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CUSP2014: The Geoscience Context

for Europes Urban Sustainability

Lessons from Glasgow and beyond

29-30 May 2014

Glasgow Science Centre

Early-stage ResearchersWorkshop 29 MayFull-day Conference 30 May

Joint event organised by the Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE), British GeologicalSurvey (BGS), the European Cooperation on Science and Technology (COST)

(Sub-Urban) and Glasgow City Council.

Conference Report org anised by the Bri t ish Geological Survey

and the Royal Society of Edinburg h.

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Early-stage Researchers Workshop

Programme (CUSP-COST)

13.30 Welcome and Introduction by Chair

Dr. Diarmad CampbellChief Geologist, Scotland, BGS

13.35 Glasgow Through the Ice AgeDr. Andrew FinlaysonQuaternary Geologist, BGS

13.55 Strengths and Weaknesses of Deterministic 3D modelling of Superficial DepositsLessons from GlasgowDr. Katie WhitbreadSedimentary Geologist/Geomorphologist, BGS

14.15 Using Stochastic Modelling to Understand Variation in Lithology of

Glacial and FluvialDeposits in Central Glasgow, UKDr. Tim KearseySurvey Geologist, BGS

14.35 Management and Access to Subsurface data in Urban Areas: Lessons

learnt from Glasgowand EuropeHelen BonsorHydrogeologist, BGS

14.55 Glasgow Energy from Mine Workings Project: Progress to DateEmma ChurchPhD Research Student, Glasgow Caledonian University

15.15 Heat from Mine Waters: Energy in the Right Place Dr. Hugh BarronResponsive Surveys Scotland Manager, BGS

15.35 Tea/Coffee and opportunity to view posters

15.55 The Restoration of Saltmarshes and Their Value as a Coastal Flood Defence

Kate WadeSediment Ecology Research Group, St Andrews University

16.15 Human Impact on Sediment Quality in the Clyde Post-Industrial CatchmentDr. Solveigh Lass-EvansDaphne Jackson Fellow, British Geological Survey

16.35 The Influence of Sediment Characteristics on the Transport of Pathogens fromFreshwater to CoastAdam WynessPhD Researcher & Post Graduate Representative, The James Hutton Institute

16.55 Closing RemarksProfessor Paul Bishop FRSEProfessor of Geography, University of Glasgow

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Conference Programme08.30 Registration

The Urban Agenda and its Wider Context

08.55 Introduction and Overview

Dr. Diarmad CampbellChief Geologist, Scotland, BGS

(Dr. Martin Smith, Simon Price)

09.05 Welcome and Conference Opening

Sir Kenneth Calman KCB FRSE FMedSciChancellor, The University of Glasgow

Session 1: Subsurface Knowledge Exchange in Europe and Beyond

09.15 Introduction by ChairDr. Michiel van der MeulenChief Geologist, Research Manager Geomodelling, TNO/Geological Survey of the

Netherlands

09.20 Urban Planners and the Subsurface: Out of Sight, Out of MindIgnace Van CampenhoutMunicipality of Rotterdam

09.40 ASK Knowledge Exchange Network for Glasgow and BeyondHelen BonsorHydrogeologist, BGS

(Hugh Barron1, Jonathan Lowndes1, Garry Baker1, David Hay2, Simon Watson3,Donald Linn2, Iain Hall4, Ken Lawrie11BGS; 2Glasgow City Council; 3Hunterian Museum; 4Grontmij)

09.55 BRO National Key Register of the NetherlandsDr. Michiel van der MeulenChief Geologist, Research Manager Geomodelling, TNO/Geological Survey of the

Netherlands

10.10 COST Action TU1206 Sub-Urban: A European Network to Improve

Understanding andUse of the Ground Beneath our Cities

Hans deBeerVice-chair, COST TU1206; Team Leader, Groundwater and Urban Geology,Geological Survey of Norway

(Dr. Diarmad Campbell, BGS)

10.30 Tea/Coffee and Opportunity to view Posters

Session 2: Urban Subsurface 3D Property Modelling

11.00 Introduction by Chair

Dr. Diarmad Campbell, BGS

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11.10 National to Urban Scales of Subsurface Modelling in the NetherlandsDr. Jeroen SchokkerGeologist/Geomodeller, TNO/Geological Survey of the Netherlands

11.30 How to Present a Can of Worms: Capturing the Complexity of GlasgowsSuperficialDeposits

Dr. Katie Whitbread

Sedimentary Geologist/Geomorphologist, BGS(Sarah Arkley, Dr. Andrew Finlayson, BGS)

11.45 Big Faults, Little Faults: Multi-scalar Bedrock Modelling in the Clyde CatchmentDr. Alison MonaghanGeologist, BGS

(Mike McCormac, Dr. Dave Millward, Dr. Tim Kearsey, Bill McLean, Tony Irving,BGS)

12.00 Stochastic Modelling of GlasgowsSuperficial GeologyAndrew KingdonPetrophysicist and Team Leader Parameterisation and Statistics, BGS

(John Williams, Paul Williamson, Dr. Murray Lark, Dr. Tim Kearsey, AndrewFinlayson, Marcus Dobbs, BGS)

12.15 Geotechnical GIS of GlasgowDavid EntwisleSenior Engineering Geologist, BGS

(Suzanne Self, BGS)

12.30 Lunch

Session 3: Urban Geochemistry and its Wider Context (soil, sediment and

surface water quality)

13.30 Introduction by Chair

Fiona FordyceSenior Environmental Geochemist, BGS

13.35 Geochemical Baseline Surveys of Glasgow and the Clyde Basin: Overview and Soils

Fiona Fordyce, BGS(Paul Everett1, Dr. Jenny Bearcock2, Bob Lister2

BGS Edinburgh1, BGS Keyworth2)

13.50 Mapping the Water Chemistry of the Clyde Basin Drainage Network: Regional Context

and the Urban ImprintDr. Jenny BearcockHydrogeochemist, BGS

(Dr. Pauline Smedley2, Paul Everett1, Louise Ander2,Fiona Fordyce1BGS,Edinburgh1, BGS Keyworth2)

14.05 Soil Quality and Health/Deprivation Indicators in GlasgowProfessor Marian Scott OBE FRSEProfessor of Environmental Statistics, School of Mathematics and

Statistics,University of Glasgow(Stephen Morrison1Fiona Fordyce2National Australia Bank1, BGS2)

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14.20 Chemical Speciation and Bioaccessibility of Chromium in Contaminated GlasgowSoilsProfessor John FarmerProfessor Emeritus and Senior Honorary Professorial Fellow, University of Edinburgh

(Andrew Broadway1, Fiona Fordyce2Environmental Resources Management (ERM)1, BGS2)

14.35 Anthropogenic and Natural Geochemical Factors on Urban Soil QualityProfessor Andrew Hursthouse FRSCProfessor of Environmental Geochemistry, University of the West of Scotland

14.50 Q&A

15.00 Tea/coffee and Opportunity to view Posters

Session 4: Urban Groundwater, Estuary and Marine

15.30 Introduction by Chair

Brighid DochartaighSenior Hydrogeologist, BGS

15.35 Groundwater Modelling and Monitoring in HamburgPaul MeyerHydrogeologist, Groundwater Modeller, CONSULAQUA Hamburg

and Lothar MoosmannHydrogeologist, Ministry of Urban Development and Environment of

Hamburg (BSU)Geological Survey

15.55 Urban Groundwater: A Pilot Monitoring Network for GlasgowStephanie Bricker

Hydrogeologist, BGS(Brighid Dochartaigh, Helen Bonsor, BGS)

16.10 Groundwater Modelling to Improve Conceptual Understanding of Flow under GlasgowDr. Majdi MansourSenior Groundwater Modeller, BGS

(Brighid Dochartaigh, Dr. Rachel Dearden, Ryan Turner, Dr. Andrew Hughes,BGS)

16.25 Urban Dependence on Coastal SeasGlasgow and the Firth of ClydeProfessor Michael HeathProfessor of Fisheries Science, University of Strathclyde

16.40 Estuary and Marine Contamination in the Clyde CatchmentDr. David JonesProject leader/Geochemist, BGS

17.00 CUSP: The Global DimensionDr. Martin Smith, BGSScience Director, BGS Global(Dr. Diarmad Campbell, BGS)

17.15 Closing Remarks

Professor John Coggins OBE FRSEFormer Vice-Principal for Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Glasgow

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Foreword

Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, is built along the upper Clyde estuary and lower RiverClyde. In the heart of the city are the Clyde Gateway and Clyde Waterfront areas anational urban regeneration priority for Scotland. This regeneration is intended to stimulateeconomic growth, drive smaller community projects, and tackle concentrated deprivationresulting from industrial decline. To underpin this regeneration, the British Geological Survey(BGS) has been developing integrated and attributed dynamic shallow-earth 3D models andother geoscience datasets and knowledge, in partnership with Glasgow City Council andother organisations. This transdisciplinary projectthe Clyde-Urban Super-Project (CUSP)aims to make geoscience information more accessible, relevant and understandable to thewide range of users involved in the sustainable regeneration and development of Glasgow.This conference showcases CUSP, its knowledge exchange (ASK and GSPEC) and itsrelevance to sustainable use of the urban subsurface, which is being promoted by therelated European COST Action-Sub-Urban, whose partners from across Europe will illustratetheir work.

Early-stage Researchers Workshop Programme (CUSP-COST)

13.30 Welcome and Introduction

CUSP project leader, Dr. Diarmad Campbell, welcomed guests and gave an overview of theproject. The transdisciplinary CUSP project, now in its fifth year, is working in partnershipwith Glasgow City Council and a range of universities within the UK and further afield. Thefocus of CUSP is on Glasgow and the River Clyde which flows through the city. The CUSPproject looks at a range of aspects within the Clyde catchment and inner estuary, fromsubsurface to ground water properties and the applications of knowledge from such studies.

Dr. Campbell also pointed out that papers from many of the presentations from thisconference will be included in a forthcoming Royal Society of Edinburgh thematic volume.

13.35 Dr. Andrew Finlayson, Quaternary Geologist, BGS

Glasgow through the Ice Age

Dr. Finlayson opened his talk with an introduction of the natural processes that have shapedthe subsurface of the Clyde Catchment. The landscape of Glasgow has been shaped byclimate change and geological processes during the last ice age, a time when large icesheets advanced and retreated in the Northern Hemisphere. Evidence for this comes fromthe study of ice core records, which have preserved a record of the planet s climateoscillating between warm and cold conditions. The climate wobbles like this due to largescale events occurring across the planet, such as tectonic plate movements which cause

mountain uplift, shifts in the geographical position of land masses, and the opening andclosing of sea ways. An example of the latter was given by Dr. Finlayson as the opening ofthe sea way between North and South America, which caused changes in salinity and theNorth Atlantic current, which in turn had influence on the planets climate as it affectedaircurrent circulation and heat transfer around the planet. As well as the climate beinginfluenced by terrestrial processes, Earth is particularly sensitive to solar processes such asorbital variations: eccentricity (moving between a circular to elliptical orbit around the Sun),obliquity (changes in angle of Earths axis of rotation) and precession (Earths wobble on itsaxisakin to the wobble seen on a spinning top). In the first half of the 20thcentury, theSerbian geophysicist, Milutin Milankovibuilt on earlier work from the Scottish scientistJames Croll to explain the effect these solar processes have on Earths climate, anddeduced that Earth should go into glaciation around every 100,000 years, a theory proven

through the study of ocean cores and ice cores.

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The extent of the last glaciation in Scotland has been explored using an Olex bathymetric setfrom echo sounder data, captured by hundreds of fishing boats and research vessels sailingin British waters. Dr. Finlayson presented an image showing this bathymetric data, whichrevealed a fascinating sub-ocean landscape. The image showed arcuate features, glacialmoraines, on the western part of the continental shelf confirming that the last ice sheetreached the continental shelf at least. Other features were also visible, such as channelsscoured out of the sea bed which represent tunnel valleys, formed underneath the ice sheet

through high pressure processes.

By combining geological information from sources such as bathymetric data, ice cores, andcomputer modelling, simulations of the ice sheet over Scotland during the last ice age havebeen achieved. In a video presented to delegates, a computer model devised by AlunHubbard of Aberystwyth University showed that at 35 thousand years ago, an ice sheetexpanded out of the Highlands and into the Clyde Basin. The ice sheet then retreated until abrief readvance 12,000 years ago during the Loch Lomond Glacial Readvance, beforecollapsing. From fossils found throughout Bishopbriggs and the Ayrshire basin, scientistsknow that prior to ice sheet growth, Glasgow would have been populated by woolly rhinos,woolly mammoths, reindeer and tundra vegetation. However, when ice began spillingthrough the Vale of Leven sourced from the Scottish Highlands 35,000 years ago, Glasgow

would have been covered by at least 1km of ice. The weight of the ice pushed the landdown, and therefore during glacial retreat, the sea flooded up to 40m higher than presentday sea level. Both west and central Glasgow would have been underwater Loch Lomondwould have been a sea loch, and the remaining ice masses would have been retreating andcalving out into the Firth of Clyde.

Glacial deposits left behind by the ice sheet in Glasgow consist mostly of glacial till(accounts for 70% of total sediment within the Clyde Basin) which is composed of a siltysandy clay, firm to stiff, and containing gravel and boulders. Glacial rivers deposited sandand gravel, which consist of 11% of sediment within the Clyde Basin. Sediment thicknessmaps of the Clyde Catchment show that in the east of Glasgow, these glacial deposits mayreach up to 30m thick. In addition to glacial deposits, raised marine and estuarine depositscomposed of silts and clays are mostly concentrated within the lower regions of the ClydeBasin, and make up ~13% of the sediment within the Clyde Basin.

In terms of Glasgows future climate, we currently live in a full interglacial period andassuming no global warming, this would be expected to end in the next 1500 years or so.However, taking into account the rate of global warming today, it is more likely that the nextglacial period will be delayed by up to 500,000 years. Global warming therefore poses analternative climate consideration, with UK climate projections suggesting a 754 cm sealevel rise in Scotland by 2095, and an IPCC report suggesting that global mean sea level willrise by 103 m by the year 2300.

Dr. Finlayson concludes that past climate and glacial processes are responsible for much ofthe material that Glasgow is built upon, and that the present day climate is a result of abalance between factors of orbital facing, atmospheric composition and global ice volume. Inthe long term, the current day climate is unlikely to remain constant.

13.55 Dr. Katie Whitbread, Sedimentary Geologist/Geomorphologist, BGS

Strengths and weaknesses of deterministic 3D modelling of superficial deposits - lessonsfrom Glasgow

In this presentation, Dr. Whitbread explores how British Geological Survey (BGS) geologistshave evolved from modeling geology from a conceptual approach, where the geologistproduces models based on their own interpretations and sketches, to deterministicprocesses, to model the subsurface on the basis of numerical algorithms. 3D models arebecoming increasingly important and sought after by users of the subsurface, such as urban

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planners, decision makers and contractors. 2D geological maps provide a plan view of thegeology sitting immediately at the surface, but cannot be interrogated to provide informationof what lies beneath the geology that sits at the surface. As with most geological materials,superficial deposits (glacial, marine, fluvial, estuarine, etc.) often have complexmorphologies, and as such there is a pressing need to create 3D models of superficialdeposits within the subsurface to help us understand and characterize them, to inform us onhow to manage our environment.

BGS have moved from a conceptual model based approach to a deterministic 3D modellingapproach, which exists somewhere between conceptual and computational approaches.BGS build 3D models using their in-house GSI3D modelling software, which has beendeveloped side by side with BGS geologistsmodelling needs. In a deterministic 3D model,the geologist takes borehole data along with lithological information (e.g. from a 2D map),and codes it up into packages of deposits, and correlates these into cross-sections.Incorporation of borehole data allows construction of multiple cross-sections with multipleorientations, leading to the development of a network of fence diagrams. Using adeterministic approach, interpolation of surfaces between these fence diagrams can beconstructed within GSI3D.

The main advantage of such a deterministic approach is that this method allows forintegration of multiple data inputs. For example, over 40,000 boreholes for the Glasgow areaexist within the BGS database, and seismic and geophysical data can also be integrated intothe modelling approach. Dr. Whitbread describes another strength of the deterministicapproach as it being a good way of dealing with complex deposits. Glasgows superficialdeposits are indeed complex, and this complexity is something which must be reflected inthe models created by BGS. To tackle this, in Glasgow, BGS geologists have broken downthe superficial packages into 27 main units, based on lithostratigraphy. This lithostratigraphygrouping is based on a combination of things, such as the order in which the strata spatiallyoccur, and the environment in which they were formed. The power of using lithostratigraphicmodels is that it provides us with rules by which we can model the characteristics of models,and how they relate to one another. This workflow is currently difficult to do withcomputational methods. An additional strength of the approach is that deterministicmodelling can be used to build versatile and useful models, at a range of scales. The BGShave built a catchment scale model of the Clyde Basin, which allowed them to build a highresolution model of urbanized parts of Glasgow. These high resolution models can now beinterrogated for a range of applications, such as looking at the thicknesses of particular unitswithin certain parts of Glasgow, and also for looking at the effects of groundwater processesand flow. It is also useful for outputting useful surfaces, such as the depth to rockhead.

However, there are limitations to the deterministic approach. It is a labour intensive process,taking a total of ten years to develop the Glasgow superficial 3D model. In addition, lithologyvaries within stratigraphic units, and therefore requires simplifying down to a manageable

level for modelling. BGS are developing stochastic models in areas with high boreholedensity to counter this limitation, and this is discussed in the next presentation. An importantlimitation that the BGS are working on is how to quantify uncertainty within our modelsi.e.how do we know how well our model is representing the subsurface environment? Theaccuracy of the models relate directly to how much data is available, and BGS can thereforeprovide a rough indication of the likelihood of accuracy e.g. the models have a higherconfidence where there are more boreholes. However, this in turn has limitations, as even inareas with a lot of boreholes there can still be high geological complexity. Dr. Whitbreadexplained that it is possible to identify where these complex areas are within the model, butreminded us it is difficult to be quantitative about probabilities. The BGS are looking at howto address this, and how to derive a more rigorous approach.

In conclusion, deterministic models can be time consuming to build and maintain, and aredifficult to assess for their predictive capability. However, the approach is also versatile,

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capable of being applied at a range of scales, and is good for developing geologicalunderstanding.

14.15 Dr. Tim Kearsey, Survey Geologist, BGS

Using stochastic modelling to understand variation in lithology of glacial and fluvial depositsin central Glasgow, UK

This presentation builds on some of the limitations discussed regarding deterministic 3Dmodelling in the last talk. The BGS 3D model of Glasgow was built using stratigraphicalinformation, which is a good way of understanding the geology but presents a problem if themodel interest is in lithology. For example, the Gourock Sand Member in Glasgow is notcomposed solely of sand; it is described as sand, silt, clay and locally gravel. Therefore,describing how the lithology varies within a 3D model is a problem.

For the Glasgow model, BGS used 4391 geotechnical boreholes to investigate thelithological variations within units such as the Gourock Sand Member. As expected, BGSfound that none of the stratigraphic units contained a single lithology, as suggested by theirname (e.g. the Law Sand and Gravel Member is composed of a mixture of soft clay, organicmaterial, stiff clay, diamicton and sand and gravel).

Dr. Kearsey discussed the difficulties in correlating such complex units between boreholesfor the purposes of model building. To account for complexity, the oil and gas industry buildfacies models using stochastic modelling, a technique the BGS are researching and startingto use within their models. Stratigraphic models dont show variability within geological units,and as such, the model implies everything within that one unit is the same lithology. If thereare differing components with that layer, how do we represent that? As the BGS have beenusing boreholes to understand how lithology varies within a particular unit, they have beenapplying stochastic techniques and using statistics to model two units feathering into oneanother within a new stochastic lithological 3D model.

Talking the delegates through the procedures used to employ such a method, Dr. Kearseyexplained that the BGS model was built by using boreholes and building grids, anddeveloping a sequence stratigraphy approach (i.e. looking at erosional surfaces as a basisfor the model). Stochastic modelling then allows simulations to run throughout the griddedmodel, starting at a difference square within the model each time, and therefore generating aslightly different model during each run. Taking the stratigraphic and results from thelithological (stochastic) model, Dr. Kearsey found that a lot more clay is present at thesurface of Glasgow than what is provided in the simpler stratigraphic model. Taking thePaisley Clay Member as an example, it forms a geological unit across Glasgow but there arealso a lot more clays distributed between different members, an observation which wouldhave otherwise not been picked up in the stratigraphic model.

As in the previous talk, Dr. Kearsey acknowledged the challenge of predicting the accuracyof stochastic modelling. As an example, two boreholes within Glasgow were used to informthe stratigraphy, but had not been carried through in the stochastic modelling, and so BGSwere able to use these as blind tests and see what would be predicted in these boreholesfrom the model. The results showed that in the upper 10m of the borehole, predictions oflithology were good, close to what was there when drilled. Deeper down in the borehole,over 10m, the ability to predict decreased, and underrepresented the amount of clay.However, it is likely that this is a function of the depth distribution of boreholes used for theremainder of the model, as most boreholes used for the model were less than 10m deep. Dr.Kearsey then showed how BGS illustrated the uncertainty associated with this method,showing delegates a map of the probability of sand units occurring, with a more certain valueplaced on the location of boreholes, and less certain where there was no subsurfaceinformation.

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In conclusion, stratigraphic units consist of multiple lithologies despite their official name.Stochastic modelling allows a model of lithology as well as stratigraphy to be built, andprobability maps of different lithologies can indicate uncertainty in data (dependent onborehole data).

14.35 Helen Bonsor, Hydrogeologist, BGS

Management and access to subsurface data in urban areas: lessons learnt from Glasgow

and Europe

To understand the subsurface, good quality data sets and access to them are essential. Aneed for understanding subsurface data management and how it varies through Europeancities stemmed from a groundwater pilot in Glasgow, where it was difficult to access andreuse large amounts of existing groundwater data for Glasgow. It became clear that if BGSwere to provide meaningful models, a way in which to access the wealth of data available inGlasgow was essential. There is an increasing need for all cities, regardless of their startingpoints or data backgrounds, to maximize past investments in data. This is in order to reduceuncertainty of subsurface ground conditions for effective and sustainable development ofurban areas, by developing high quality datasets and data acquisition and by systemizingexisting data to match current needs.

Ms. Bonsor describes her work in the COST program, where she participated in knowledgeexchange activities with Glasgow, Hamburg and Odense as part of a short term scientificmission between institutions. Hamburg has set a benchmark example in subsurface datamanagement. It has a lot of historic data, and data is still being gathered today. Their data ishigh quality, easy to use and access, and key systematic data sets inform government andpolicy level. But what makes this a good example? Hamburg developed strong legislativedrivers for data submission to their geological survey, where data is provided in a consistentformat to make it easier for the geological survey to understand and use. As a result,stratigraphy matches across different types of model leading to greater efficiency ininforming policy. Data is also used consistently by different departments and agreed

conceptual models are used to support decision making. Inter-organisation relationships arealso important, and significant investment over many years has enabled this collection ofcomprehensive datasets for the city. The datasets combine what the geological survey aremonitoring and capturing, as well as that from private companies. This therefore creates avirtuous cycle of data and knowledge exchange, and allows decisions to be made from thesame data and 3D models across different organisations to develop a unified model.

Glasgow provides a different exampleit has much less historical data and lower levels ofdata acquisition compared to Hamburg. Glasgow does have a lot of boreholes, but a lot ofthat data has too high an uncertainty associated with it, and it is known that there is moredata out there than is recorded at BGS. In addition, the data reported to Glasgow CityCouncil is not systematicit comes in a range of forms, from hand drawn logs, excel to pdf

format, and it is therefore very time consuming to access that data, and as a result, is notused. To combat this, BGS have been working to set up the ASK network, a knowledgeexchange network, to combine a range of private and government contractors to have virtualdata and knowledge exchange. ASK follows best practice as observed in Hamburg, and ismoving toward an efficient raw data capture. This has been realized by using a centralNERC/BGS data repositorya free flow of data and delivery of updated models. It is alsomoving toward a standardized report format called GSPEC, using existing industrystandards, which can be uploaded via a portal on the BGS website where it is stored for re-access by members of the ASK network.

Odense is a combination of Glasgow and Hamburgit has significant historical andgroundwater data but no legislation for ground investigation data. However a wealth of un-

accessed ground investigation data is held in the private sector, which regard it as the familysilver, and as a result there is now insufficient data accessible to the government for major

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urban redevelopment projects. The data is accessible but at a high cost, and as such, highcosts and limited data restrict 3D modelling.

Lessons learned from the knowledge exchange activities between institutes highlight thatdata portals make data highly accessible, and a high awareness of data will inform planningdecision making and policy. Having a centralized repository is essential as well as havingstandardized data. Merging private and public sector data is highly valuable and cost

effective. Strong inter-organisational relationships are essential, and develop largely due tocollaboration and interest of key individuals within organisations, and should be somethingthat all COST cities aspire to.

To conclude, the COST series of knowledge exchange events between Glasgow, Hamburgand Odense highlighted the full potential of subsurface data, if it is accessible. Theknowledge exchange also allowed an assessment of best practice, and gave reassurancethat pilot projects in other urban areas, such as Glasgow, is following best practice which wemight otherwise not have known.

14.55 Emma Church, PhD Research Student, Glasgow Caledonian University

Glasgow energy from mine workings project: progress to date

The Scottish Government has set a target for renewable heat to account for 11% of Scottishenergy consumption by 2020. In 2012, this value was at 4.1%, of which ground source heatpumps (GSHP) account for a small amount. There is a potential for greater energycontribution from GSHP as there is a greater public confidence surrounding them - the publicunderstand extracting heat from mine waters, but there are little incentives available to fundsuch a project when the technology is not widely known or studied.

Glasgow has its own example of extracting heat from mine waters in the east of the city, in ahousing development of 16 houses, which are heated using heat from old mine workings.This scheme was completed 13 years ago, and Ms. Church explained that her PhD research

would like to see similar schemes replicated in the future for Glasgow, by developing aplanning tool which would allow decision makers to see where best to put our developmentsusing geothermal energy.

The research looks to increase confidence in GSHP technology, and to allow thedevelopment of a decision making tool. The initial work for developing this focusses on twourban regeneration areas in the Clyde Gatewaythe districts of Dalmarnock and Shawfield.Initial work digitized mine plans from the Coal Authority, which have been used to highlightmine workings within the upper most coal seams in these districts of Glasgow. The nextsteps in the mapping will be to expand this to cover the whole of the Clyde Gateway and toestimate how much energy can be extracted from such workings, and to inform commercialand domestic users on this low grade heat source. As the mine workings are in bedrock, and

mostly within coal mines, only a few of the mines have been modelled in 3D. As BGS hold acomprehensive collection of mine plan information, they have provided mine working data tohelp with this presentations research.

Implementing such a heat source may be of more benefit to new developments, such asoffices and regeneration of domestic properties. These developments will be more energyefficient as they are newer buildings, and so would benefit from a local geothermal heatsource. Combined with GIS files for mine workings in the urban regeneration areas in theClyde Gateway, additional GIS layers (such as those looking at where incentives areavailable for higher fuel poverty areas) may also be of benefit to help decision makers withwhere to focus development of geothermal heat from mine workings. Currently, mine watertemperature and chemical data is sparse, although if more data becomes available thiscould also be used to display within a GIS package and be easy to understand for non-specialists.

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In Glasgow, there is little information available on mine water properties. Ms. Churchdescribed access was available to a few boreholes within the Clyde Gateway, and wherewater was monitored over a 2 month period. The mine water remained stable at 10Cthroughout a cold November period, and in a borehole elsewhere, temperatures reach 13C.Water samples were also taken from Newmains and SE Glasgow boreholes, and tested forcopper, cadmium, chromium, iron, manganese, nickel and zinc. All but iron were detected in

trace amounts, whereas iron was present at 16mg/L, which is not thought to presentsignificant problems. However, it is acknowledged that local knowledge of how thesesystems differ are very important, as depending on the chemistry, there may be a need torestrict oxygen access to mine workings in case the iron turns ferrous.

To conclude, the map and associated information being developed as part of this PhD hasgreat potential to be used as a useful planning tool. It is not intended to replace siteinvestigation and water tests, but rather can be used as a guide as to where to putresources, based on mine working locations, areas of urban regeneration, redevelopment,and fuel poverty districts.

15.15 Hugh Barron, Responsive Surveys Scotland Manager, BGS

Heat from mine waters: energy in the right place

Over 50% of total energy consumption in the UK is from non-electrical heat demand. TheScottish Government climate change targets outline that delivery of 11% of this demandshould be sourced from renewable sources by 2020. To achieve this target, the ScottishGovernment has commissioned a study on the potential for geothermal energy in Scotland,including sourcing heat from mine workings in Scotland. A joint study between AECOM andBGS found that a demonstration/valuation project to showcase the potential of the use ofmine water for geothermal heat should be installed as soon as possible in Scotland, as thereis a lack of confidence in this relatively unknown (at least, in Scotland) technology. Inconjunction with AECOM, BGS suggested two areas in Scotland that could act best as a

demonstrator project: Shawfair, near Edinburgh, and the Clyde Gateway in the east end ofGlasgow.

Why are mine waters an attractive renewable energy source? They are sourced within oldmine workings, and therefore have enhanced recovery potential from groundwater directly,and/or ground source heat pumps (GSHP) can be used to extract heat from them. The mineworkings create fluid pathways through low permeability rocks, with abandoned roadwaysand shafts allowing connectivity between different levels of mine workings. As several minestoday are pumped to remove rising groundwater, this water could be used for geothermalheat rather than actually drilling boreholes to access the water. However, due to theindustrial revolution, the groundwater may be contaminated and contain excess iron. Thereare also engineering challenges to be considered in the future, such as how to drill into mine

waters, and knowing how long the water will be likely to last once it is pumped.

Disused mines have been utilized elsewhere in the world, such as in Heerland, Netherlands,and there are also smaller examples in Slovenia and Poland. In Scotland, there are two localexamples: Shettleston in Glasgow and Lumphinnans in Fife. Taking the former as anexample, there are 16 houses heated from groundwater from the underlying mine workings.The annual bill for residents is 150 in heating costs, with a 10 monthly maintenance costthis is compared to an average of 1000 spent on heating in Scotland per year. However,favourable conditions need to exist to make use of such a resource, including findingsuitable sites, matching supply and demand, etc. At the Heerland site in the Netherlands, anopen loop system exists where mine water is extracted from 700 m depth and water is re-injected, providing a peak output of 2.2MWenough to heat hundreds of houses, offices,and shops.

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Going back to Glasgow, extensive mining has been carried out historically, particularly in theeast of the city. Since 1872, there has been a legal requirement for the recording of mineabandonment plans, and BGS hold related mining records from 1839 onward. The earliermines were worked using the pillar and stall method, whereas later mining techniques usedthe short/long wall technique, which allowed walls to collapse after mining. This methodreduced the voids left by mining by 90%, but fractures remain between and above seams,due to subsidence of overlying strata into the voids. The void spaces are predictable, and

with the help of mine plans, accessible. Even if filled with collapsed material, the voids havean increased permeability due to flow pathways between blocks of rock. In terms of thermalpotential in Glasgow, most of the mines in Glasgow were worked to depths of 300 - 400m,and it has been calculated that 600 km3constitutes the volume of mines worked in Scotland,in an area of 3800 km3.

There are two key parameters to consider for extraction of heat from mine watersflow rateand temperature. In boreholes that the BGS have looked at in central Scotland, 5 to 150litres a second of flow rate has been recorded. Heat extraction at 5 25 litres a second isdeemed a good rate, and a preferred temperature range is somewhere between 12 and37C. For example, in Monktonhall, near Edinburgh, the mine workings are over 900mdepth, and have groundwater temperatures of up to 37C. Shallower mine workings typically

have temperatures of 12 - 13C.

Scotlandsheat demand come 2020 will be 60.1TW, and will require an installed capacity of33-40MW. Mine waters in Scotland are estimated to potentially provide 12GW of Scotlandsheat demand in favourable conditionshowever, the heat cannot be transported far fromthe area it was sourced, and only a proportion of the mine workings will be suitable for heatextraction, and the heat delivered by GSHP are only efficient for new buildings.

15.55 Kate Wade, 3rd year PhD Student, Sediment Ecology Research Group, StAndrews University

The Restoration of Saltmarshes and Their Value as a Coastal Flood Defence

Saltmarshes are important and valuable habitats, which, over the past 50 years, have beendeclining at a rate of 100 acres a year due to land being reclaimed for agriculture.Contributing factors also include pollution, climate change, sea level change and storms.Most of the saltmarshes in Scotland are quite small, but still valuable in terms of theecosystem and what they provide. Coastal erosion protection and coastal flooding defenceis an important ecosystem service from saltmarshes. In the UK alone, 26,000 homes andbusinesses are at risk from coastal flooding, and this number is predicted to grow due to sealevel rise and extreme weather events. Urbanised areas are within risk areas for flooding, forexample, parts of Glasgow along the Firth of Clyde.

There are two types of flood defence type: natural/soft defences (e.g. sand dunes and salt

marshes) and manmade defences (e.g. concrete sea walls). Coastal planners have to takeinto account if an area is in need of instant protection, and what it is that needs to beprotected. Decisions are not simple - manmade defences are a relatively rapid means ofproviding flood defence, but come at a high cost of 5000/m of wall. Saltmarshes on theother hand take a while to build up, but once in place are sustainable as a natural flooddefence. They attenuate waves, accrete sediment (trapping it as the tide comes in andtherefore raising its level). If a natural flood defence such as a saltmarsh is used inconjunction with a manmade defence, this lowers the cost significantly of a new sea wall(400/m of wall) and combines the security of a hard wall whilst maintaining the naturalvalue of an area.

To help saltmarshes regain their habitat, original sea walls are being breached to allowsaltmarshes to flood back through and migrate inland, a process currently being inhibiteddue to rising sea levels. New sea walls are built further inland, allowing substantial new salt

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marshes to form, to help tackle flooding, for example, as at Abbotts Hall Farm in Essex.

Saltmarshes can also be restored through transplantation, i.e. digging up plugs of naturalsaltmarsh from a donor site, splitting the plugs into sprigs, and transporting to a new site forplanting where they will then hopefully develop into a salt marsh. However, is this method ofrestoration successful? Does it do the same job as a well-established salt marsh? Thisresearch looks at saltmarshes in estuaries and how long it takes ecosystems to be restored,

and how effectively this is achieved. The study area (the Eden Estuary near St Andrews)was historically fringed by saltmarsh, but 50ha of it has been lost over the last 20 years.Since 2003, monitoring of natural and restored sites within the estuary has been carried outto compare a range of factors including sediment accretion, wave attenuation and sedimentstability, amongst others in order to understand the function of salt marshes.

The results showed that sediment accretion is comparable between natural saltmarshes andrestored salt marshes after four years from planting, and that they trapped more sedimentthan mud flats. After 10 years, the plant height in the restored salt marsh is comparable tothat of a natural site, and therefore ten years after planting the restored site is able to havethe same wave attenuation effect as a natural site. It was shown that sediment stability is notsignificantly different between sites, and that biofilms play an important role in sediment

stability.

In conclusion, saltmarshes are a valuable ecosystem, particularly for coastal defencemeasures. Restoring saltmarshes is possible but it is important to look at restoration as awhole picture, and to monitor them through time to see if they do the job expected of anatural, well-established salt marsh. The results from this study are useful for managers tounderstand how natural flood defences can be restored and on what timescalessedimentaccretion takes approximately 4 years to stabilize to natural saltmarsh levels, whereas waveattenuation is ~10 years. The effect of sediment stability is complicated, and requires moreresearch.

16.15 Dr. Solveigh Lass-Evans, Daphne Jackson Fellow, BGSHuman Impact on Sediment Quality in the Clyde Post-Industrial Catchment

In the past, Glasgow was a leading centre of industry. It was particularly famous for its shipbuilding, as well as mining, chemical works, engineering and ceramic manufacturing. Thisstudy looks at the lasting effect of this industrial heritage on the environment of Glasgow andthe surrounding Clyde catchment. Glasgows industrial past has left with it a legacy ofpollutionto understand this effect on sediment quality within the Clyde, BGS collectedsamples from stream sediments in the River Clyde in collaboration with Glasgow CityCouncil in 2003, and also in the Clyde estuary with SEPA and Glasgow City Council as partof the BGS Geochemical Baseline Survey of the Environment Project (G-BASE).

The aim of this study is to integrate and interpret data sets to identify the spatial distributionof sediment element concentrations and assess the sediment quality with respect tosediment quality guidelines. Rural stream sediments were sampled at 1 sample per 1.5 km 2,and urban stream sediments were collected at 1 sample per 1km2, whilst estuary sedimentswere sampled via the grab and core method.

The results enabled the creation of element distribution maps across the Clyde catchment,which Dr. Lass-Evans presented to the delegates. Firstly, the concentration of copper withinsediments was highlighted, showing a strong influence on urban areas with highconcentrations in Glasgow and out into the Clyde estuary. There were relatively lowconcentrations of copper on ground overlying igneous rocks (such as in the Renfrew Hills),as well as those over-lying Silurian and Devonian rocks in the south of the Clyde catchmentarea. It was also found that there was a high concentration of copper in the Lead Hills area,due to its historical lead mining past. Moving onto lead distribution, there was also a high

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concentration in the urban areas along the Clyde, as well as again in the Lead Hills area.There was also a high concentration of Pb in the Carboniferous flood basalts of the region.When comparing these results with sediment quality guidelines, it was found that the Clydecatchment exceeded the sediment quality guidelines of Cu, and with Pb, nearly all samplesexceeded the quality guideline of 128mg/kg in Glasgow.

To assess the human impact on sediment quality, metals with an anthropogenic origin must

be distinguished from naturally occurring metals. To model this, integration of datasetsincluding stream sediment chemistry, mineralization occurrences and mining locations,urban areas, bedrock geology and stream sub-catchment boundaries were taken intoconsideration. The catchment signature was defined by calculating the average elementconcentrations from all stream sediments lying within sub-catchment boundaries. Modellingthe geological background was more complicated, and the approach taken was to excludestream sediment that was within urban areas and/or close to mineralization or mininglocations. To compare real with modelled catchment, interpretation of data relied on the useof spidergrams, plotted on a logarithmic scale. In rural catchments, real and modelcatchment signatures matched closely; in mineralized catchments, the signatures matchedclosely, although the real signature was slightly higher in Mn, Cr, Pb, Sn, Zn and Zr; and inthe urban catchment, real catchment and model catchment signatures did not match for

some elements (higher than geological background: As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, V andZn).

The results from the above assessments found that in the urban catchments with mining andindustrialization, heavy metals associated with human activities are much higher than thegeological background. Dr. Lass-Evans showed a figure highlighting the enrichment factor ofheavy metals, where a figure above 1 would represent human influence. Enrichment factorsof up to ten in Pb were found to surround Glasgow, and within a sub catchment, up to 45.Three sub-catchments were metal enriched due to human activities by more than ten timesthe natural concentration. Looking at historical maps from 1900, it is clear why there arethese heavy metal concentrations in central Glasgow. For example, in the early 1900s in theeast end of Glasgow, in the area of London Road and Celtic Park, there were a lot ofindustrial areas adjacent to one another, such as brick, pottery, chemical, engineering, soapand wire works. Even though they were demolished many years ago, they still have animpact on Glasgows sedimentstoday.

16.35 Adam Wyness, 2ndyear PhD Researcher and Post Graduate Representative, TheJames Hutton Institute

The Influence of Sediment Characteristics on the Transport of Pathogens from Freshwater toCoast

Current water quality monitoring is based upon detection of fecal indicator organisms (FIO),which are not necessarily pathogenicthe more there are of them, the more chance there is

of human pathogens being in the water. By investigating relationships between FIOabundance, sediment characteristics, erosion risk and environmental factors, identification ofpreconditions to adverse water quality can be explored.

Current water monitoring by SEPA doesnt take into account FIO in sediments. Water qualitymonitoring is only carried out during the peak bathing seasons, i.e. summer; yet, E. colicounts tend to be higher in winter than in summer. Bathing water regulations state thatSEPA should publish where a certain bathing water area is likely to be affected by short termpollution, and the conditions likely to cause short term pollution. But how can the risk ofexposure to pathogens be assessed without knowing how many FIOs could be re-suspended? If sediment is re-suspended in the water column during high energy events(such as high tide or rainfall), the associated pathogens will be transported to potentially high

risk areas such as bathing waters. This research aims to develop a tool to identify whichsediments contain a high abundance of FIO and at what time of year, and how prone these

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are to occur in high risk areas (such as bathing waters). An example of such a high riskbathing area is Lunderston Bay within the Firth of Clyde, the closest bathing watermonitoring site to Glasgow. In July 2013, a peak of 1600 E.coliunits per 100g wet sedimentwas detected, with a higher count in winter. The European Commission Bathing Waterdirective states that coastal and transitional water samples should not exceed more than 250colony forming units per 100ml of water.

The study area for this project is in the Ythan estuary near Aberdeen, which has a highsource of fecal contamination derived from the seal colonies that live within the estuary.Long-term monitoring of sediment properties and FIOs is required for this project, and sosamples were taken monthly from 4 areas within the estuary, along with an estuary widesampling campaign, completed quarterly. The analyses found that there is a downward trendin content of coliforms (an indicator of if the water is sanitary) with depth, due to the fact thewater chemistry changes 5cm down in the water column - to an organism that is used toliving in the gut, this represents a hostile environment. However, mud represents a lesshostile environment, and therefore higher concentrations are found. There is also adownward trend in coliform content as the water temperature increases, due to native biotabeing more active in warmer waters and eating E. coli, which cannot compete against thenative bacteria. The study also found that E. coliconcentrations in sediment are higher

further upstream in the water course due to increasing levels of organic content. The sourceof E.coliis derived from cattle and other warm blooded animals, especially cows where itthrives as a native gut flora. There is therefore a lot of run off containing E.colifrom farmlandinto upstream areas.

Early conclusions of this study are that depth profiles of E. coliand coliform show that theirabundance decrease with depth across all sediment types examined. However, finersediments allow FIOs to persist for longer at depth. The results of the study will inform policymakers, and help identify sites which need more monitoring of sediments. For example, ifcoastal management is changed further up the Clyde River, this would result in a change inhydrology of the estuary, and different sediments would get deposited in different placesitis not yet known with any certainty what effect this will have on E. colidistribution andtherefore water safety.

16.55 Professor Paul Bishop FRSE, Professor of Geography, University of Glasgow

Closing Remarks

Professor Bishop, a member of the organizing committee of the CUSP conference,welcomed everybody to Glasgow and thanked all delegates for attending todays session.He sincerely acknowledged the important contribution to science the early-stage researchersbrought to the CUSP conference today, and stated that they embody the potential forcollaboration in the future, akey theme for working Europe.

3D lithological model of

Glasgows superficial deposits

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Full Day Conference Programme (30th

May)

0855 Introduction and Overview

Dr. Diarmad Campbell, Chief Geologist Scotland, BGS, welcomed everyone to the secondday of the conference. He reminded the delegates that contributions from the conference,including the early-researchers work from yesterday, will be brought together in a relatedthematic volume of papers to be published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

Much of the CUSPs work is focused on improving subsurface understanding, particularly theQuaternary deposits. This is facilitated by data acquisition, and the construction of extensivehigh resolution bedrock and superficial 3D and 4D geological models, which can beattributed in various ways, such as lithology and engineering properties. These models allowus to answer key questions such as the thermal resource in abandoned mine workings andthe suitability of sustainable drainage. The ultimate aim is to link all these models together tosupport decision making in Glasgow. Complementary geochemical surveys have manyapplications including the impact of soil quality on health.

The BGS work of survey, monitoring and modelling feeds through to a range of experts inBGS, and also externally to local authorities, regulators, practitioners, Glasgow City Council,the ASK network as well as universities, research institutes, and internationally puttingGlasgow into a European scale with the COST program. However, if we are to be relevantas a geological survey, have to ascent a scale. To gain maximum impact on decisionmaking, we have to start to develop wider models and make real progress and impact withdecision makers on big scale issues such as floods and contamination.

Part of this challenge is to communicate with the wider community. In partnership withGlasgow City Council, BGS have launched a knowledge exchange network, designed toexploit the full potential of work, to provide a free flow of data and knowledge on thesubsurface with decision makers. BGS are not solely interested in Glasgow, as Dr. Campbell

acknowledged geological surveys have greater relevance to an increasingly urbanizedworld. In the UK and Europe we are 60% urbanized, and the world is over 50% urbanized. Itis predicted that the urban population will increase to 60% by 2030, and 70% by 2050, in linewith population growth. The COST ACTION project has many common aims of CUSP, inparticular to provide information to those who manage and deliver cities, and to the widercommunity to make best use of the resources available. Ultimately, we can make a realdifference to our cities.

0905 Welcome and Conference Opening

Dr. Campbell introduced and welcomed Sir Kenneth Calman, KCB FRSE FMedSci,

Chancellor of the University of Glasgow to the conference. Sir Kenneth Calman describedthe CUSP project as a vision to raise the profile of Glasgow and the west of Scotland as aworld class destination to use science and technology, and as a sustainable economicdevelopment. But how do we get greater sustained economic development and animproved quality of life? The topic is very importantover centuries, Glasgow has gone froma medieval place (historically referred to as the dear green place) to a major industrialcentre in the early 19thto 20thcentury, being the 2ndgreatest city of the empire at the time.As an example, Sir Calman pointed out the large crane across the river Clyde from theconference venue, which was built for lifting locomotives built in the north of Glasgow ontoboats to be shipped across the empire at the time. Sir Calman referred to classic Scottishpoets and their insights into the relationship between geology and the worldHughMacDiarmid wrote Earth, thou bonnie broukit bairn, meaning Earth, you poorly neglected

child, reflecting how humans hurt the earth through climate change. He also wrote whathappens to us is irrelevant to the worlds geology. But what happens to geology is not

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irrelevant to us. We must reconcile ourselves to the stones, not the stones to us. Thesubstrate is very relevantwhat happens beneath our feet is critical. Sir Calman thenwelcomed everybody to this conference, along with a much loved quote regarding theGlaswegian accent: What Glasgow says today, the rest of the world tries to pronouncetomorrow!

Session 1: Subsurface Knowledge Exchange in Europe and Beyond

Chaired by Dr. Michiel van der Meulen,Chief Geologist, Research Manager Geomodelling,TNO/Geological Survey of the Netherlands.

0920 Ignace Van Campenhout, Municipality of Rotterdam

Urban Planners and the Subsurface: Out of Sight, Out of Mind

Regarding the subsurface as an integral part of public space is not yet common standardpractice. Urban planners only make plans at ground level, but do not take them tosubsurface level, which is required. Rotterdam has been trying hard to get this point across,and after 7 years is beginning to make some headway. For urban planners, the subsurfaceis a black boxout of sight, and out of mind, and so it is up to underground specialists tomake planners aware of limitations and opportunities by visualizing the subsurface in anenthusiastic way. Rotterdam has developed products and processes to assist with this.

The old approach for urban planners was to consider the underground as a vague area.Therefore, when met with subsurface obstacles such as cable, pipelines and archaeology,these cause delays, and increase costs as their effect has not been considered duringplanning. Urban planners therefore need to go to subsurface companies, such asarchaeology and cable and pipeline specialists for information. These companies are willingto provide information, but each dataset provided is specialist and designed to be used byone specialist in the same sector; not acrossdifferent sectors (e.g. urban planning).Information from these companies ends up with urban planners, but as each sector recordsdata differently it is difficult for the urban planners to know what to do with it. Is it any wonder

the urban planners prefer to delay involvement with the subsurface when faced with suchcomplex data?

The new approach for urban planners in Rotterdam is Underground Scan (U-Scan),developed in collaboration with institutes in Holland, which incorporates subsurfacespecialists to make aggregated maps for quality, opportunity and economic maps. With U-Scan, the information is not tuned to the needs of the user, but to demands of urbanplanners. Maps provided are on the same scale, with the same legend in GIS. With suchmaps, its easy early in the planning process to identify areas suitable for redevelopment for example, Mr. van Campenhout showed a site plan which contained, amongst others,hydrogeological layers (used to highlight groundwater hazards on site) and a soil pollutionmap translated into a remediation map to show cost for cleaning soil in different parts of the

site. Maps like these are taken to the urban planners, and discussed for around three hoursat the beginning of a project to understand a site s relation to the subsurface, and to developa mutual understanding of the urban planners and underground specialistsneeds.

Urban planners may not like setting up such an initial meeting, as there is an initial upfrontcost of time and money, but actually it does help focus on what is happening in thesubsurface and how it could affect their project and thus save money down the line. Forexample, a housing project took place in the north of Rotterdam where semi-detachedhouses were built in the NE sector, with high rise buildings and underground garagesplanned for the SW. During construction, a lot of problems were encountered because ofunexpected water pressure in soil layers. This led to delays and extra costs, with extra sheetpiling requiring construction. Later in the process, the urban planners looked at subsurfacemaps and found that groundwater pressure was much higher in the SW part of the site thanthe NE part. This information was available at the start of the project to the urban planners,

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but they didnt understand it. If they had, then the locations of the flats and the houses couldhave been switched, thus saving money.

Currently, U-Scan is in 2D (data provided in maps and plans), and now a 3D version is indevelopment. At the start of the project it would be useful for urban planners to have asimple Lego block 3D model to highlight where certain elements of the subsurface aresituated.

One of the key stumbling blocks between urban planners and the subsurface is that theyhave no ambition for it, no imagination of what it looks like because they are not awareofit. Therefore, Mr. van Campenhout emphasized that education of the subsurface needs tostart early, even at primary school level, as the imagination is the basis for formulatingambitions. As such, Mr. van Campenhout talked the delegates through a 3D game based onunderstanding the subsurface, which has been developed for Rotterdam : the 3D seriousgame of the subsurface. The game can be accessed through an online web portal. In thisgame, the aim is to create a sustainable city by making optimal use of the subsurface. Thegame shows archaeology, tree roots, ground water pollution, and every player has a limitedbudget of how to address that and how one factor interacts with another to effectivelymanage the subsurface. Rotterdam has also introduced an underground city walk to help

people visualize the subsurfaceit is a simple tool but very effective. Once a month, in asold out tour, people are guided through the city and talked through the relationship betweencity development and the role of the subsurface. They are shown major engineeringinterventions and introduced to how city engineers acquire data and manage it, visualise it,and handle data in 3D models.

0940 Helen Bonsor, Hydrogeologist, BGS

ASK Knowledge Exchange Network for Glasgow and Beyond

In order to develop an understanding of the subsurface, and develop 3D models andimprove planning processing, good quality systematic models are required at city scale.

However, there are few legislative drivers for this in cities, and new mechanisms need to befound for capturing and acquiring good quality systematic datasets. In all cities, there is aneed to reduce uncertainty of subsurface conditions, as they are key considerations in costand planning processes. In the UK, including Glasgow, there are few legislative drivers forreporting shallow subsurface data to the BGSoften, such data is recorded in PDF formatwhich is difficult to extract data from, and therefore monitoring such data becomes largelyuseless. BGS found recently that only 18% of data from recent major infrastructure projectscan be used with a high degree of confidence: there is therefore a need to maximize pastinvestment in data.

Disconnections in data reporting exist due to limited data access and subsurface knowledge,largely because data is provided in an inconsistent format. Therefore, newly acquired data is

not routinely fed into 3D models, resulting in a limited revision of 3D models. As such,decisions are based on site specific data and not in the context of a wider understanding ofthe subsurface in the city. In Glasgow, the ASK network and GSPEC portal are trying toimprove knowledge exchange. BGS and Glasgow City Council (GCC) have been developingthis over the past two years to foster a virtuous cycle of data exchange and up to date highquality models. There has been a large uptake and positive response of this initiativebetween all sectors, as well as with the local government. The key component of ASK is tomove to a more efficient means of capturing raw data, by storing it within a centralizedrepository so that data can be re-accessed and re-used easily. As such, decisions can bebased on a wider information database. BGS and GCC have developed a standardizedmeans of reported dataGSPEC (Glasgow SPEcification for data Capture), and requires allusers to save data in an AGS format. The data is deposited as raw digital data (to industry

standards) in AGS forms (.txt files) to local authorities.

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GCC and Grontmij have officially adopted this system, and have made it mandatory that alltheir procured ground investigation data will follow the GSPEC format as part of the contract.BGS have also collaborated with the Scottish Government to make it mandatory for thoseplanning applications involving subsurface data to include raw digital data as a condition ofsubmission. The GSPEC portal is held by the BGS, where data can be uploaded via a webportal. The GSPEC portal has an online validation system, which checks for compliancy. Ifdata is not compliant, GCC asks the contractor to resubmit the data in a valid format.

Accepted files are stored by BGS, and can be accessed by members of the ASK networkand allow BGS to build 3D models.

Knowledge exchange gained under the EU COST program, through visits to Hamburg andDenmark, showed that use of centralized data repository and using data from both publicand private sectors is consistent with European best practice. Therefore, the future impact ofGSPEC has significant potential. It currently has support from national government, and apotential national roll out once the procedure for Glasgow is refined and improved.European partners want to use ASK as a benchmark of how data management and capturecan be used in European cities, where like Glasgow, there are cities with a lack of legislativedrivers.

In conclusion, the GSPEC and ASK Network have a high impact in maximizing pastinvestment in data by ensuring high quality systematic datasets and better data sharingtoday. It improves data accessibility, as data can be efficiently transferred and used whereneeded, altogether leading to a better understanding of the subsurface and providingefficient savings.

0955 Dr. Michiel van der Meulen,Chief Geologist, Research Manager Geomodelling,TNO/Geological Survey of the Netherlands

BRO: A Revolution in Dutch Subsurface Data and Information Management

BRO is a law developed to regulate the development of subsurface data in the Netherlands,

and this presentation explains how the law was brought about.

The Netherlands is a flat country: most of its geology is concealed and there is therefore littleindication of deep structures at depth. Therefore, surveying the geology of the Netherlands isa 3D undertaking, requiring drilling, sampling, and measuring, all of which are expensive.The Dutch have a strong tradition in subsurface data management (DINOan establishednational service), and have become accustomed to working with data from third parties. Forexample, under mining law, all data obtained under exploration or production licenses mustbe handed to the geological survey, who will make them publicly available in 3D models.This is to attract smaller exploration and production companies and encourage them to takesmaller fields in the future. It has a maintenance value of 10s of millions of euros, with anasset value of 10s of billions of euros. This data plays a small part in securing 100s of

billions of euros in state revenues.

In the deep subsurface, money is madein the shallow subsurface, costs are avoided.There are different drivers at different levels, arising from the need for 3D spatial planning ina 2D country. 3D spatial planning takes on a layer approach to acknowledge the subsurface,where a layer model distinguishes between three subsurface constituents: occupation(houses), network (infrastructure), then the subsurface. The ministry responsible for thedevelopment of the mining law recommended the geological survey plan in 3D, as to plan in3D, 3D data is required from the subsurface. This is when BRO was conceived lobbyingfor the law began in 2007, with investment beginning in 2010 onwards. By law, anygovernment bodies that carry out ground investigation work are obliged to bring the data toTNO, just as with the mining law. It is also required that government bodies use that datawhenever they make decisions that pertain to the subsurface. This law therefore promotesrecycling of very expensive subsurface data, and 3D models.

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Societal cost-benefit analysis of BRO is undergoingon a national level the cost of the newsystem and what its potential benefits are will be calculated. The law is now in the secondchamber of parliament, and then it will go to the Senate to address legal technicalities. TNOexpect effectuation of the law in 2015 and to implement the system in a modular way. By thetime the law is fully functional, it will have taken close to 20 years to develop.

How do TNO manage such a new system? It will have to be integrated with the government,linked to other databases, and TNOs database will be available directly for users to access.Implementing this change will be achieved by reconsidering and rebuilding all systems andworkflows to allow for data standardization. Data standardization is not easy, as TNO willhave to consult with all stakeholders and users. Dr. van der Meulen said preparing for theBRO law had used 25% of their survey budget.

Reception of the BRO law by users and stake holders has varied considerably.Municipalities were initially against it, as it comes with a hefty administrative burden.Regional authorities have mixed feelingsthey have to invest in the system and finance itthemselves, but they understand the need for it. The private sector is starting to see newopportunities. As legislation proceeded, commitment amongst the users also proceeded.

The first stage will be to transfer the TNO survey database to a new system, as well as thedatabase of the National Soil Survey. Subsurface data to describe the natural state of thesubsurface will be available, and will also include soil and groundwater monitoring networksand anthropogenic influences.

In conclusion, a new law is a sensible idea, but it took a long time to set up. TNO hadfavourable pre-conditions (a large facility was already in place and required a long termvision, typically longer than planning horizons that we see with national policy makers).Parliament considered not passing the law after TNO had already committed millions to it.This legal status is vital, as it shields us against austerity measures and the process alsobrings professionalism to the survey.

1010 Hans deBeer, Vice-chair, COST TU1206; Team Leader, Groundwater and UrbanGeology, Geological Survey of Norway

COST Action TU1206 Sub-Urban: A European Network to Improve Understanding and Useof the Ground Beneath our Cities

In Oslo city centre, there is a lot of suburban development taking place. However, as therockhead is down at depths of 80m below the surface, such developments (like new roads)are being built on the infrastructure layer, which contain pipes, sewage, etc. The subsurfaceis clay and organic rich, representing a problem for road layingif the roads are not built onpiles, they will sink. An InSAR survey over Oslo shows high rates of subsidence in the citycentre, particularly around the central train station. New buildings are stable as they are built

on piles, but older buildings are sinking. New technology is available to identify settlement inthe field that cant be seen on the ground, and it has been found that Oslos subsidence isworse than in Venice. Mr. deBeer explains that Oslo are tackling this issue, and learningways to avoid damage.

In Oslo, there are conflicting demands on the subsurface. Energy wells are drilled for shallowgeothermal heating but there is no application scheme for drillinga contractor can just drilla well, but once it has been drilled, then it must be reported to the geological survey. Thereare also a lot of tunnels planned for Oslo, but as the subsurface there contains a lot ofarchaeology, conflicting demands regarding use of the subsurface arise. Therefore, thegeological survey need to try to look at this in a holistic way to make more use of thesubsurface information in an efficient way, and as such, have joined COST Action TU1206Sub-Urban to tackle this.

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The COST Actions aims are to: provide cities with knowledge and tools to maximizeeconomic, social and environmental benefits of subsurface resources; recognize andmanage conflicting demands on the subsurface; safeguard subsurface ecosystem serviceson which cities depend, and so their sustainability; and address urban geoscience-relatedhazards. The key aspirations of the COST Action program is to transform relationshipsbetween experts who develop urban subsurface knowledge, and those who can benefit mostfrom it (e.g. urban decision makers, practitioners, and the wider research community). Mr.

deBeer presented a figure showing a stair-case in knowledge evolution in the use of 3Dmodels of the subsurface in cities, and said as a collective group, COST help each other upthe stairs, to go from building maps and data, to using them to influence decisions. Themain objectives are to help each other and co-ordinate with world-leading cross disciplinaryresearch on the subsurface, and share techniques and methods and knowledgeall toinform and empower policy and decision makers, and broaden relevance and impact.

COST is composed of four working groups (WG) to tackle this. WG1 will establish a state ofthe art in urban subsurface knowledge (city-partner focus, initial 10 case studies, multi-scalar). WG2 will identify/develop good practice, address gaps and develop a Toolbox ofguidance for key subsurface issues (data availability, monitoring, 3/4D modelling/linkageworkflows, and knowledge delivery). WG3 will trial, refine, and rollout that toolbox, including

training in and beyond Europe for use in policy, planning and practice (City-partner led).Finally, WG4 will be responsible for dissemination and training, and developing virtuouscircles involving practitioners, city-partners, geological survey organisations, and otherresearchers (driven by early stage researchers).

If COST can deliver information on subsurface data and use it in the planning process,investment can be focussed, and time and money saved. Benefits of subsurface knowledgeare being recognised, allowing more free data to become available. COST addressesstakeholders, but they act more like partners, as it is they who drive the actions to tell uswhat they need in development. How has the COST Action developed since April 2013? Ithas grown from 11 countries signed up to 23 in May 2014, and is still growing. It has alsoattracted interest from cities out with Europe, such as Russia and Bangladesh.

COST hope to progress toward their key aspiration of transforming relationships betweenGeological Survey Organisations, researchers and city partners/practitioners. Another keyaspiration is to progress toward a Europe-wide (and selective international) roll out of goodpractice guidance, and develop a critical mass of users trained in developing subsurfaceknowledge, and in its improved understanding and use. In terms of expected outcomes, thescientific impact will be to provide improved modelling practise (e.g. integration ofdeterministic and stochastic modelling), the economic impact will be to improve data andknowledge access, sharing and re-use (e.g. more efficient project planning and delivery) andthe social impacts will be a raised awareness on the sustainable use of the subsurface (e.g.improved stewardship and sustainable use of urban subsurface resources).

In conclusion, COST is implementing a scientific work plan, where four work groups will worktogether to complete a flow chart of different tasks with key milestones along the way.Delivery of the scientific work plan will be produced as reports by the working groups on theCOST Action project website,www.sub-urban.eu.

http://www.sub-urban.eu/http://www.sub-urban.eu/

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Session 2: Urban Subsurface 3D Property Modelling

Chaired by Dr. Diarmad Campbell, BGS

1110 Dr. Jeroen Schokker, Geologist/Geomodeller, TNO/Geological Survey of theNetherlands

National to Urban Scales of Subsurface Modelling in the Netherlands

Model is often a misused word: it means different things to different people. At theGeological Survey of the Netherlands, the word geomodel is used, and supplies predictionsof geometry and properties of the subsurface. The geological survey has stopped producingtraditional geological maps, with geomodels starting to take their place.

The geological survey systematically build and maintain two types of nation-widegeomodels: layer-based models, where the subsurface is represented as tops and bases ofa series of geological units; and voxel models, in which subsurface properties arerepresented by a regular grid of 3D cells. These models will become part of the BRO law.

Layer based models are available nationwide, for the upper 500m of the subsurface. Theyare available as ARCGIS raster layers, and have a resolution of 100x100m, representinggeological units with tops, bases and thicknesses along with the uncertainties associatedwith these and hydrogeological models. A vast proportion of the layer based geomodel iscomposed of marine sediments from the Miocene upward. In total, there are 31 layers in thegeomodel. However, the Holocene deposits are modelled as one unit because it is acomplex unit comprising coastal, marine and glacial deposits. Therefore, when the model iszoomed into, we cannot capture this complexity using just a layer based modellingapproach. However, there is a lot of borehole data available for the upper 30m of theHolocene deposits, and so modelling of this complex subsurface can be taken a step furtherby carrying out voxel modelling.

Voxel modelling covers half of the Netherlands (NL), representing the upper 30m of thesubsurface, with a resolution of 100x100m horizontally and 0.5m vertically. Each voxelcontains geological units and lithological class (sand, clay, peat, etc.). The GeoTOP voxelmodelling workflow begins by interpreting core descriptions in terms of geological andlithostratigraphical units. The model is built on a modular basis, where every module hasaround 50,000 data points within it. Next, 2D interpolation techniques are used to constructsurfaces bounding the tops and bases of geological units. The core description data is thenreturned to in order to simplify lithological distinctions, as the lithology can be enormouslyheterogeneous. Finally, voxel modelling (sequential indicator simulation) is used to predictlithology for each of the voxels within the geological units.

This kind of modelling captures the complexity within the Holocene unit. Dr. Schokkershowed delegates an image of central NL showing fluvial channel belts and their lithologicalinfill, which contained different kinds of sand. Another image showed flood basin depositssurrounding these channels, containing different lithological infills (mostly clay). By runningmultiple simulations, the clay probability of different lithological classes can be determined.

When geomodelling in the urban environment, use of third-party data is required which isoften in different formats. The subsurface changes quickly, and so older data may notnecessarily reflect what is underneath the subsurface any more, particularly so thedistribution and properties of man-made ground. So how do we model artificial ground?

Model resolution does not always fit application in urban areas, as the geological surveysmodelling resolution is not high enough for urban planning requirements. The geologicalsurvey has therefore set up a pilot project to increase the possibilities of applying their 3D

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geomodels in urban areas. The pilot will incorporate additional information to improve modelresolution, and come nearer the average application in urban areas. The survey will focus onimproved mapping and characterization of man-made ground and develop visualisationtechniques to combine 3D geological data with information on the subsurface.

Rotterdams infrastructure has changed significantly since it was founded, and as such,understanding the man-made ground for the purposes of urban planning is vital. During

World War 2, German aerial bombardment (combined with a fire that followed) razed almostthe entire city centre of Rotterdam to the ground. As a result, rubble from WWII has beenused as a foundation for the new city centre, and old infrastructural patterns are still visible inthe subsurface today. The Municipality of Rotterdam recognized the importance of thesubsurface from the early 20th Century, and published books which described all coredescriptions at the time. TNO have made this data digitally available, and as a result, haveimproved model resolution to 25 x 25m horizontally and 0.2m vertically in the subsurface.

Improved characterization of made ground requires a lot of historical information andknowledge. In order to steer interpolation, the geological survey are reconstructing the pre-WWII ground level. As an example, using this level of detail, a combined 3D visualizationincluding geological units, probability on peat lithoclasts and drinking water pipes combined

with lithological-class model has been developed by TNO.

To conclude, when considering modelling the subsurface in the future, it is important to fullyintegrate data in the modelling process, and combine above ground and subsurface data.Thinking needs to be aligned and considered from an object-orientated vs voxelised point ofview. In a broader sense, geomodels need to be built with the users, and we need tocombine our data and knowledge with them.

1130 Dr. Katie Whitbread, Sedimentary Geologist/Geomorphologist, BGS

How to Present a Can of Worms: Capturing the Complexity of Glasgows SuperficialDeposits

BGS are developing 3D models in superficial deposits at a local scale in Glasgow. One ofthe key things with the modelling is to represent the complexity of the geology in Glasgow,which has a complex geological history. It contains a mixture of raised beach, glacial andfluvial deposits, all packaged together in a complex series of strata. It is not a simple layercake sequencebut rather, a can of worms. How can we try to understand and capturethis complexity?

Traditionally, BGS use 2D maps of superficial deposits to understand them, but this does notgive us vital information about their structure, extent and properties at depth. 3D modelsallow their structure to be visualized and distribution to be tracked, and BGS are developingdata into a 3D space to try and apply it in different ways. But how complex do these 3D

models need to be? We need to discuss this as a community in the subsurface world.

In Glasgow, data is available from a whole range of existing boreholes logs from the BGSborehole database. There are over 40,000 logs available in the city limit, but these vary inquality and usefulness, and a lot of them are over 100 years old and use old terminologies.As well as boreholes, BGS also have a good historical 2D map datasets, all of which areavailable to build 3D models. Once data is acquired, BGS use a deterministic modellingapproach, which is geologist-time intensive and involves building cross sections and fencediagrams to interpolate surfaces and make a 3D model. The key element of simplification ishow to package up sediments. But how do you package them?

Dr. Whitbread explained that BGS uses lithostratigraphy to simplify the model by packagingup sediments: this includes the lithology, stratigraphic level of the unit and the depositionalprocess of how that deposit was created. This is a powerful tool for creating packages of

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sediment, as it tells us how they spatially relate to one another. Simplification is also done byscale, where a nested set of models (block models within urban areas) was developed aswell as one which covered the Clyde catchment area.

In the Glasgow urban area, the typical geological sequence is that of older glacial depositsoverlain by glacial till, which in turn is overlain by glaciofluvial, glacial, glaciolacustrine,glaciofluvial and raised marine deposits, as well as artificial ground. These deposits are of

varying thickness throughout the areain more complex areas, there is a buried valley withup to 80 m of superficial deposits. In such areas, 2D maps do not show that level of detailand so 3D models are required for visualisation.

BGS has produced a range of products to help understand ground conditions, includingGeoSure, which is a geohazard map for the UK. For example, running sand is classed as ageohazardif it is dug into, it can flow and destabilize the ground. It follows that if one drillsthrough the subsurface, the running sand changes with depth and therefore the risk changeswith depth. Along the River Clyde is a key regeneration zone however there is a complexglaciofluvial domain there and so BGS are working with city partners and site investigationcompanies to develop high resolution models of such areas.

In conclusion, as a community, we need to focus and manage on how complex the modelsare so that we can develop outputs that are useful and applicable. BGS have a generaloverview of models for the Glasgow area, and are looking at how they can move forward interms of dealing with complexity.

1145 Dr. Alison Monaghan, Geologist, BGS

Big Faults, Little Faults: Multi-scalar Bedrock Modelling in the Clyde Catchment

Geological faults have a range of lengths and displacements within the bedrock geology ofthe Clyde catchment. As such, they pose a complication when it comes to modelling them atdifferent scales, i.e. faulted 3D models constructed within a geological survey should be

consistent between a regional and local scale. Models are not made because of a buildinggoing up on a particular site, but are used for any combination of things and as such requireto be accessed at different scales. Regional models are generalized, and can therefore notinclude all faults mapped within them. However, they do provide an overview to guide localmodels, which include small displacement faults, and in turn their detailed datasets andgeometries are resampled to provide data to the regional scale model. This presentationtalks through workflows BGS have developed to generalise models built for Glasgow, andhow theyvedealt with a range of different fault sizes in different scale maps.

The bedrock geology of Glasgow consists of a Carboniferous basin which has a long legacyof coal mining and ironstone extraction from the Central Coalfield. This mining legacy hasleft a wealth of subsurface data for that area, which aids in the construction of 3D models.

Throughout the Glasgow area, the Coalfield is cut by numerous faults of differentorientations with complicated relationships to one another, and vary in displacement from 1mto 1km plus. In the CUSP project, a total of 794 faults were modelled.

Faults are very important to understand as they play a role in delimiting the extent of thesubsurface strata. For example, when the Pope came to visit Glasgow at Bellahouston Parka few years ago, the public were hosted within one area of the park, and did not go into anadjacent area of the park. This was because beneath this area, shallow coal mines exist(with strata displaced nearer the surface due to faulting) which was not safe for 10,000people to stand on at the one time. In the field in which the public were gathered, faults haddisplaced the coal seam deeper underground, and therefore mine workings did not pose athreat to the safety of the crowd. Another reason faults are important is that theycompartmentalize the bedrock geology into blocks, which is important when considering heatextraction through abandoned coal mines. Faults can also act as conduits and/or barriers to

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flow, and influence how fluid flows in old mines. They also have an influence on rockstrength in terms of engineering, as rocks adjacent to faults tend to be intensely shatteredand fractured.BGS used borehole data and legacy coal mine data to build up the faulted 3D bedrockmodel. Using descriptions and extents of coal mining from mine abandonment plans, alongwith geological maps, the 3D geometry of faults was modelled. BGS used a mixture ofGOCAD modelling softw