown;
chin clearly differentiated from lower lip Line of jaw indicated Bridge of nose Hair I Hair II Hair III Hair IV Ears present Ears present: proportion and position
16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25-
26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.
34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
Fingers present Correct number of fingers shown Detail of fingers correct Opposition of thtimb shown Hands present Wrist or ankle shown Arms present Shoulders I Shoulders II Arms at side or engaged in activity Elbow joint shown Legs present Hip I (crotch) Hip II Knee joint shown Feet I: any indication Feet II: proportion
41. 42. ^3. 44.
45.
46. ^7.
48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.
55-56, 57-58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70. 71. 72. 73.
Feet III: heel Feet IV; perspective Feet V: detail Attachment of arms and legs I Attachment of arms and legs II Trunk present Trunk in proportion, two dimensions Proportion; head Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion Proportion
head face arms arms legs limbs
I II
I II
m two dimensions Clothing I Clothing II Clothing III Clothing IV Clothing V Profile I Profile II Full face Motor coordination: junctures Superior motor coordination Directed lines and form: head outline Directed lines and form: trunk outline Directed lines and form: arms and legs Directed line and form: facial features "Sketching" technique "Modeling" technique Arm movement Leg movement
^(Harris, 1963, p. 2?5)
SHORT SCORING GUIDE* 17^
Woman Point Scale
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.
41. 42. 43.
Head present Neck present Neck, two dimensions Eyes present Eye detail: brow or lashes Eye detail: pupil Eye detail; proportion Cheeks Nose present Nose, two dimensions Bridge of nose Nostrils shown Mouth present Lips, two dimensions "Cosmetic lips" Both nose and lips in two dimensions Both chin and forehead shown
of jaw indicated I
Line Hair Hair Hair Hair
II III IV
m
Necklace or earrings Arms present Shoulders Arms at side (or engaged activity or behind back) Elbow joint shown Fingers present Correct number of fingers shown Detail of fingers correct Opposition of thumb shown Hands present Legs present Hip
I; any indication II: proportion III: detail I: "feminine" II: style
Placement of feet appropriate to figure Attachment of arms and legs Attachment of arms and legs Clothing indicated
Feet Feet Feet Shoe Shoe
44. ^5. 46. ^7. 48. 49. 50.
51.
52. 53.
54. 55. 56. 57-58. 59. 60.
61. 62. 63.
65-
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
Sleeve I Sleeve II Neckline I Neckline II: collar Waist I Waist II Skirt "modeled" to indicate pleats or draping No transparencies in the figure Garb feminine Garb complete, without incongruities Garb a definite "type" Trunk present Trunk in proportion, two dimensions Head-trunk proportion Head: proportion Limbs: proportion Arms in proportion to trunk Location of waist Dress area Motor coordination: lines Superior motor coordination Directed lines and form: head outline Directed lines and form: breast Directed lines and form: hip contour Directed lines and form: arms taper Directed lines and form: calf of leg Directed lines and form: facial features
I II
*(Harris, I963, p. 292)
Make Your First Drawing Here
Draw a picture of a man. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make the whole man, not just his head and shoulders.
Raw Score
1.
2 .
3 . 4 .
5 . 6.
7 . 8.
9 . 10 .
1 1 .
12 .
1 3 . 14.
15 . 16 .
17. 18 .
19 . 20.
2 1 .
22 .
2 3 . 2^ .
25 . 26 .
27. 28 .
29. 30.
3 1 . 32.
3 3 .
3 ^ .
35 . 36.
37 .
175 38 .
39 . 40 .
4 1 .
42 .
4 3 . 44 .
4 5 . 46 .
47 . 4 8 .
49 . 50.
51 . 52.
53. 54.
55. 56.
57. 58.
59. 60.
6 1 . 62.
63 . 64.
65. 66.
67. 68 .
69. 70.
7 1 . 72.
7'^.
Make Your Second Drawing Here
Draw a picture of a woman. Make the very best picture you can. Be sure to make the whole woman, no just her head and shoulders.
Raw Score
1 .
2 .
3 . 4 .
5 . 6.
7 . 8.
9. 10.
1 1 . 12.
1 3 . 14.
15 . 16.
17 . 18.
19. 20.
2 1 .
22.
2 3 . 24.
25 . 26.
27. 28 .
29. 30.
3 1 . 32.
33 . 34.
35 .
36.
176 37.
38 .
39 . 40.
4 1 .
42 .
4 3 . 44 .
4 5 . 46 .
47 . 48 .
49 . 50.
5 1 .
52.
53 .
54.
55.
56.
57. 58.
59. 60.
6 1 .
62.
63 . 64.
65. 66.
67. 68.
69. t o .
7 1 .
APPENDIX H
SCORING SHEET: BROUCH TEMPERA RATING SCALE
177
178
TEMPERA USE RATING SCALE
Check only one per group:
1. Primitive/Scribble
2. Pre-Schematic Schema:
3. Schematic 4. Dawning Realism
1. Raw
2. Mixed; Local
3. Mixed; Designed
4. Mixed/Carried Through 1. Flat
2. Shaded Shape: ^ ^ . ^ - ,
3. Fairly Correct 4. Accurate Proportions 1. Weak
^^^^^ 2. Bold/Sure
1. Smooth
2. Thick
3. Watered ^^^^^^^'' /|. Varied/Graded
5. Blended
6. Textured
You may check more than one of the following:
1. Center of Interest 1. Picture Completed
Composition: j^^ Atmosphere 1. Harmony
Student # Rav/ Score
APPENDIX I
INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY
179
180
PEARSON r CORRELATION ON THREE BTRS*JUDGES
TO ASSESS INTER-JUDGE RELIABILITY
Group E Group C Group E Group C Pretest Pretest Posttest Posttest
Judges
# 1 and # 2 0.025 0.280 0.110 0.600
# 1 and # 3 O.730 O.960 O.750 0.550
# 2 and # 3 0.060 0.330 0.460 -O.050
*The Brouch Tempera Rating Scale
APPENDIX J
PUBLIC OPINION SURVEY: NUMBER OF RESPONSES
151
182
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