curricullum theorists
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Curriculum
Theorists
Dileep KumarDileep KumarPost R.N BSc.N, CHN
Ilmiya Institute of Nursing
Karachi
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Curriculum theory Curriculum theory is a way of
describing the educationalphilosophy of certain approaches to
the development and performance
of curriculum.
Within the broad field of curriculumstudies, it is both a historical
analysis of curriculum and a way of
viewing current educational
curriculum and policy decisions.
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Ralph W. Tyler (1902-1994)
Born on April 22, 1902, in Chicago
was an American educator who worked
in the field of assessment and evaluation
served on or advised a number of bodies
that set guidelines for the expenditureof federal funds and influenced the
underlying policy of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965.
Tyler chaired the committee thateventually developed the National
Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP).
Credited with coining term "evaluation,"
for aligning measurement and testingwith educational objectives.
Because his concept of evaluation
consisted of gathering comprehensive
evidence of learning rather than justpaper and pencil tests
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Ralph W. Tyler¶sBasic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction
Tyler formalized his thoughts on
viewing, analyzing and interpreting
the curriculum and instructionalprogram of an educational institution
in Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction in 1949
These 04 basic principles include:1. Defining appropriate learning objectives
2. Establishing useful learning experiences
3. Organizing experiences to maximize
their effect
4. Evaluating the curriculum and revising
those aspects that did not prove to be
effective.
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Hilda Taba (1902±1967)
born in Kooraste, in south-east Estonia,on 7 December 1902
Was Curriculum theorist, curriculum
reformer, and teacher educator
contributed to the theoretical andpedagogical foundations of concept
development and critical thinking in social
studies curriculum
helped to lay the foundations of
education for diverse student populations
Her theorizing & curriculum development
processes provided a blueprint for
curriculum development in 20th century
She comprehended and articulated thecomplex connections between
1. culture, politics, and social change
2. cognition and learning
3. experience and evaluation in curriculum
development
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Important Activities in Curriculum
Design by Taba
Taba's dissertations (Studies, Critiques)established a foundation for much of her
subsequent work. Three key ideas in the
work are particularly important for
curriculum history in the twentieth century.
She Argued that;1. Learning & study of learning should be
modeled after dynamic models derived
from contemporary physics. Rather than
relying on observation, prediction, and
measurement of static phenomena
2. Education for democracy was a critical
component of contemporary schooling and
curricula, and that it needed to be
experiential, where children learn to solveproblems and resolve conflicts together.
3. Educators had to provide conceptually
sound curriculum that was organized and
taught effectively, and that student
understanding had to be evaluated usingappropriate tools and processes.
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Taba¶s Principles of curriculum
theory & curriculum development
1. Social processes, including the
socialization of human beings, are not
linear, and they cannot be modeled through
linear planning. In other words, learning and
development of personality cannot be
considered as one-way processes of
establishing educational aims and deriving
specific objectives from an ideal of
education proclaimed or imagined by someauthority.
2. Social institutions, among them school
curricula and programmed, are more likely
to be effectively rearranged if, instead of the
common way of administrativereorganization ²from top to bottom²a well
founded & coordinated system of
development from bottom to top can be
Used
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Taba¶s Principles of curriculum
theory & development
3. The development of new curricula
and programmes is more effective if it
is based on the principles of democratic guidance and on the well-
founded distribution of work. The
emphasis is on the partnership based
on competence, and not onadministration.
4. The renovation of curricula and
programmes is not a short-term effort
but a long process, lasting for years
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Burrhus Frederic (B.F)
Skinner (1904-90) American psychologist, educator, and
author, born in the small Pennsylvanian
town of Susquehanna in March 20, 1904.
B.F Skinner influenced education as wellas psychology.
He was quoted as saying "Teachers must
learn how to teach ... they need only to
be taught more effective ways of
teaching."
He asserted that positive reinforcement is
more effective at changing and
establishing behavior than punishment,
with obvious implications for the thenwidespread practice of rote learning and
punitive discipline in education.
Skinner also suggests that the main thing
people learn from being punished is howto avoid punishment.9
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Cont «. The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon
the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior.
Changes in behavior are the result of an
individual's response to events (stimuli)
that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence
such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or
solving a math problem.
When a particular Stimulus-Response
(S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded),
the individual is conditioned to respond
Reinforcement is the key element in
Skinner's S-R theory.
A reinforcer is anything that strengthensthe desired response.
± It could be positive such as verbal
praise, a good grade
± Also covers negative reinforcers such aspunishment etc 10
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Cont««
Skinner says that there are five main
obstacles to learning:
1. People have a fear of failure.
2. The task is not broken down into small
enough steps
3. There is a lack of directions.4. There is also a lack of clarity in the
directions
5. Positive reinforcement is lacking
Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught using five
principles to remedy the above problems;
1. Give the learner immediate feedback.
2. Break down the task into small steps.
3. Repeat the directions as many times as
possible.
4. Work from the most simple to the most
complex tasks.
5. Give positive reinforcement.
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Cont««..
Skinner Highlighted 07 Factors that ateacher should consider in integrating
faith and learning. They include internal
and external environmental influences
1. The physical setting of the school Naturalness, simplicity, neatness, etc.
2. Aesthetic Elements
learn through 5 senses
3. Social Atmosphere
4. Curricular design
Harmonious development of the physical,
spiritual, mental & social needs of
humans
5. Content of subjects Reflect educational philosophy
6. Religious environment
7. Co-curricular activities
Exhibition, tours, religious activities, etc
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Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987)
born in January 8, 1902 in Oak Park,Illinois, a suburb of Chicago.
Best known for his contribution to client-
centered therapy and his role in the
development of counseling Also had much to say about education
and group work.
The strength of Rogers' approach lies in
part in his focus on relationship.
As he once wrote, µThe facilitation of
significant learning rests upon certain
attitudinal qualities that exist in the
personal relationship between facilitator
and learner¶ Freedom to Learn(1969; 1983; 1993) is a
classic statement of educational
possibility in this respect.
Was gifted teacher 13
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Core conditionsCarl Rogers on the interpersonal
relationship in the facilitation of learning
Following are three qualities & attitudes,
that facilitate learning
1. Realness in the facilitator of learning
It means facilitator coming into a direct
personal encounter with the learner,
meeting her/him on a person-to-person
basis. It means that she is being her/himself, not denying her/himself.
2. Prizing, acceptance, trust
There is another attitude that stands out in
those who are successful in facilitatinglearning« I think of it as prizing the learner,
prizing her feelings, her opinions, her
person. It is a caring for the learner, but a
non-possessive caring.14
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Cont«..
3. Emphatic (absolute) understanding
1. A further element that establishes a
climate for self-initiated experiential
learning is an emphatic understanding
2. When the teacher has the ability to
understand the student¶s reactions from
the inside
3. Teacher has a sensitive awareness of
the way the process of education andlearning seems to the student
4. [Students feel deeply appreciative]
when they are simply understood ± not
evaluated, not judged, simplyunderstood from their own point of view,
not the teacher¶s.
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Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
He had already begun to explore the notion
of 'student- centered¶ teaching and offered
several hypothesized general principles.These included:
We cannot teach another person directly;
we can only facilitate his learning.
The structure and organization of the self appears to become more rigid under
threat; to relax its boundaries when
completely free from threat...
The educational situation which most
effectively promotes significant learning is
1) threat to the self of the learner is
reduced a minimum
2) differentiated perception of the field of
experience is facilitated.
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Robert M. Gagné(1916 - 2002)
Born in August 21, 1916
was an American educational
psychologist best known for his
"Conditions of Learning³
Gagné pioneered the science of
instruction during WWII for the air force
with pilot training
Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what
is now considered to be 'good
instruction.¶
He also was involved in applyingconcepts of instructional theory to the
design of computer based training
and multimedia based learning
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Categories of learning
Gagne identifies 05 categories of learning:
1. Ver bal information
Stating previously learned materials such as
facts, concepts, principles, and procedures,
e.g., listing the 7 major symptoms of cancer
2. Intellectual Skills:
Discriminations, concrete concepts,
Defined concepts, rules, higher order rules
3. Cognitive Str ategies
Employing personal ways to guide learning,
thinking, acting, and feeling
4. AttitudesChoosing personal actions based on
internal states of understanding and feeling,
5. Motor Skills
Executing performances involving the usemuscles,
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Gagne¶s 09 Events of Instruction
1. Gaining AttentionStimuli activates receptors
2. Informing the Learner of the Objective
Creates level of expectation for learning
3. Stimulating Recall of Prior LearningRetrieval and activation of short-term memory
4. Presenting the Stimulus
Selective perception of content
5. Providing Learner Guidance
Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory
6. Eliciting Performance
Responds to questions, enhance encoding & verification
7. Giving Feedback
Reinforcement & assessment of correct performance
8. Assessing Performance
Retrieval & reinforcement of content as final evaluation
9. Enhancing Retention and Tr ansfer
Retrieval and generalization of learned skill to newsituation 19
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Gagne's Hier archy of
LearningGagne also argues that learning tasks for
intellectual skills can be organized in
a hier archy according to complexity:
1. Stimulus Recognition
2. Response Generation
3. Procedure Following
4. Use Of Terminology
5. Discriminations
6. Concept Formation
7. Rule Application
8. Problem Solving
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Phases of Learning by Gagneµs
Phases of learning noted by Gagne asfollow;
1. Motivation Phase: involves striving to
attain some end. e.g. identification of
student¶s motives, activities that
accomplish educational goals
2. Apprehending Phase: Attention andselective perception. Attention means
teacher¶s specific task by which learning
ready to receive, while selective meansteacher arrange those stimuli by which
learner store appropriate information in
short term memory
3. Acquisition Phase: coding and storageentry characteristics
4. Retention phase: means memory
storage, in this instructions are designed
to ensure retention such as practice,
tests, and feedback21
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Continue«..
Phases of Learning by Gagneµs
5. Recall phase: means retrieval is the
appropriate internal process for this
phase
6. Gener alization phase: transfer of
learning is the objective of this phase
7. Performance phase: means the eliciting
of an appropriate performance, reflecting
newly required capability
8. Feedback phase: the learner is madeaware of the degree by which his/her
performance approaches required
standard, act as a reinforcement,
strengthening newly learned associationsand their recall.
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David Paul Ausubel (1918 ± 2008)
American psychologist, born in October 25, 1918 in New York, and follower of
Jean Piaget.
Most significant contributions to the fields
of educational psychology, cognitive
science and science education
In Ausubel's view, to learn meaningfully,
student¶s must relate new knowledge
(concepts and propositions) to what they
already know. He proposed the notion of an advanced
organizer as a way to help students link
their ideas with new material or concepts
Ausubel's theory of learning claims thatnew concepts to be learned can be
incorporated into more inclusive concepts
or ideas
These more inclusive concepts or ideas
are advance organizers.23
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Subsumption Theory
Ausubel's theory is concerned with how
individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/textual
presentations in a school setting
According to Ausubel, learning is basedupon the kinds of superordinate,
representational, and combinatorial
processes that occur during the reception
of information
A primary process in learning
is subsumption in which new material is
related to relevant ideas in the existing
cognitive structure on a substantive, non-
verbatim basis. Cognitive structuresrepresent the residue of all learning
experiences; forgetting occurs because
certain details get integrated and lose
their individual identity.
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Advance Organizers
Advance Organizer entails the use of
introductory materials with a high level of
generality that introduce new material
and facilitate learning by providing an
"anchoring idea" to which the new ideacan be attached.
Cognitive theorists believe that it is
essential to relate new knowledge to
existing information learned. Teachers can facilitate learning by
organizing information presented so that
new concepts are easily relatable to
concepts already learned.
Examples of devices that may be used
include: pictures, titles of stories, reviews
of previously learned concepts, short
video segments, a paradigm, a grammar
rule, etc25
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Principles
1. "Before we can present new
material effectively, we must
increase the stability and clarity of
our student's structures.³
2. "The sequence of the curriculum is
organized so that each successive
learning is carefully related to whathas been learned before.³
3. Ausubel describes advance
organizers as "introductory
material presented ahead of thelearning task and at a higher level
of abstraction and inclusiveness
than the learning task itself³
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Cont«4. Examples of Advance organizers
± Expositorysimply describes the new content
± Narr ative
presents new information in a story
format ± Skimming
skimming material before reading can be
a powerful organizer
± Gr aphic organizerseffective with all types of organizers:
pictographs, descriptive patterns,
concept patterns, etc.
Ausubel broke down the process of
learning to three steps:
1. what will the person learn?
2. what the person wants to learn,?3. what did the person learn? 27
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Gertrude Torres
A nurse educator & provides description
about curriculum development as a
process
According to Torres curriculumdevelopment does not take place in
isolation but requires involvement of
many persons
Described 4 didactic (educational) stages
of curriculum development;
1. Directive stage
2. Formative stage3. Functional stage
4. Evaluative stage
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S f h C i l P
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Stages of the Curriculum Process
Stages
Directive: gives guidance & authority to the entirecurriculum components:
1. Philosophy
2. Glossary of Terms
3. Characteristics of the Graduate
4. Theoretical framework
F ormative: utilizes broad, generalized concepts to
identify specifics. Components are:
1. Curriculum design & requirement
2. Level & course objectives3. Content Map
F unctional: represent the activities affecting the
operational components of curriculum. Component
1. Approaches to content
2. Teaching methodology & learning experiences3. Validation of learning
Evaluative: Involves comprehensive, formative, &
summative curriculum evaluation.
Components: 1. Input
2. Throughput
3. Output 29
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1. Directive stage
Provides the foundation for the
development of all subsequent stages &gives direction to total curriculum.
Tells to the public, faculty, students &
their family, and employers what the
school is about and why In this stage following 4 important
documents are produced
1. Curriculum philosophy
2. Glossary of terms3. Char acteristics of the gr aduate
4. Theoretical fr ame work
In this important curriculum influences of
the government, profession of nursingand the institution in which the program
is offered are given careful consideration
in developing these early documents
This stage can lasts from six to twelve
months
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2 Formative stage
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2. Formative stage Requires the ability to develop more
specificity & it gives meaning and form to
directive stage
This stage has 3 components;
1. Curriculum design or outline is formed
and the requirements are stated
2. Level and course objectives; they arenatural points at which student
performance is examined to determine
their progress towards final goal
3. A content map: It identifies that whereeach specific unit of content is
developed vertically & horizontally for
following reasons
i. Serve as the document that where certain
information is taught
ii. Assist faculty to identify where repetition or
unnecessary duplication occurs in
curriculum
iii. Serves as basic document for planningtests & exams throughout curriculum
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3. Functional stage
It represents the activities affecting
the operational component of the
curriculum
In this stage three activities occurs;1. The approaches to content are
identified and implemented
2. Teaching methods and learning
experiences are identified and
implemented
3. Validation of learning occurs
through testing & measurement;tests arte constructed and
implemented
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4. Evaluative stage
It involves comprehensive formative(ongoing) and summative (total/ final)
curriculum evaluation
Three area of evaluation are planed,
implemented and documented1. Input
the quality of the faculty, the student,
resources, building and its equipments
2. Throughput Anything happen during program such as,
quality of tests, instructional methods,
faculty- students interaction, administrative
style and leadership3. Output
The quality of graduates and the response
of their employers, performance on external
Professional exams, etc.
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Emily Bevis
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Emily Bevis(System & subsystems of curriculum
building in nursing) She was a nurse educator & She has
provided us another description of
curriculum development activities.
She explained that process of curriculumbuilding in nursing has been pragmatically
organized into a system, which has been
invented to provide goal orientation & a
natural logical sequence of tasks to
achieve this goal Following are sequential arrangement of
task suggested as appropriate to nursing
A. Processes and Sub processes
Objective of the systemB. Contributing Subsystems
1. Conceptual Fr amework (Philosophy,
Setting, Students, and Knowledge/subject matter)
2. Course vivification (conceptual framework, Aims, Content, Evaluation)
1 Conceptual Framework
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1. Conceptual Fr amework
A. Philosophy
Develop a statement of belief based on
the philosophy of the sponsoring agency
and the philosophical agreements of the
faculty.
B. Setting
1. Prognosticate (predict) the working
environment of the graduate for the 15 to
20 years of expected active nursing.
This means where nurses might beworking; e.g. specialties, community,
hospitals, day care surgery units etc.
2. Describe the current community, the
environment in which health is provided.3. Describe the educational environment of
the school of nursing.
4. Describe the current and projected major
health problems of the area and of the
country
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Conceptual Framework
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Conceptual Fr amework
C. Students1. Survey the demographic characteristics
of the students who are currently enrolled
in the school(s) of nursing.
2. Assess the personality and personalpreferences of the students
3. Assess the educational and nursing
attainments and needs of the students.
4. Determine what if any differences aredesired in the following:
a. type of students accepted into the program
b. characteristics desired on exit from program.
5. Formulate a list of concepts, postulates,
propositions, principles and theories of
learning that are congruent with student
and faculty characteristics
6. Assess and describe the faculty of the
school of nursing
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Conceptual Fr amework
D. Knowledge or subject
matter
1. List the concepts deemed (think)important to the faculty, students,
and university that are applicable to
the practice of nursing.
2.Survey the literature for constructs& theories that useful to nursing.
3.Select or devise a conceptual
constructs or theory of nursing thatcan be used in nursing practice
and/or education
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2 C I l t ti ( i ifi ti )
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2. Course Implementation (vivification)
A. Conceptual F ramework
1. List definitive curriculum commitments explicitor implicit in theoretical & philosophical statements
as an implementation or functional checklist
B. Aims
1. Describe essential nursing behaviors (graduate).
2. Establish program objectives.
C.Content
1. Pattern course configur ation.
2. Select content based on the following:a. the processes inherent in nursing
b. the information of nursing
3. Arr ange the content in a pattern considering
the following:
a. natural groupings b. level of complexity
4. Devise course as follows:
a. establish course objectives
b. Select the learning activities that will provide the
content necessary to accomplish the objectives.
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Continue
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Continue«
D. Evaluation
1. Establish minimal competencies or
mastery criteria directly from objectives.
2. Make grading decisions and establish
grading policies consistent with
institutional guidelines, facultyphilosophy, and selected learning
theories
Bevis stresses that curriculum
development is not a sequential activity. Activities are often being
carried out at same time and affecting
one another. The important part of
successful curriculum development is
openness of communication and
involvement of each faculty member in
the curriculum process.
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References
Bevis, E. O. (1988). ³Curriculum
building in Nursing A Process´ 3rd
Edition
Curzon, L.B., Teaching in Further
Education". An Outline of Principles
and Practice". Third Edition Holt,
Rinchart and Winston, 1985
Torres, G., Stanton, M.,
"Curriculum Process in Nursing".
Prentice-Halt, Inc., 1982.
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