PEDAGOGY OF SCIENCE AT THE TERTIARY LEVEL IN NIGERIA:

Paper Presented at the Workshop for all Academic Staff on the Rank of Senior Lecturers and below

Organized By Directorate of Academic Planning, Ahmadu Bello

University Zaria

By

DR. OBEKA SAMUEL SUNDAYAssociate Professor of

Geographical and Environmental Education (Ph.D)Department of Science EducationAhmadu Bello University, Zaria

G.S.M: 08068060120E-mail: obekasam@gmail.com

7THto 8THDECEMBER, 2016

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© Dr. Obeka Samuel Sunday, 2016

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publishers.

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CONTENTIntroduction … … … … … … 1Tertiary Education in Nigeria (HEIs) … … … 5Matriculation Examinations … … … … 11Faculty of Staff in Tertiary Institutions … … … 12Higher Education Institutions (HEIs & Sources of Funding) …. … … … … … 13Utilization of appropriate instructional materials(standard and improvised) … … … … 14Application of appropriate learning theories, and philosophical thoughts as a guide to theoretical framework in research … … … … … 14Insightful Learning Theory by Thorndike … … 17Performance Assessment … … … … 17Table of Specifications … … … … … 19Designing a table of specifications … … … 20Studies in Science at Tertiary Level … … … 21Empirical research … … … … … 22Planning a curriculum unit … … … … 27Planning lessons from a curriculum unit … … 33Six steps for lesson planning … … … … 33Challenges facing Pedagogy at Higher level of Education (Tertiary level) in Nigeria … … … 53Way Forward … … … … … … 54Bibliography … … … … … … 55Index … … … … … … … 69

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IntroductionPedagogy is the profession of teaching, the activities of educating, teaching/instructing and the strategies of instruction. It also the science or profession of teaching. Hence, pedagogy of science involve the activities of educating in Science and technology at the tertiary level. Science is as old as humanity and date back to antiquity. This has to do with the development in tool making, modern technologies and use of raw materials in production.

Too many students perceive Science as an interesting but difficult subject (Johnston, 1991).This view of Science is shown in students overall attitude towards Science and their underachievement in Science subjects among secondary students. The way Science is taught can be the reason for students’ underachievement. If a task is void of stimulating or interesting quality and then it is irrelevant, routine or boring, it may lead to academic disengagement in students (Green-Demers et al 2006).

Knowledge of Science is important because there is Science in everything. An understanding of Science by students allows them to deal with some social and biological issues that may deal with at home or the wider environment. According to Kaysar and Pasquale (2008) a foundation in Science is considered to be critical for the 21st century students since many of our decisions require a understanding of Science. Science teachers hope that their students will be able to relate the knowledge, understanding and skills they have acquired to make meaningful decisions in everyday life situations where they are relevant.

Activity method would provide a guide to students in completing scientific task.

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Figure 1.TheScientific Task

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According to Pouris and Pouris (200), African countries have the minimum number of scientists required for the functioning of a scientific discipline. Further challenges faced by science and technology in achieving sustainable pedagogy at the tertiary level of education include:

Lack of appropriate mechanism and infrastructure for training and exploitation of knowledge. Lack of identified explicit fund for science, technology and innovation capacity building and lack of political will to revitalize tertiary institutions in Nigeria and to support the development of centres of excellence in science engineering and technology. Hence, the problems of education in Nigeria are overwhelmed.

An overview of Federal Government total allocation to education sector according to UNESCO (2009) reveal a glaring state of underfunding in Nigeria over the years. On the average, Nigeria allocated merely 5% of her annual budget to education as against 26% recommended UNESCO for developing countries.

At the tertiary level of education i.e. education beyond primary, secondary and technical colleges, the issue of pedagogy is a crucial tool for effective teaching and learning of science. Pedagogy is the profession of teaching which involve the activities of education, teaching or instruction, therefore require systematic and empirical approach. For meaningful tertiary education in Nigeria through teaching researchseminar, trumal articles and conferencing where activities of educating/teaching (pedagogy) are to be classified under the following sub-heading:

- Utilization of empirical or scientific methods of instruction explicit lesson and unit plan that is unambiguous.

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- Researchers and seminar in science must be based on empirical data and must be methodologically scientific.

- Scientific maps, charts and diagram based - Utilization of practicum instructional materials:

Standard: audio , audiovisual and visual Improvised

- Application of appropriate theories and philosophical thoughts and theoretical framework in science.

- Performance test and validation of instrument validation of instrument must be guided by a well-structured table of specification.Note that pedagogy or activities of educating at tertiary level involve:

Teaching: teachers at all (levels are involved) Learning at all levels are involved. Research: teachers and students at tertiary levels

are involved.

A trimodel pedagogical approachUtilization of scientific methods of instructions. Method of instruction must be scientific beyond pure traditional lecture to enrichment of lecture method with other scientific means of instruction such as field trip, concept map, concept cartoon, simulation and games, demonstration, experimental computer animation, science technology society (STIS) computer Assisted instruction (C.A.I), and other developed or adapted models, mock ups, practicum and packages other scientifically enriched packages relevant science disciplines such as geography, physics, chemistry, biology, integrated science, computer science, mathematics, engineering and medicine just to mention but a few areas.

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Tertiary Education in Nigeria (HEIs)The Nigerian HEIs comprise at present 122 universities (36 Federal, 36 State, 50 Private), 71 polytechnics, 47 monotechnics and 79 colleges of education with geographical distribution as shown in Fig. 1. The uneven spread of these institutions over the country is obvious with the southern part of the country having the highest concentration of these institutions. The uneven distribution of the federal universities probably informed the establishment in one fell swoop of 9 universities by the Federal government in 2011 towards ensuring a federal university in each of the 36 states in the federation.

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Figure 2: Geographical Distribution of HEIs in Nigeria

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Figure 3: The Management Structure of the HEIs

The relative allocations to the universities, polytechnics and the COEs for the period 2006-2008. The total allocation of N392.9 billion during the period was shared as follows: 68.1% to universities; 18.9% to polytechnics; and 13.0% to COEs. Analysis of the various allocations to universities showed that, on the average, allocations to Personnel Cost accounted for 84.7% of the total allocation, Goods and Non-personnel Services 4.6%, and Capital Projects 10.7%.

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Table 1 Federal Government Allocation (Naira) to Federal HEIs (2006-2008) Institution

Year Year

Personnel Personnel Cost

Goods & Non-Personnel Services

Capital Projects

Total Allocation

Universities

2006 69,952,108,028 3,175,567,183 6,412,015,000 79,539,690,211 2007 70,600,358,870 5,584,703,445 8,285,015,000 84,470,077,315 2008 86,078,825,055 3,551,429,669 13,958,579,185 103,588,833,909

Polytechnics

2006 18,990,972,823 1,715,916,763 2,164,746,264 22,871,635,850 2007 19,443,972,823 1,895,916,763 2,424,746,264 23,764,635,850 2008 22,024,993,058 2,149,712,599 3,578,057,860 27,752,763,517

Colleges of Education

2006 10,911,206,151 1,067,435,864 3,063,175,000 15,041,817,015 2007 11,401,898,534 1,207,989,217 4,991,020,000 17,600,907,751 2008 14,088,802,102 1,279,807,659 2,883,329,309 18,251,939,070

Total

2006 99,854,287,002 5,958,919,810 11,639,936,264 117,453,143,076 2007 101,446,230,227 8,688,609,425 15,700,781,264 125,835,620,916 2008 122,192,620,215 6,980,949,927 20,419,966,354 149,593,536,496

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Table 2: Federal Government Allocation to HEIs in the 2012 BudgetINSTITUTION (Number) ALLOCATION (N' million)

Personnel Cost

Overhead Cost

Total Recurrent

Capital Total Allocation

% of Total

Colleges of Education (21)

36,092.9 1,942.6 38,035.5 4,555.1 42,590.6 13.8

Polytechnics (21) 54,399.5 3,268.4 57,667.9 3,300.0 60,967.9 19.8 Universities (36) 184,292.0 6,090.9 190,382.9 13,815.7 204,198.6 66.4 TOTAL 274,784.4 11,301.9 286,086.4 21,670.8 307,757.1 100.0

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Generally, TETFUND’s normal interventions in the tertiary institutions are in the following areas:

Construction and Rehabilitation of buildings and laboratories

Procurement of teaching and research equipment Academic staff training Research and book development Capacity building and teacher training programme Provision of ICT infrastructure Development of facilities that sustain institutions such

as boreholes, electric power generators, etc.

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HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS (HEIS)

Fig 4: Higher Education Institutions (HELS) Student’s Preferences-

Matriculation ExaminationsUniversities Matriculation Examinations (UME)Table 3: Monotechnics, Polytechnics & Colleges of Education (MPCE)Years UME MPCE Total2007 911,679 167,836 1,079,5152008 1,192,050 310,022 1,502.0722009 1,184,651 342,908 1,527,5592010 1,330,531 45,140 1,375,671

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104 = (P44, S44, F26)

*Universities- Degrees & Diplomas

85= (P21, S43, F21) * Colleges of Education - Teachers’ Certificates (Subject + Pedagogy)

121- (P64, S36, F21 Mono & Polytechnics - Diploma in Technical

Disciplines

* Don’t include Programs located

outside HEIs

65 Innovative Enterprise Institutions

Award Professional Certificates

(365) HEIs

Table 4: Higher Education/Institutions (HEIs) – Summary of Students EnrolmentInstitutions 2005/2005

Male Female Mf

Universities 494822 285179 780001Mono/polytechnics 198455 143979 332434Colleges of Education 150093 201162 351255Grand Total 1,463690

Table 5: Faculty Staff in Tertiary InstitutionsS/No. System Academic No. Required Shortfall1. Colleges of

Education11,256 26,114 14,858

(56.9%)2. National

Teachers Institute

6,526 7,000 474 (06.8%)

3. Poly/Monotechnics

12,938 30,016 17,078 (56.9%)

4. Universities 30,452 50,000 19,548 (39.1%)

5. NOUN 5,220 15,000 9,780 (65.2%)

Source: N.U.C system wide staff Audit (2007)

Faculty of Staff in Tertiary Institutions- There are academic staff shortages across board

particularly in the critical areas of science & technology;

- Over 60% of the academic staff in the Nigerian University System is in the category of lecturer 1 and below;

- These shortages are compounded by inter – and intra-sectoral brain drain;

- These have implications on the quality of teaching and learning

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Higher Education Institutions (HEIs & Sources of FundingPublic HEIs have the following sources of funding:

First level: Appropriation from government, regular & special intervention – Education Trust Fund, NDDC, PTDF, IDAs,Second level: Internally generated revenue (fees, other sundry charges. (largely under – reported).

Challenges:Data – National Issues & Challenges

- No data- Obsolete Data- Missing Data- Politicized Data- Weak data collection/collation - Systemic failure – capacities- Weak data management- Poor deployment of ICT

Higher Education Statistics – National Experience- Regulatory Agencies determine parameters &

coordinate. HEIs submit responses form part of a whole. Feds have high response rates.

- General data – parameters good 7 reliable but need indepth expansion.

- Finance – Correctness difficult to ascertain - Data timeliness – unstable academic calendar.- Data production; different compliance rates- Storage & Use of ICT – Weak- Systemic capacities – high turnover of personnel - Funding – competing demands.

Third level: Donations, Endowments, etc. (not much due to economic down turn)The total receipts from the Federal Government Appropriation (1999 – 2009) for Federal Universities was

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N651,777,180,338.33 while regular intervention from ETF was N103,137,788,678.12. (special intervention from ETF 7 OTHER Agencies Niger Delta Development Corp, Petroleum Development Trust Fund, IDAs not included)

Utilization of appropriate instructional materials (standard and improvised)A science scholar must be seasoned with adequate knowledge standard and improvised instructional materials or teaching to theoretical framework aids as a panacea to motivate the learners toward meaningful and practical scientific knowledge.Standard instructional materials here imply teaching aids that are universally accepted through appropriate legislations/registration such as ISBN, ISSN, NAFDAC No., amongst others, text-books, audio-materials, audio-visual materials and visual materials could serve as useful standard instructional materials.

On the other hand, improvised materials are locally constructed or adapted materials to serve the emergency need or exigencies of a lesson. Improvised instructional materials could be solid, liquid, and/or gases is slated for experimental purposes. Stones, soil types, water, improvised gas cylinder just to mention but a few.

Application of appropriate learning theories, and philosophical thoughts as a guide to theoretical framework in researchAn indebt knowledge of theories of learning and theoretical framework is quite cogent as panacea for meaningful pedagogy of science at the tertiary level.

The following learning theories could serve as a useful guide in theoretical framework in empirical research:

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Gagne’s Learning Theory:Robert Gagne was an American educational psychologist best known for his conditioning of learning, he was involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer based training and multi-media based learning.

Gagne also published conditions of learning which outlined the relation of learning objectives to appropriate instructional designs.

Gagne’s taxonomy of learning states that there are five major categories of learning outcomes namely: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. These five sub-categories of intellectual skills are hierarchical in nature (low-level skills to high level skills). Gagne’s hierarchy of intellectual skills follows: programmed instruction since the skills must be learned before another can be mastered.

In his view, effective instruction must be reach beyond traditional learning theories (behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism) and provide support to transition from simple to complex skills thus using an hierarchical model for learning.

- Plaget theory of cognitive development.- He postulated that heredity and environmental plays an

important role in cognitive development.- Sensory-motor stage (0-2 years)- Pre-operational stages (2-7 years)- Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)- Pre-maturation stage (15-18years)- Maturation stage (18years and above)

Ausubel’s learning theory: theory of advance organizer work meaningful reception theory concerned with how study learn

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large meaningful material from verbal/textual presentation in school setting.Learning based on supercordinate, representational and combinational subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure, in his theory of advance organizers, Ansubel believe that children have natural tendency to organize information into a meaningful whole. First learn general concepts and more toward specific principle and from known to unknown.

Bruner’s Learning Theory:To Jerome Bruner, for learning by discovery to be possible, the learner must have cognitive dissornance or conflict. For example, salt which appear while when dissolve in water manifest different colours.

Hence he concluded that a discovery activity is a lesson designed in such a way that a child/student through his own mental process like observation, measuring, classifying, inferring, hypotheses lead to problem solving/discovery activity and development of creativity/creative thinking.Bandura’s theory of learning: social learning theory, he postulate that the learner is a member of social group, peer group influence as relevant influence in education:

Learning occur in social interaction. Learning behavior of one influence the other.

Sign Learning theory by Tolman Edward, Tolman on purposive behaviourism.Purposive behavior of animal and men-sign gestal theory (expectancy theory) is an emphasize stimuli rather than stimulus response (SR) by Thorndike.

According to him, a stimulus (sign) become associated with already meaningful stimuli (significance).

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To him, no need for re-enforcement in order to establish learning. Although is work is intended for human, to Tolman made use of rats with maize in most of his research. He is noted in his insightful learning widely published in experimental articles of research.

Insightful Learning Theory by Thorndike Insightful learning is hinged on the fact that animal undergo a series of problem solving task following a sequence of principles or logic and previous experiences before arriving at a solution:

Insightful learning theory adopt the following strategies:- Identify the problem- Define the problem- Formulate the hypotheses- Come out with solutions to existing problems. - Selection and implement the variable solution - Evaluate/appraise the selected solution or revisit the

problem.

Academic Performance or Achievement Test in Science: Validation of instruments must be based on well-structured table of specification (or) test blue print.

Performance Assessment An essential component of formative assessment is that it provides meaningful elaborated feedback, modifying instruction to meet the student where they are at in terms of understanding or indicate to the teacher where further instruction is need (Wiliam, D. (2007).

Assessment has much purpose but it is generally used for reporting, selection and promotion, classroom teaching and

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learning and programme evaluation (Black, 1993; Chiappetta et al., 2002; Popham, 2005). Performance Assessments is type of valuation which wants pupils to vigorously achieve multifaceted and important tasks, while transporting to tolerate previous wisdom, recent education and applicable services to resolve truthful difficulties. It determines what students can do with what they know (Barron and Darling Hammond, 2008).

The purpose of assessment has charged or is changing to allow students to demonstrate content as well procedural knowledge of a range of tasks; assess a wider range of learning out comes’ assimilate valuation with the programme and evaluate in more trustworthy framework ( Bell and Cowie, 2001; Popham, 2005). Assessment needs to be supple in order to encounter the wants of the individual learner (Taber, 2003) and 20 include a variety of tasks aimed to bringing about understanding, conceptual change and interest (Shavelson, 2003).

Education reforms researchers in assessment (Hakela, (1998bb) and Horrwell, Brocrato, Pattersonr, and Bridges (1999) recognize presentation valuation as tool which would improve students higher order thinking skills to solve problems and offer students meaningful way to acquire knowledge (Akereson et al., 2002; Gusy & Wilscox, 2000; Shavselson, Rsuiz-Prsimo, & Wiley, 1999).

Performance-based assessment happens over s select period and this give students the opportunity realize the uppermost equal of knowledge (Baker, 1996). Unlike traditional testing procedures, the authenticity of performance assessment makes the task valuable to the students and interesting as is based in real life situation (Jorgensen, 1994). These features makes performance assessment engaging experience to student (Kulieke et al., 1990).

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Performance assessment is therefore an appropriate strategy for assessing students’ concepts and skills in science, and it prepares students for a productive future within a technologically complex world (Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002; Atkin, Black, & Coffey, 2001). In addition, Atkin, Black, and Coffey (2001) claim that the current Science reform have moved to students to actively involved in science rather than reactive reading or listening.

Baxter and Glaser (1996) found that performance based assessment not only supports the development of 21 thinking and reasoning in the classroom, but also provides teachers with feedback that can be used to improve the classroom environment. Similarly, Biondi (2001) found that performance-based assessment is a valid, equitable measurement of student progress.

Many educationalists however propose that performance-based assessment should be considered not merely as a process for assessing students’ understanding, but also as a learning process; one that teaches students concepts and requires them to explain and communicate their interpretations of the information, and their methodology for solving problems (Morrison, McDuffie, & Akerson, 2002).

Table of SpecificationsWhat is a table of specifications?A table of specifications is a two-way chart which describes the topics to be covered by a test and the number of items or points which will be associated with each topic. Sometimes the types of items are described, as well. A simple table might look like this:

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Table 6: Table of specificationObjective content

Weight Knowledge Comprehension Application Total

% 40% 40% 20% 100%

Erosion 10 2 2 1 5Pollution 10 2 2 1 5Deforestation

20 4 4 2 10

Waste disposal

30 6 6 3 15

Land degradation

30 6 6 3 15

Total 100 20 20 10 50

The weighing was assigned to each content primarily based on the area of coverage, workload and time involved.

The purpose of table of specifications is to identify the achievement domains being measured and to ensure that a fair and representative sample of questions appear on the test. Teachers cannot measure every topic or objective and cannot ask every question they might wish to ask. A table of specifications allows the teacher to construct a test which focuses on the key areas and weights those different areas based on their importance. A table of specifications provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content validity, that it covers what should be covered.

Designing a table of specificationsTables of specification typically are designed based on the list of course objectives, the topics covered in class, the amount of time spent on those topics, and the emphasis and space provided in the test. In some cases a great weight will be assigned to a concept that is extremely important, even if

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relatively little class time was spent on the topic. Three steps are involved in creating a table of specifications;

1. Choosing the measurement goals and domain to be covered,

2. Breaking the domain into key or fairly independent parts, concepts, terms, procedures, applications, and

3. Constructing the table. Teachers have already made decisions (or the district has decided for them) about the broad areas that should be taught, so the choice of what broad domains a test should cover has usually already been made. Most teachers have already had to design teaching plans, strategies, and schedules based on an outline of content. Lists of classroom objectives, district curriculum guidelines, and textbook sections, and keywords are other commonly used sources for identifying categories for tables of specification. When actually constructing the table, teachers may only wish to use a simple structure, as above, or they may be interested in greater detail about the types of items, the cognitive levels for items, the best mix of objectively scored items, open-ended and constructed response items, and so on, with even more guidance than is provided.

- Studies in Science at Tertiary LevelMethodological and empirical Education at Tertiary level follow three main approaches: Cognitive, affective and psychomotor and affective

approachCognitive knowledge is based on content knowledge of the curriculum which is usually assessed with the aid of performance test or achievement. A table of specification or test blue print is usually used as a guide. Affective domain on the other hand measure the attitude, interest,

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feelings and emotion of a student. This is usually measured with the aid of a questionnaire or rating scale. Psychomotor domain measures skills acquisition at all levels of education with the aid of a skills acquisition inventory.

- Empirical researchBeyond the classroom approach is field work or research at the tertiary level of education.Scientific research must be empirical, methodological and systematic following laid down procedure as follows: A five (5) chapter based approach include:

Chapter One: Introduction- Background information/history- Statement of the problem of study - Theoretical framework- Objectives- Research questions- Hypotheses- Significance- Research assumptions- Scope of the study

Chapter Two: Review of related Literatures:This must be comprehensive to cover all the variables set in the topic of the research. In addition, empirical review and implication of the study must also be clearly stated at the end of the related review.

Chapter Three: Methodology:- Research design- Population of the study- Sample and sampling techniques - Instrument for data collection

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- Validation of the instrument - Pilot test- Reliability of the instrument - Facility index - Discrimination index- Treatment procedure - Method of data analysis

Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Presentation of ResultsResults (Data) presented must be based on the stated research questions and hypotheses.

This section usually end with summary of findings and discussion of results which must agree with or disagree with other stated findings.

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations:

- Summary - Conclusion - Limitations of the Study- Contribution to Knowledge - Recommendations

- Journals, Seminar, Workshop and Conferences Approach:

Journal, Seminar, workshop and conference papers defer from a comprehensive research. These do not follow chapter arrangement but some laid down sub-headings universally acceptable. These includes:

Introduction:- Background history/information- Related Literatures - Statement of the study- Research questions

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- Hypotheses testing These sub-headings are subsumed under paragraph arrangement of the author.

Methodology: - Design- Population - Sample and sampling technique- Instrument for data collection- Validation of instrument- Reliability of the instrument- Method of data analyses/statistics used.

The result or presentation of results Presentation of result usually take the form of tabular data analyses based on two or three questions and (or) hypotheses. The summary of findings and discussion of results must be brief.

Summary/conclusion and recommendations- Summary of findings - Conclusion - recommendations

These subheadings are also subsumed under a paragraph arrangement of the author, except references.

- Conferences, workshop, seminar and journal papers

Unit and Lesson Plan in Science- Methodological with diagrams, pictures, maps and charts.

IntroductionAll sources of advice on planning and teaching a curriculum unit or a lesson stress the importance of careful and detailed planning. Unfortunately, the components of ‘careful and

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detailed preparation’ are rarely made explicit. However, they do exist, and generally can be found in the intuitive knowledge of classroom operations understood by most teachers. The list that follows is an attempt to outline the more important of them. It originated in a brainstorming session conducted with a group of geography teachers. They suggested that the list could be seen as a set of preliminary safeguards for successful curriculum unit and lesson planning. There are twenty points in the list.

- Know why you are teaching and, especially, why you are teaching geography.

- Know what geography is, yourself, and that your students understand the key questions that characterize geographic inquiry. These include:

- What are the phenomena and patterns being studied? Where are they located and how are they distributed?

- What has caused these locations and distribution patterns?

- What consequences do they bring for the environment and for people?

- How could they be altered or managed in order to make the world a better place in which to live?

- Structure your curriculum units around such key questions, and try to direct each lesson to finding an answer to at least one key question.

- Do not confuse the different levels of objectives possible in unit and lesson planning. Keep the general objectives that form lit- rationale of a course and unit separate from the more specific objectives of individual lessons.

- Know the syllabus or your school developed curriculum plan will, Especially be familiar with the flexibility it allows in selecting content sequences, case studies and learning experiences. This will enable you to better meet

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the needs and interests of your students and your available resources.

- Be familiar with the broad outline of the content of the topics for which you are planning curriculum units and the resources in your school pertaining to it.

- St-In topics and learning experiences that students will enjoy and see sense in doing.

- Organize learning experiences and resources to promote the attainment of concepts and generalizations and not just factual recall.

- Emphasize the importance of thinking, problem solving and decision making in the learning experiences planned for student.

- Know the difference (if any) between your usual teaching methods and those that students find most enjoyable and motivating.

- Know the difference (if any) between your usual teaching methods and those that promote inquiry skills, creativity and self-reflection.

- Plan for the different ability levels and rates of work (they are not the same) of all students in a class. This involves a consideration of many things, especially the grouping of students, the setting of goals for individuals and groups, the preparation of work sheets, and the selection of resources.

- Keep students mentally active. Try not to confuse ‘busy work’ such as colouring in, protracted poster design and model making with mental activity.

- The concentration span of many students is low. Vary learning activities both in and between the lessons that make up a curriculum unit. Try not to let too many activities last more than ten to fifteen minutes, especially for students up to at least 15 years.

- Be flexible in the sequencing and presentation of the activities prepared. Be aware of the problems that can arise to interrupt a lesson and be prepared to deal with them.

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- Make sure the introduction to a curriculum unit is stimulating and that it provides an overview of the topic and of the work involved. Consider individual learning contracts with students at this stage.

- Make sure that the conclusion of a curriculum unit reviews and cements the major concepts and generalizations involved in the unit.

- Match student assessment items to the goals of the unit of work. For example, do not emphasize knowledge, recall and comprehension in a testing program if most of a unit has been aimed at promoting inquiry skills and problem solving.

- Evaluate your own actions constantly, and encourage this practice in students.

- Evaluate all elements of the teaching of a curriculum unit- objectives, content, activities, resources, etc. Generally, this would involve reviewing most of the items in this list.

This list of preliminary safeguards to successful curriculum unit and lesson planning is not a complete one. Please add to it as your classroom experiences suggest additional points. It is not a list to be learnt by heart, but one to be used and internalized in the process of preparing work for students and presenting it to them. These points provide most of the theory behind the practical steps suggested in the strategy for unit and lesson planning which follows.

Planning a curriculum unitAn early piece of advice generally given on unit and lesson planning is to study the requirements of the syllabus on the unit topic concerned, and to write a set of objectives for teaching it, ensuring there is a blend of knowledge, skill and attitudinal objectives. This advice is especially suited to planning a curriculum unit according to the objectives model of curriculum development. It ensures that most of the right information for most of the right objectives is included in the

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unit. However, such objectives do not provide advice on actually teaching the topic or any guarantee that students will be motivated to study it. Indeed, we could ask whether such objectives are objectives for the unit, objectives for students, or objectives for teachers in teaching the unit. This ambiguity of intent in stating objectives as the first stage in unit planning leads me to suggest the following three points as a prelude to a first step in unit and lesson planning.

- Forget about objectives just now. Allow them to ‘emerge’ (and they will) as the unit structure, individual lessons and student needs are considered.

- Study the syllabus or your school-developed curriculum plan to determine the requirements of the topic in question, and the flexibility allowed in planning a unit for it.

- Do not go to textbooks to see what they have on the topic at this early stage. The textbook author has answered the important curriculum questions of why, what and how to teach the topic, without reference to the local environment in which you are teaching, the individual needs of your students or the specific relevance of the topic to them. Rather, as a first step, ask yourself the question, ‘what about it?’ in relation to the topic to be taught.

Eight steps for unit planningSTEP 1:Ask yourself the question, ‘What about it?’ Make a list of your own reasons for selecting and teaching this particular topic. This should do two things for you. First, it should allow you to identify the purposes in teaching the topic in terms of the environmental, multicultural, political or other values issues involved in the topic that have relevance for your students and their ways of perceiving the world. Secondly, it should identify the particular aspects of the topic that are worth pursuing. This will help both teachers and students to differentiate between important generalizations and issues, and

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background information. Step 2 helps in this process of identifying the key issues.

STEP 2:Structure the topic according to the key questions of geography. One concept-orientated set of these were identified in Preliminary Safeguard 2. These questions could be summarized as:

- WHAT and WHERE are the phenomena and patterns being studied?

- WHY are they there?- SO WHAT? or What are the consequences of this?- WHAT COULD be done to improve the situation?

Use these key questions to develop a series of inquiry questions to use as the structure of the curriculum unit. Examples of such questions for a unit on the topic of ‘Refugees’ (Ritchie, 1981), for example, might include:

- WHAT and WHERE? What is a refugee?Where do refugees come from?Where do they want to go?

- WHY? Why are there refugees? - What are the characteristics of the source areas and desired

destinations of refugees?- SO WHAT? What problems face refugees in their journeys

and in their new homes?- WHAT COULD How ought Australians (or Canadians,

etc.) respond to refugees? What can be done to minimize their problems?

STEP 3: Identify the ideas to be understood in order to answer these questions. These ideas need not be detailed statements of content. Rather, they should be expressed as the overall

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generalizations or principles you think students should understand as a result of studying the unit. Examples of generalizations that could follow from the ‘Refugee’ unit include:

- A refugee is a person who has fled his/her country as a result of fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality or political opinion; or who has been displaced by war or a natural disaster.

- The 20th century has experienced an escalation in the number and geographic distribution of refugees.

- Most refugees today are coming from politically unstable, developing countries in Africa and Indo-China.

- Refugees from these developing countries face serious problems in finding countries to accept them and rebuilding their lives.

- A high degree of international co-operation is needed to re-settle today’s large number of refugees.

- The regional proximity of Australia to the Indo-Chinese refugee problem and its involvement in the Vietnam War makes our response to the needs of Indo-Chinese refugees particularly important (Ritchie, 1981).

STEP 4:Prepare objectives for the curriculum unit. Do this by:- using the generalizations developed in Step 3 as the

knowledge objectives for the unit; and- selecting skill and affective objectives appropriate to

students and the unit from the affective objectives and the skill development program found in the syllabus or your school developed curriculum plan.

STEP 5:Identify appropriate case studies, resources, exercises and teaching strategies that could be used to help students develop the generalizations, skills and values in the unit. This may involve checking syllabus guidelines and reading lists, investigating resources held in the school, talking with other

30

teachers to see how they have taught the topic previously and the resources and exercises they found useful and reviewing commercially available resources. Make a selection of practical activities and case studies appropriate to the special emphases of your course and the learning rates and interests of your students.

Table 7: Integration of key questions, resources and exercises for a curriculum unit on ‘Transport in Nepal’

STEP 6: Develop the resources and learning experiences that are to be used. This is a ‘hard work’ phase in the unit planning process. Many factors ranging from selecting case studies to fit in with a global coverage course planning matrix, to vetting the readability of resources and planning remedial and enrichment

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schemes need to be considered at this point. The selected resources and exercises should then be organized into an order that matches the sequence of inquiry questions developed in Step 2. A curriculum unit on ‘Transport in Nepal’, for example, might have the pattern of key questions, resources and exercises

STEP 7:Prepare the resources and exercises for presentation to students. Set these out on separate sheets of paper. The Student Exercise Sheets should contain all the instructions for students and be based upon the data presented or referenced in the matching Resources Sheets. Separate sheets of exercises should be prepared for each subsection of the unit and for different levels of student ability. This maximizes the flexibility of both teacher and student use of the Student Exercises. Resource Sheets should be prepared for each subsection of the unit also. The resources selected should be as interesting and as motivational as possible for they provide the stimulus and data for student inquiry. Utilize a wide range of resources, including textual material, graphs, tables, diagrams, cartoons, newspaper cuttings. etc. Reference additional available resources such as relevant sections of textbooks and audio-visual materials on the Resource Sheets. I have found it useful to institute and maintain a coloured paper scheme for Student Exercise Sheets and Resource Sheets so that students always see, for example, white sheets as resources to be utilized and yellow sheets as exercises to be completed.

STEP 8: Prepare an assessment program for the unit. Remember to focus such a program upon the generalizations in the unit rather than factual recall, the processes of inquiry used in the unit, and the application of the generalizations and inquiry processes to new situations.

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Planning lessons from a curriculum unitThe aim at this stage of unit and lesson planning is the preparation of a set of Teacher’s Notes to accompany the Student Exercise Sheets and Resource Sheets. Only then will the unit be complete and ready for classroom implementation. School based curriculum development, group preparation of curriculum units, and the sharing of units in and between schools necessitate that Teacher’s Notes now be prepared in as much detail as possible. They should therefore include at least the following:

- A unit introduction.- A unit overview based upon the inquiry question structure

of the unit developed in Step 2. S The division of the unit into lessons and detailed notes for teaching each lesson.

Preparing the unit introduction and overview is a relatively easy task as, essentially, they are a summary of the unit and the work you have done on it.

Six steps for lesson planningDividing the unit into lessons and writing lesson notes for each one is a detailed task involving at least six steps.

STEP 1:Divide the unit into the required number of lessons. Remember to take account of the many school activities that reduce the time theoretically available for teaching a unit. Thus, a six week unit for a class that has geography three times a week is not an eighteen period unit. For example, an athletics carnival and a biology field trip for some students during the period of the unit coupled with the time needed for assessment, could effectively reduce the number of lessons available for teaching the unit to fourteen or less.

STEP 2:Allow for the realities of school and classroom life. This step involves a consideration of the many problems that

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could arise during the unit and interrupt student learning. There is a need to consider at least the following questions in this early stage of lesson planning:

- Where have students been, and what activities have they been doing, before the lesson? Will any arrive late to class? Why?

- Do you expect students to be boisterous or calm, eager to work or intellectually drained when they arrive?

- What sort of lesson introduction will match their mood?- What facilities are available for reproducing the Resource

and Student Exercise Sheets necessary for the lesson?- Will there be sufficient textbooks and other commercially

prepared resources?

Example: An overview of a curriculum unit on an Endangered Species (Kangaroo) Kangaroos: an endangered species or an underdeveloped resource?

Introduction

The kangaroos controversy is one which is extremely important in Australia. There are many sides to the kangaroos issue. Some have identified the sides in this way:

(i) Pouch — the preservation of the kangaroo in its natural state without any extermination of the kangaroo.

(ii) Purse — the other extreme to pouch, that is the destruction of the kangaroo for any profit that may be gained and with no thought to the future of the kangaroo.

(iii) Production — somewhere between pouch and purse, in that it is concerned with the harvesting of the

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kangaroo but in which the future of the kangaroo is assured.

To summarize these arguments the title ‘an endangered species or an underdeveloped resource’ was chosen. Indeed this is how the kangaroo controversy is being polarized, as these are really the only two arguments one finds in the media.

This unit is designed to serve two purposes:a) To assist students to clarify their values and make

informal decisions about a controversial man-environment issue.

b) To serve as a model with which students may conduct their own inquiry in a similar area. The unit has four parts:

1 A brief study of the nature of endangered species and resources.

2 A study of the ecology of kangaroos — the types of kangaroos, their location, ecological needs, responses to environmental changes,etc.

3 A study of the kangaroo controversy. What are the various suggested ways of using the kangaroos? Decision making is also involved when the student is asked to choose an appropriate management method.

4 A study of the public image of the kangaroo. Decision making is involved here as students are asked to commit themselves regarding aspects of the public image. As a final activity, the students are asked to determine their stance on the controversy

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Key Questions Resource Sheet Nos.

ExerciseSheet Nos.

Notes forLesson

Nos.WHAT and WHERE?

WHY?What is an endangered

species?What is an economic resource?What is a

kangaroo? Where is it found? Why?

What are the population

numbers? Why do they vary?Why is the

kangaroo an economic resource?

1,2,3 1,2 1,2,3

HOW OUGHT?How should the kanga- roo be seen? — an endangered

species or an underdeveloped

resource?

4,5,6,7 3,4 4

WHAT? WHY? SO WHAT?

What is the public image of the

4,5,6,7 5 5

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kangaroo?What are the

consequences of this image?

Does it need to be altered or renewed?

HOW SHOULD?How would you

define the kangaroo issue?Where do you stand on the

issue?How should

kangaroo populations be

managed?

8 6 6

- What audio-visual resources are available and will be needed? Is the classroom suitable for these?

- Will the desks be large enough for map work? Can they be moved about for group work?

- What familiarity will students have with the material and skills involved? How have they reacted to related topics and similar types of inquiry exercises in the past?

These are but a few of the many such questions that could be asked, Teachers’ familiarity with their students will Jet them know the questions appropriate to each group of students and lesson context. A consideration of them before lesson planningstarts could prevent many classroom and learning disruptions.

STEP 3: Develop the aim of each lesson. The aim of each lesson should direct students to an answer to at least one of the key questions of the unit and or the understanding of one or

37

two of the generalizations in the knowledge objectives. Do not be overly ambitious in developing lesson aims. Try to think of them as the one or two ‘big ideas’ you really want students to discover during the lesson.

STEP 4: Organize the resources and exercises selected for each lesson into three or four different ten to fifteen minute activities. Such organization can bring a variety of activities into any one lesson, help students learn through a variety of modes, and reduce boredom. Think of these activities as the things students have to do to achieve the aim, the one or two ‘big ideas’ of the lesson.

STEP 5: Summarize these activities in terms of the things students will actually be doing in each lesson. These then become the specific objectives for each lesson. Expressing lesson objectives as action statements ensures that they are objectives for students and that there will be maximum student participation and activity in each lesson. The aims and objectives for a sample lesson in the ‘Transport in Nepal’ unit on ‘Why has little modem transport developed in Nepal?’

Aim: To help students understand:- that the Himalayas are steep fold mountains and are a

barrier to transportation; and- that nations that are in the Third World and are

geographically isolated are ‘cut off from the many technological developments found in other countries.

Objectives: To come to understand these generalizations, students will:- construct a time line of the history of Nepal and answer

interpretive questions on it;- draw a cross section across two adjacent valleys; and- work in a group to plan two new routes between the

valleys, one for porters and one for automobiles.38

STEP 6.Write detailed procedural notes for conducting each of the activities in a lesson. To do this, there is a need to consider the student skills involved, the readability of the resources, other factors that contribute to the difficulty of each activity, and the likely level of interest of students in the lesson. Also consider how you will introduce and pace each activity; identify students who will need additional help and enrichment activities; group students: correct students’ work; and then conclude each activity and move students on to the next one. Teachers usually face such issues intuitively, using insights and skills they have developed from experience. They are made explicit here in order to illustrate the depth of lesson planning possible and, for less experienced teachers, necessary for successful teaching.

ConclusionOne strategy for planning and teaching a curriculum unit has been described in this paper. It is based upon several preliminary safeguards which attempt to ensure that the teaching and learning of geography is well planned, inquiry based, and caters for the individual needs of students.

Strategy: Unit Planning and Lesson Planning.The steps suggested for unit planning are:- Ask the question: ‘What about it?’- Structure the topic according to the key questions of

geography.- Identify the ideas (generalizations) to be understood in

order to answer these questions.- Prepare objectives for the unit.- Identify appropriate case studies, resources, exercises and

teaching strategies.- Develop the resources and learning experiences that are to

be used.- Prepare an assessment program for the unit.

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Suggested steps for lesson planning:- Divide the unit into the required number of lessons.- Allow for the realities of school and classroom life.- Develop the aim of each lesson.- Organize the resources and exercises selected for each

lesson into three or four different ten to fifteen minute activities.

- Summarize these activities in terms of the things students will actually be doing in each lesson.

- Write detailed procedural notes for conducting each of the activities in a lesson.

AN EXAMPLE OF LESSON AND UNIT PLANS IN GEOGRAPHY EDUCATION

LESSON PLAN I

DEPARTMENT GEOGRAPHY EDUCATIONSCHOOL GOVERNMENT science secondary

school Otukpo (unanimous)CLASS SENIOR SECONDARY 1 (SS ISUBJECT GEOGRAPHYTOPIC ROCK WEATHERING SUB-TOPIC PHYSICAL WEATHERING DATE 21/09/2006TIME 12.00-12:40pmDURATION 40 MINUTES AGE 14 AND ABOVESEX MIXED NO. OF STUDENTS

35

TEACHING AID A cardboard paper showing the diagram of different processes of physical weathering of rocks.

BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

at the end of the lesson, students should be able to

40

i. Define weathering of rockii. List the two types of rock

weathering iii. Define physical weatheringiv. Identify the processes of

physical weathering of rock

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE

The students are conversant with types of rocks which are sedimentary rock, igneous rock and metamorphic rock

INTRODUCTION The teacher introduces the lesson by asking the students questions like:

i. Have you ever seen a broken rock?ii. Have you ever seen a big rock surrounded with

small rocks? PRESENTATION The teacher presents the lesson through

the following steps.STEP 1 The teacher defines rock weathering as

the gradual disintegration or break down of rocks into smaller parts by either physical or chemical process.

STEP II The teacher list the two types of rock weathering on the chalk board and they are the:i. physical weathering ii. Chemical weathering

STEP III The teacher defines physical weathering of the rock as the gradual breakdown of rock into smaller parts by physical process.

STEP IV The teacher list and explain the

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processes of physical weathering of rocks and uses cardboard paper to show the diagram of each process.

a. Alternate: Heating and cooling is common in arid regions like hot desert were rocks are exposed to blazing sun during the day and outer layer of the rock expand much faster than the cooler interior. At night, the temperature drops and the outer layer cools rapidly than the interior. This alternate expansion and contraction of the rock result in the peeling off of the rock surface and the peeled off surface are deposited at the base of the rock forming a shape and the remaining patent rock is smoothened into a dome shape structure called exfoliation dome.

b. Frost action: This occurs in polar and temperate regions of the world where rocks with cracks collect water or snow in them, when the temperature drops or at night if freezes and melt during the dawn time. Such repeated freezing and melting widens and deepen the cracks which eventually break down the rock.

c. Action of plants and animals: As plants grow on rocks, their roots penetrate into the cracks thereby expanding the cracks and

42

weathering will take place with the effect of burrowing animals.

d. Alternate wetting and drying: This occurs in tropical areas of the world resulting in swelling. When the rocks dry out, the outer surface shrinks. The alternate wetting and drying weaken the rock and they begin to crack and fall off.

e. Quarrying of rocks: This is the activity of man in the course of mining or road construction. Man uses instruments such as hammer or dynamites to break the rock into smaller parts.

EVALUATION The teacher evaluates the lesson by asking the following questions.

i. Define rock weathering ii. List the two types of weathering iii. Define physical weathering iv. List and explain the process of

physical weathering of rocks.SUMMARY The teacher summarizes the lesson by

repeating the important points i.e. weathering is the gradual breakdown of rock s into smaller parts by either physical or chemical process. The two types of rock weathering are physical and chemical weathering and the process of physical weathering are:

1. Frost action2. Quarrying of rock3. Alternate wetting and drying

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4. Alternate heating and cooling5. Action of plants and animals

CONCLUSION The teacher concludes the lesson by giving the students the following assignment.ASSIGNMENT

1. What is chemical weathering of rock?

2. What are the processes of chemical?

44

UNIT PLAN 1C CONCEPT SUB-

CONCEPT

NO OF LESSON

SCOPE OF CONCEPT

PERIOD

BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

PROCEDURE (ACTIVITY)

PUPILS ASSIGNMENT

EVALUATION

1ST World settlement

Settlement 1 Concept of settlement and its classification

1 Students should be able to explain settlements and its classification

By explaining through demonstration to students the concept of settlements

Define the term settlement and explain.

Classification of settlement

Rural and urban settlement

2 The difference between urban and rural settlement

2 Students should be able to know the difference between urban and rural settlement

By demonstration i.e. demonstrating and showing the differences between urban and rural settlement

Differentiate between urban and rural settlement

Urban settlement and its classification

Urban settlement classification according to location,

3 Towns, cities and also classification of settlements, according to location,

2 Students should know and understand what is meant by urban settlement

By explaining to students the meaning of urban settlement and the classification

Briefly explain the classification of settlement according to location, function, and

What is urban settlement?

45

function and size

function and size

and its classification

of urban settlement based on location, function, and size

size

2nd Rural settlements

Settlement i.e. rural settlement and its classification

1 Villages, hamlet and home stead should be enlightened to students i.e. types of rural settlements.

1 - Students should understand the term rural settlement and its classification and also its type

By explaining to students i.e. what is rural settlements and how they are classified

List the types of rural settlement

Location of rural settlement

The factors that influence the location of rural settlement

2 Drinking water, route way, social activities

2 - Students should be able to explain the factors that influence the location of rural settlement.

List the factors that influence the location of settlement and explain

Function of rural settlement

Agricultural function,

3 Occupation , trade, fishing,

1 - students should be able to list and

By demonstration and also

Briefly list and explain the function

46

small scale shopping, fishing, religious function

religion and on rural settlement

explain the functions of rural settlement

explaining the function of rural settlement

of rural settlement

3rd Urbanization

Definition of urbanization, phases of urbanization and the problems of urbanization as rock

2 The concept of urbanization and its problems

2 Students should be able to know the concept of urbanization, differentiate the urban and rural cities

By explaining the concept of urbanization, stating the phases and problems of urbanization

What do you understand by the word, urbanization and it influence in Nigeria

What are the phases of urbanization in Nigeria

4th World population

Population and factors that influence population growth

2 Population statistic and pictorial presentation of dense population center

1 The students should be able to define the term population and state the factors of increase I n population

High population optimum and low population

I. What is the term populationii. identify and outline the basic types of population

With relevant examples, evaluate the function of each type of population center

5th Definition of

2 Definition and

1 Students should be able

By explaining movement

What is migration?

State advantage and

47

migration and causes as well as the function and importance of migration in Nigeria

important of migration

to know and define the term migration, its function, importance and the type of migrations that exists in the globe

and causes of migration

And identify the causes of migration

disadvantages of migration

6th The universe and solar system

Definition of universe and the solar system

2 Concept of the universe as a whole i.e. what the universe is composed of and the solar system sating its meaning, its planets and the description of the planet

2 The student should be able to know what is universe and solar system and should be able to identify the types of planet.

By explaining through showing the universe and chart sharing of diagrams of the solar system

I. What is universeii. What is solar systemiii. Identify the various types of planets

State the distance of each planet and its kms

away from the sun.

7th The earth as a planet and its evidence of

Definition of the earth and evidence of its

2 The scope and position of the earth as a planet with the

2 Students should be able to know the position of the earth

By illustrating the different evidence on the earths sphericity

With the use of a diagram, describe the structure of

Identify different evidence of earth’s sphericity

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sphericity sphericity explanation of the evidences to it spherical shape e.g. ship visibility, circumnavigation etc.

the earth

8th Movement of the earth rotation

Definition of earth rotation

1 Definition of the concept of the earth rotation and effect of rotation

1 The students should be able to explain the movement of the earth

Explanation by showing diagram on the effect of earth rotation

Briefly explain the movement of the earth rotation

Identify the effect of earth rotation

9th Movement of the earth revolution and its effect on seasonality

Definition of earth revolution

2 Meaning of the evolutional movement of the earth, the different seasons in the tropical African and these on the temperate regions explaining

2 The student should be able to explain the revolution of the earth and its effect on seasonality

Look for a globe for the demonstration of the position of the solstice and equinox. A chart to show the diagram of the earth

Discuss the concept of earth revolution and it’s effect on seasonality

Differentiate between earth rotation and earth revolution

49

the solstices and equinoxes

10th Eclipse Definition of Eclipse

1 The concept of eclipse, types of eclipse and the reason for their occurrence

1 The students should be able to know the eclipse and types of eclipse

A chart showing illustration of the two eclipse

Explain the concept of eclipse

11th Longitude and latitude

Definition of longitude and latitude and their difference

2 The concept of latitude its characteristics, longitude its, characteristic equator calculation on longitude and the difference between the longitude and latitude.

2 The student should be able to explain latitude and longitude.

By the use of globe to show the lines or parallel of latitude and equator.

Explain the parallel and marginal lines of the globe

12th Introduction to the concept if rock

Definition of rock and it type e.g.

1 The definition of rock and their type

1 the students should be able to know rock and its type

Sample of the different type of rock

Briefly explain the concept of rock

Identify the different type of rocks we have.

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Igneous rock

and characteristics of rock

13th Environmental hazard

Definition of environmental hazard and its effect

1 Definition of environmental hazard and its type

1 The students should be able to identify the type and cause of environmental hazard

Explain to student about natural phenomenal that occur when the environment like flooding drought e.t.c.

Explain what is environmental hazard and its causes

14th Soil erosion

Definition of soil erosion and other types of soil erosion e.g. gully, sill and sheet erosion

2 Definition of soil erosion, explanation the difference type of soil erosion and their effect in the environment

2 The student should be able to know the various types of soil erosion and list the type of soil erosion

Explaining to the student the causes of soil erosion and it effect

Giving the students assignment by asking them what are the causes of soil erosion

Asking the students what is soil erosion and what are the type of soil erosion.

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Challenges facing Pedagogy at Higher level of Education (Tertiary level) in Nigeria

1. Dwindling funding for university education, in those days Nigeria spent an average of 40% of her budget on education compared to todays 5%.

2. Growth and expansion of the universities and other tertiary institutions brought about by population increase and demand pressure without commensurate infrastructure to cope with the rising population demand in our schools.

3. Depreciation and dilapidation of existing infrastructures without new ones, these can only be mitigated by the expansion and refurbishing of existing structures as well as erecting new ones. Rather more students enrolment are witnessed in the face of inadequacy of umber/quality of academic staff and paucity of funds.

4. Large class sizes due to overpopulation and over enrolment hinder adequate utilization of new teaching techniques which require smaller class sizes.

5. Admission of non-qualified students due to admission quota arrangement and demand pressure by eminent Nigerians affect effective teaching and learning in tertiary institutions.

6. Lack of political culture due to class struggle and political will toward access to quality tertiary education in Nigeria.

7. “Incessant strike” due to government, non-response to genuine educational demand hamper tertiary education.

Summary and ConclusionThe tremendous growth in tertiary level of education enrolment, staff recruitment and academic programmes were not accompanied by commensurate physical structural expansion and manpower development. In addition, the quest for science education at tertiary level without provision of science and technology resource material leaves much to be

52

desired in areas of pedagogy of science at the tertiary level in Nigeria.

Way ForwardBased on the findings of this study, the followings are suggestion for the way forward:

1. Science scholars at tertiary level of education are advised to adopt scientific methods of enriching lecture methods: concept mapping, simulation. Etc.

2. Instructional resource materials utilization key for effective teaching and learning at tertiary level of education.

3. Issue of funding key in management of tertiary education. For research and general pedagogy.

4. Table of specification should be used as a guide toward effective performance test validation by scholars of tertiary level of education.

5. Research and seminar papers must be in science with empirical field data.

6. Lesson and unit plans in science must not be theoretical but with map, charts and figures, and made explicit by lecturers.

7. Issue of infrastructure to cope with rising of overpopulation, challenges attention of ETF and flov for education to be qualitative.

8. Research and book grant be resuscitated to assist scholars.

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Index

AA Science Scholar, 14Academic Staff Training, 10

BBehaviourism, 15, 16Biological Issues, 1

CCharts and Diagram, 4Classroom Experiences, 27Classroom Teaching, 17Cognitive Strategies, 15Cognitivism, 15Comprehensive research, 23Computer Assisted Instruction

(C.A.I), 4Conference Papers, 23Conferencing, 3Current Science Reform, 19Curriculum Guidelines, 21Curriculum Unit- Objectives,

27

Eecology, 34Education reforms

researchers, 18Education Trust Fund, 13empirical approach, 3empirical data, 4empirical field data, 54expectancy theory, 16

FFederal Government, 3, 8, 9,

13Federal University, 5Formative Assessment, 17,

56, 61, 66

GGeography Teachers, 25

HHEIs, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13Hierarchical Model for

Learning, 15Higher Education Institutions

(HELS), 11Hypotheses, 16, 17, 23, 24

IIndividual Learner, 18Instructional Materials, iii, 4,

14Intellectual Skills, 15ISBN, 14ISSN, 14

JJournal, 23, 55, 57, 58, 60, 62,

63, 64, 65, 66, 67

KKaysar, 1

68

LLesson Planning, iii, 25, 27,

33, 34, 37, 39, 40Lesson Planning, 39

MMatriculation Examinations,

11Methodologically Scientific, 4Missing Data, 13modern technologies, 1monotechnics, 5Monotechnics, Polytechnics

& Colleges of Education (MPCE), 11

NNAFDAC No, 14

OObsolete Data, 13

PPasquale, 1, 63pedagogy of Science, 1, 14,

54peer Group, 16Petroleum Development Trust

Fund, 14Philosophical Thoughts, iii, 4,

14Planning Matrix, 31Political Will, 3, 53Politicized Data, 13Polytechnics, 5, 7, 12

Poor deployment of ICT, 13Provision of ICT

infrastructure, 10Psychomotor domain, 22

RRegulatory Agencies, 13Researchers and Seminar, 4Resource Sheets, 32, 33Robert Gagne, 15

SScience and Technology, 3,

53, 62, 64, 65Science Teachers, 1Science Technology society

(STIS), 4Scientific Maps, 4Scientific Methods of

Instruction, 3Scientific Task, 1Seminar, 3, 4, 24, 54social learning, 16Stimulus Response (SR), 16Student Exercise Sheets, 32,

33, 34Systemic Failure, 13

TTaxonomy of Learning, 15Teacher’s Notes, 33Teaching Research, 3Teaching Strategies, 30, 39Tertiary Institutions, 3, 10, 53

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Tertiary Level, 1, 3, 4, 14, 22, 53, 54

tertiary level in Nigeria, 54Test Blue Print, 17, 21TETFUND’s, 10Theoretical Framework, 4, 14Traditional Learning, 15U

UNESCO, 3, 68

Unit Plan, 3University Education, 53

WWeak data collection, 13Weak data management, 13workshop, 23, 24

70